chapter 5 5 project management “ ... maintenance costs and effort ... the project scheduling...

©Ian Sommerville 2000 Software Engineering. Chapter 5 Slide 1

Chapter 5

Project Management

“… a huge topic.” See Part 6, “Managing People”.


Project management

● Organizing, planning and scheduling software projects


Objectives

● To introduce software project management and to describe its distinctive characteristics.

● To discuss project planning and the planning process.

● To show how graphical schedule representationsare used by project management.

● To discuss the notion of risks and the riskmanagement process.


Topics covered

● Management activities

● Project planning● Project scheduling

● Risk management


● Concerned with activities involved in ensuring that software is delivered on time, within budgetand in accordance with the requirements of the organizations developing and procuring the software.

● Project management is needed because software development is always subject to budget and schedule constraints that are set by the organization developing the software.

Software project management


1. The product is intangible.• In shipbuilding or civil engineering, managers can

SEE the product being developed.

2. There are no standard software processes.• Engineering disciplines with a long history have tried

and tested processes.

3. Large software projects are often “one-off”.• Lessons learned from previous projects may not be

transferable to new projects.

SE distinctions that make project management particularly difficult

(one-of-a-kind)


● Proposal writing (to fund new projects)

● Project planning and scheduling (focus of this Chap)

● Project costing and preparing bids (Chap 26)

● Project monitoring and reviews● Personnel selection and evaluation (Chap 25)

● Report writing and presentations● Attending lots and lots of meetings!

• IBM Santa Teresa study, etc., …

Management activities


● These activities are not peculiar to software management.

● Many techniques of engineering project management are equally applicable to software project management.

● Technically complex engineering systems tend to suffer from most of the same problems as software systems.

Management commonalities


Project staffing

● May not be possible to appoint the ideal people to work on a project…• Project budget may not allow for use of highly-paid staff.• Those with appropriate skills / experience may not be available.• An organization may wish to develop employee skills by

assigning inexperienced staff.

● Managers have to work within these constraintsespecially when there is a shortage of skilled IT staff.


Project planning

● Probably the most time-consuming project management activity (or at least it should be).

● Continuous activity from initial concept to system delivery. Plans must be regularly revised as new information becomes available.

● Different types of sub-plans may be developed to support a main software project planconcerned with overall schedule and budget.


Types of project sub-plans

Plan DescriptionQuality plan Describes the quality procedures and

standards that will be used in a project.Validation plan Describes the approach, resources and

schedule used for system validation. Configurationmanagement plan

Describes the configuration managementprocedures and structures to be used.

Maintenance plan Predicts the maintenance requirements ofthe system, maintenance costs and effortrequired.

Staff development plan. Describes how the skills and experience ofthe project team members will bedeveloped.

(QA)


Project planning

“The plan is nothing – the planning is everything.”

– Dwight Eisenhower, on the

D-Day invasion plan

(a bit of dramatic overstatement to make a point…)


Project planning processEstablish the project constraints Make initial assessments of the project parameters Define project milestones and deliverableswhile project has not been completed or cancelled loop

Draw up project scheduleInitiate activities according to schedule

Wait ( for a while ) Review project progress Revise estimates of project parameters Update the project schedule Re-negotiate project constraints and deliverables if ( problems arise ) then Initiate technical review and possible revision end ifend loop

- not idle time…

cancelled loop


The project plan

● The project plan sets out:• The resources available to the project;• The work breakdown;• A schedule for the work.


Project plan document structure

● Introduction (goals, constraints, etc.)

● Project organization● Risk analysis

● Hardware and software resource requirements● Work breakdown

● Project schedule● Monitoring and reporting mechanisms


Activity organization

● Activities in a project should be associated with tangible outputs for management to judge progress (i.e., to provide process visibility)

● Milestones are the unequivocal end-points of process activities.

e.g., “DR1 complete” versus “90% of design complete”


Activity organization

● Deliverables are project results delivered to customers. (There are also internal“deliverables”.)

● The waterfall model allows for the straightforward definition of milestones (“a deliverable oriented model”).

● Deliverables are always milestones, but milestones are not necessarily deliverables.


