chapter 5 models and theories 1. cognitive modeling if we can build a model of how a user works,...

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chapter 5

Models and theories

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Cognitive modelingIf we can build a model of how a user works, then we can

predict how s/he will interact with the interface.

Goals:

1. Predict performance of design alternatives

2. Evaluate suitability of designs to support and enhance

human abilities and limitations.

3. Generate design guidelines that enhance performance

and overcome human limitations.

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Cognitive modelingcomponents:

Model some aspects of user’s understanding,

knowledge, intentions understanding,

knowledge, intentions and processing

Vary in representation levels: high level plans

and problem-solving to low level motor actions

such as keypresses.

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Cognitive models

1. Model human processor

2. GOMS

3. Production systems

4. grammars

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Cognitive models1. Model human processor: Consider humans as information processing systems

- Predicting performance

- Not deciding how one would act

- A “procedural” model

From Card, Moran, and Newell (1980’s)

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Cognitive models1. Model human processor:

Consists of memories

and processors.

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Components:

Set of memories and processors together.

Set of “principles of operation”.

Discrete, sequential model.

Each stage has timing characteristics.

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Perceptual processor:

Consists of sensors and associated buffer

memories

– Most important memories being visual image

store and audio image store

– Hold output of sensory system while it is being

symbolically coded

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Cognitive processor:

• Receives symbolically coded information

from sensory image stores in its working

memory

• Uses that with previously information in

long-term memory to make decisions on how

to respond

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Motor processor:

• Controls movements of body

Applying the MHP to a user interface: a flashing cursor will indicate where the user is to enter data

a beep may sound when a mistake is made

a logical order to the inputs will be employed

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Cognitive models2. GOMS:

• Goals, Operators, Methods, Selection Rules.

(Developed by Card, Moran and Newell ’83)

• Probably the most widely known and used technique

in this family.

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Goals:- End state trying to achieve.

- Then decompose into subgoals.

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Operators:- Basic actions available for performing a task (lowest level actions)

- Examples: move mouse pointer, drag, press key, read dialog box, …

Methods:-Sequence of operators (procedures) for accomplishing a goal

-Example: Select sentence

-– Move mouse pointer to first word

-– Depress button

-– Drag to last word

-– Release

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Selection rules:- Invoked when there is a choice of a method

- GOMS attempts to predict which methods will be used

- Example: Could cut sentence either by pulldown or by ctrl-x

LimitationsGOMS is not for:

– Tasks where steps are not well understood

– Inexperienced users

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GOMS variants:

GOMS is often combined with a keystroke level

analysis

– KLM - Keystroke level model

– Analyze only observable behaviors such as

keypresses, mouse movements

– Low-level GOMS where method is given

– Assumes error -free performance

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Keystroke Level Model:

It allows predictions to be made about how long it takes an

expert user to perform a task.

KLM characteristics:

•operators:

– K: keystroke, mouse button push

– P: point with pointing device

– D: move mouse to draw line

– H: move hands to keyboard or mouse

– M: mental preparation for an operation

– R: system response time

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Other GOMS variants:

* NGOMSL (Kieras):

– Very similar to GOMS

– Goals expressed as noun-action pair eg., delete word

– Same predictions as other methods

– More sophisticated, incorporates learning,

consistency

– Handles expert.

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Cognitive models3. Production systems :

IF-THEN decision trees (Kieras & Polson ’85)

– Cognitive Complexity Theory

– Uses goal decomposition from GOMS and provides more predictive power

– Goal-like hierarchy expressed using production rules

• if condition, then action

• Makes a generalized transition network

Very long series of decisions

– Note: In practice, very similar to NGOMSL

– NGOMSL model easier to develop

– Production systems easier to program

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Cognitive models3. Grammars :

• To describe the interaction, a formalized set of productions

rules (a language) can be assembled.

• “Grammar” defines what is a valid or correct sequence in the

language.

• Reisner Reisner (1981) “Cognitive grammar” describes

human-computer interaction in Backus-Naur Form (BNF) like

linguistics.

• Used to determine the consistency of a system design.

• Task action grammar (TAG)

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�(ٍSummary)Cognitive models1. Model Human Processor (MHP)

2. GOMS

Basic model

Keystroke-level models (KLM)

NGOMSL

3. Production systems

Cognitive Complexity Theory

4. Grammars

Backus-Naur Form (BNF)

Task action grammar (TAG)

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lower levels models (Fitt’s law)

•More physically-based

– Human as biomechanical machine

•Basic idea: Movement time for a well-rehearsed selection task

– Increases as the distance to the target increases

– Decreases as the size of the target increases

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Time (in msec) = a + b log2(D/S+1)

where a, b = constants (empirically derived) D = distance S = size

ID is Index of Difficulty = log2(D/S+1)

d

s

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Same ID → Same Difficulty

Target 1 Target 2

Time = a + b log2(D/S+1�

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Smaller ID → Easier

Target 2Target 1


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Larger ID → Harder

Target 2Target 1


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Microsoft Toolbars allow you to either keep or remove

the labels under Toolbar buttons

According to Fitts’ Law, which is more efficient?

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1. The label becomes part of the target. The

target is therefore bigger. Bigger targets, all

else being equal, can always be accessed

faster, by Fitt's Law.

2. When labels are not used, the tool icons

crowd together.

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1. The label becomes part of the target. The

target is therefore bigger. Bigger targets, all

else being equal, can always be accessed

faster, by Fitt's Law.

2. When labels are not used, the tool icons

crowd together.

chapter 5 models and theories 1. cognitive modeling if we can build a model of how a user works,...

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