Milestones in the RE process

Evaluationreport

Prototypedevelopment

Requirementsdefinition

Requirementsanalysis

Feasibilityreport

Feasibilitystudy

Architecturaldesign

Designstudy

Requirementsspecification

Requirementsspecification

ACTIVITIES

MILESTONES


Project scheduling

● Split project into tasks and estimate time and resources required to complete each.

● Tasks should not be too small or too large –they should last on the order of weeks for projects lasting months. (“Models should be as simple as

possible, but no simpler.”)


Project scheduling

● Organize tasks as concurrent activities to make optimal use of workforce.

● Minimize task dependencies to avoid potential delays.

● Dependent on project managers’ intuition and experience. (Good management is not a science.)


The project scheduling process

Estimate resourcesfor activities

Identify activitydependencies

Identifyactivities

Allocate peopleto activities

Create projectcharts

Softwarerequirements

Activity chartsand bar charts

Review Progress


Scheduling problems

● Estimating the difficulty of problems, and hence the cost of developing solutions, is hard.

● Progress is generally not proportional to the number of people working on a task.

● Adding people to a late project can make it later (due to coordination overhead). (F. Brooks, The Mythical

Man-Month)

● The unexpected always happens. Always allow for different contingencies in planning. (a.k.a. “Murphy’s

Law”)

TI

ME

PEOPLEfew many

less

more


Bar charts and activity networks

● Graphical notations are often used to illustrate project schedules.

● Activity charts (a.k.a. PERT* charts) show task dependencies, durations, and the critical path.

● Bar charts (a.k.a. Gantt charts) generally show resource (e.g., people) assignments and calendar time. (Sommerville calls these “staff allocation vs. time” charts.)

* Program Evaluation and Review Technique


Task durations and dependencies

Task Duration (days) DependenciesT1 8T2 15T3 15 T1 (M1)T4 10T5 10 T2, T4 (M2)T6 5 T1, T2 (M3)T7 20 T1 (M1)T8 25 T4 (M5)T9 15 T3, T6 (M4)T10 15 T5, T7 (M7)T11 7 T9 (M6)T12 10 T11 (M8)


Activity network

start

T2

M3T6

Finish

T10

M7T5

T7

M2T4

M5

T8

4/7/99

8 days

14/7/99 15 days

4/8/99

15 days

25/8/99

7 days

5/9/99

10 days

19/9/99

15 days

11/8/99

25 days

10 days

20 days

5 days25/7/99

15 days

25/7/99

18/7/99

10 days

T1

M1 T3T9

M6

T11

M8

T12

M4|CP|=55

How much potential “slack time”is associated with Task J?

If J is on the Critical Path, CP, then 0

Else|CP| - |JL|

where JL is the longest pathcontaining J


Consider Task T4…

start

T2

M3T6

Finish

T10

M7T5

T7

M2T4

M5

T8

4/7/99

8 days

14/7/99 15 days

4/8/99

15 days

25/8/99

7 days

5/9/99

10 days

19/9/99

15 days

11/8/99

25 days

10 days

20 days

5 days25/7/99

15 days

25/7/99

18/7/99

10 days

T1

M1 T3T9

M6

T11

M8

T12

M4|CP|=55


Activity timeline4/7 11/7 18/7 25/7 1/8 8/8 15/8 22/8 29/8 5/9 12/9 19/9

T4

T1T2

M1

T7T3

M5T8

M3

M2T6

T5M4

T9

M7T10

M6

T1 1M8

T12

Start

Finish

duration

potential slack time: 55-35 = 20 days


Staff allocation (Gantt) Chart4/7 11/7 18/7 25/ 1/8 8/8 15/8 22/8 29/8 5/912/9 19/9

T4

T8 T11

T12

T1

T3

T9

T2

T6 T10

T7

T5

Fred

Jane

Anne

Mary

Jim


Risk management

● Risk management is concerned with identifying risks and drawing up plans to minimize their effect on a project.


Risk management (cont’d)

● A risk exists when there is a probabilitythat some adverse circumstance will occur.• Project risks affect schedule or resources.• Product risks affect the quality or performance of the

software being developed.• Business risks affect the organization developing or

procuring the software.

(Taxonomy based on Effect)


Software risksRisk Risk type DescriptionStaff turnover Project Experienced staff will leave the

project before it is finished.Management change Project There will be a change of

organisational management withdifferent priorities.

Hardware unavailability Project Hardware which is essential for theproject will not be delivered onschedule.

Requirements change Project andproduct

There will be a larger number ofchanges to the requirements thananticipated.

Specification delays Project andproduct

Specifications of essential interfacesare not available on schedule

Size underestimate Project andproduct

The size of the system has beenunderestimated.

CASE tool under-performance

Product CASE tools which support theproject do not perform as anticipated

Technology change Business The underlying technology on whichthe system is built is superseded bynew technology.

Product competition Business A competitive product is marketedbefore the system is completed.


The risk management process

● Risk identification – identify project, product and business risks

● Risk analysis – assess the likelihood and consequences of these risks

● Risk planning – draw up plans to avoid or minimisethe effects of the risk

● Risk monitoring – monitor the risks throughout the project

We consider each of these activities in turn...


The risk management process

Risk avoidanceand contingency

plans

Risk planning

Prioritised risklist

Risk analysis

List of potentialrisks

Riskidentification

Riskassessment

Riskmonitoring


Risk identification

● Types– Technology risks– People risks– Organizational risks– Tools risks– Requirements risks– Estimation risks

(Taxonomy based on Source)


Risks and risk typesR is k ty p e P o s s ib le r is k sT e c h n o lo g y T h e d a ta b a s e u s e d in th e s y s te m c a n n o t p ro c e s s a s

m a n y tra n s a c tio n s p e r s e c o n d a s e xp e c te d .S o ftw a re c o m p o n e n ts w h ic h s h o u ld b e re u s e d c o n ta ind e fe c ts w h ic h l im it th e ir fu n c tio n a l ity .

P e o p le It is im p o s s ib le to re c ru it s ta ff w ith th e s k i l ls re q u ire d .K e y s ta ff a re i l l a n d u n a v a ila b le a t c r i t ic a l t im e s .R e q u ire d tra in in g fo r s ta ff is n o t a v a i la b le .

O rg a n is a tio n a l T h e o rg a n is a tio n is re s tru c tu re d s o th a t d if fe re n tm a n a g e m e n t a re re s p o n s ib le fo r th e p ro je c t.O rg a n is a tio n a l f in a n c ia l p ro b le m s fo rc e re d u c tio n s in th ep ro je c t b u d g e t.

T o o ls T h e c o d e g e n e ra te d b y C A S E to o ls is in e ff ic ie n t.C A S E to o ls c a n n o t b e in te g ra te d .

R e q u ire m e n ts C h a n g e s to re q u ire m e n ts w h ic h re q u ire m a jo r d e s ig nre w o rk a re p ro p o s e d .C u s to m e rs fa i l to u n d e rs ta n d th e im p a c t o f re q u ire m e n tsc h a n g e s .

E s tim a tio n T h e t im e re q u ire d to d e v e lo p th e s o ftw a re isu n d e re s tim a te d .T h e ra te o f d e fe c t re p a ir is u n d e re s tim a te d .T h e s iz e o f th e s o ftw a re is u n d e re s tim a te d .


Risk analysis

● Assess probability and seriousness of each risk.

● Probability may be very low, low, moderate, high or very high.

● Risk effects might be catastrophic, serious, tolerable or insignificant.


Risk analysisR is k P ro b a b ility E ffe c tsO rg a n isa tio n a l f in a n c ia l p ro b le m s fo rc ere d u c tio n s in th e p ro je c t b u d g e t.

L o w C a ta s tro p h ic

It is im p o ss ib le to re c ru it s ta f f w ith th e sk illsre q u ire d fo r th e p ro je c t.

H ig h C a ta s tro p h ic

K e y s ta f f a re ill a t c rit ica l t im e s in th e p ro je c t. M o d e ra te S e rio u sS o f tw a re co m p o n e n ts w h ich sh o u ld b e re u se dco n ta in d e fe c ts w h ich lim it th e ir fu n c tio n a lity .

M o d e ra te S e rio u s

C h a n g e s to re q u ire m e n ts w h ich re q u ire m a jo rd e s ig n re w o rk a re p ro p o s e d .


T h e o rg a n isa tio n is re s tru c tu re d so th a t d if fe re n tm a n a g e m e n t a re re sp o n s ib le fo r th e p ro je c t.

H ig h S e rio u s

T h e d a ta b a se u se d in th e sy s te m ca n n o t p ro ce ssa s m a n y tra n s a c tio n s p e r se c o n d a s e xp e c te d .


T h e tim e re q u ire d to d e ve lo p th e so f tw a re isu n d e re s tim a te d .

H ig h S e rio u s

C A S E to o ls ca n n o t b e in te g ra te d . H ig h T o le ra b leC u s to m e rs fa il to u n d e rs ta n d th e im p a c t o fre q u ire m e n ts ch a n g e s .

M o d e ra te T o le ra b le

R e q u ire d tra in in g fo r s ta f f is n o t a va ila b le . M o d e ra te T o le ra b leT h e ra te o f d e fe c t re p a ir is u n d e re s tim a te d . M o d e ra te T o le ra b leT h e s ize o f th e so f tw a re is u n d e re s tim a te d . H ig h T o le ra b leT h e co d e g e n e ra te d b y C A S E to o ls is in e f f ic ie n t. M o d e ra te In s ig n if ic a n t


Risk planning

● Consider each risk and develop a strategy to manage that risk.

● Avoidance strategies – the probability that the risk will arise is reduced.

● Minimisation strategies – the impact of the risk on the project or product is reduced.

● Contingency plans – if the risk arises, contingency plans are plans to deal with that risk. (to effect the

minimisation strategy)


Risk management strategies

Risk StrategyOrganisationalfinancial problems

Prepare a briefing document for senior management showing how the project ismaking a very important contribution to the goals of the business.

Recruitmentproblems

Alert customer of potential difficulties and the possibility of delays, investigatebuying-in components.

Staff illness Reorganise team so that there is more overlap of work and people thereforeunderstand each other’s jobs.

Defectivecomponents

Replace potentially defective components with bought-in components of knownreliability.

Requirementschanges

Derive traceability information to assess requirements change impact, maximiseinformation hiding in the design.

Organisationalrestructuring

Prepare a briefing document for senior management showing how the project ismaking a very important contribution to the goals of the business.

Databaseperformance

Investigate the possibility of buying a higher-performance database.

Underestimateddevelopment time

Investigate buying in components, investigate use of a program generator.


Risk monitoring

● Assess each identified risk regularly to decide whether or not it is becoming less or more probable.

● Also assess whether the effects of the risk have changed.

● Each key risk should be discussed at management progress meetings.


Risk factors (≈≈≈≈warning signs)

Risk type Potential indicatorsTechnology Late delivery of hardware or support software, many reported

technology problemsPeople Poor staff morale, poor relationships amongst team member,

job availabilityOrganisational organisational gossip, lack of action by senior managementTools reluctance by team members to use tools, complaints about

CASE tools, demands for higher-powered workstationsRequirements many requirements change requests, customer complaintsEstimation failure to meet agreed schedule, failure to clear reported

defects


Key points

● Good project management is essential for project success. (Necessary, but not sufficient…)

● The intangible nature of software causes problems for management.

● Managers have diverse roles, but their most significant activities are planning, estimating, and scheduling.

● Planning and estimating are iterative processes which continue throughout the course of a project.


● A project milestone is a predictable state where some formal report of progress is presented to management.

● Risks may be project risks, product risks or business risks. (and: technology, people, organisational, tools,

requirements, or estimation risks)

● Risk management is concerned with identifyingrisks which may affect the project, and planningto ensure that these risks do not develop into major threats.

Key points (cont’d)


Chapter 5

Project Management

“… a huge topic.” See Part 6, “Managing People”.

chapter 5 5 project management “ ... maintenance costs and effort ... the project scheduling...

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