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Within A Nation-Survey Of A Select….
CHAPTER 4
WITHIN A NATION - SURVEY OF SELECT PUBLIC OPINION
FROM IRANIAN NATIONALS
4-1. METHODOLOGY OF THE SURVEY
As mentioned in the first chapter, in order to enhance the
research and in addition to the main question of the research
the following questions were mentioned which have been
examined by the opinion survey:
1- What is the elite attitude towards corruption in Iran?
2- When has corruption reached dangerous proportions for
the country?
3- How is the issue of tolerance with regard to corruption,
i.e. willingness to pay bribe?
4- What is the elite attitude about the issue of corruption in
the public sector?
5- What is the elite opinion about the main factors behind
corruption in the country?
6- What is the elite opinion about the major political and
socio-economic consequences of corruption in Iran?
7- What is the elite opinion about the main ways of
preventing corruption in Iran?
In the following, methodology of the conducted opinion
survey, and the results have been explained in detail.
4-1-1. Sampling Procedures
In every research work, the data is collected through two
approaches namely census (in which all the units of the
Chapter Four
96
population are studied) and sample (in which a part of the
population are studied). Generally the most desirable way to
collect data is by sampling approach that is addressed with the
type of universe, sample unit, sample frame, size of the sample
and sampling techniques. The type of universe might be finite
(in which the number of items are limited, like the number of
Iranian students in India) or infinite (as the number of stars in
the sky).
The sampling unit refers to an element in a sample. The
sampling frame that is also called a source list refers to all units
in a universe. The size of the sample refers to selected units of
population that should neither be excessively large, nor too
small, and generally it must be optimum. The size of the sample
depends to some factors like size of the population, the nature
of the population and kind of study. The sampling technique is
divided into two techniques namely probability and non-
probability.
According to Kothari (1990)1, the probability sampling
technique is the technique that every unit of the universe has an
equal chance to be a member of the sample. The non-
probability sampling technique is also known by different name
such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling, and
judgement sampling. In this type of sampling, items for the
sample are selected deliberately by the researcher. In the other
words, under the non-probability sampling the organizers of the
enquiry purposively choose particular units of the universe for
constituting a sample as representative of the whole.
1 -C. R. Kothari. “Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques”, Second edition, New Delhi: New
Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers, 1990, p. 59&60.
Within A Nation-Survey Of A Select….
97
Therefore, the most emphasis of this study is on non-
probability technique which includes convenience sampling and
purposive sampling which have been utilized in the study.
However, the primary data through questionnaire have been
collected from Iranian post-graduate and Ph.D. students in
India, who were available and willing to share and provide their
information, opinions, views and attitudes with researcher.
4-1-2. Population
In the research, two types namely population and sample
are related to each other. The population is the total collection
of elements and the sample is part of such population that is
selected according to statistical methods. There are two
important sampling methods namely probability sampling
technique and non-probability sampling technique. Emphasis of
this research is on non-probability technique. Population for this
research is the Iranian post-graduate and Ph.D. students in Idia.
The reasons behind this selection are as follows:
1. The issue of corruption is still a taboo in Iran. Thus, filling any
questionnaire and conducting any opinion survey about
corruption is not an easy task to be dealt with. Students out of
the country are more willing to share their information,
opinions, views and attitudes freely with researcher. Thus,
using the sample out of the country increases the validity and
reliability of the study.
2. Since the present respondents are out of the country, i.e. in
India for at least two years, the media had less influence on
them in connection to corruption. Therefore their responses
are more valid and reliable for the present research.
Chapter Four
98
3. The population of post-graduate and Ph.D. students who are
usually in touch with both society and public sector as citizens
of Iran, are more reliable to be the sample for the present
research.
Consequently, 158 Iranian post-graduate and Ph.D.
students were selected as sample of the universe through the
non-probability method to be the respondents of the
questionnaire.
4-1-3. Structure of the questionnaire
The questionnaire (Appendix 2) which is utilized in the
research is subdivided into four main parts: a) data about
respondents b) general assessment of corruption phenomenon
in the country c) general attitude about the issue of corruption
in the public sector d) expectation towards curbing the
corruption.
a) Data about respondent: The questionnaire asks for
general characteristics of the interviewees. These questions
aim to capture a brief detailed picture of the person who is
answering in the questionnaire.
b) General assessment of corruption: This part includes
questions on public perception of corruption, public
perception about major causes and consequences and
propensity towards it.
Public Perception of corruption: How acute is this problem in
the country; when has it reached dangerous proportions for the
society; how dangerous is corruption in comparison with the
other factors impeding the development of the country.
Within A Nation-Survey Of A Select….
99
Evaluation of the level of public tolerance of corruption and
the propensity to corruption: The interviewees were asked how
they would feel giving and accepting a bribe.
Assessing the public opinion about the major causes and
consequences of corruption in the country.
c) General attitude about the issue of corruption in the
public sector: Interviewees were asked to assess how
corruption is likely to occur in this sector; point out the main
forms of corrupt behaviour, and, assess the main measures
to curb corruption in the public sector.
d) Expectation towards curbing the corruption: Interviewees
were asked if they thought that corruption might be attacked
in Iran, and to what degree it could be possible.
It is also mentionable that the questions No. 4, 6, and 11
of the questionnaire assess the first question of the research,
question No. 7 evaluates the second question of the research,
questions No. 10, 12 and 13 assess the third question of the
research, questions No. 8, 9, 14, 15, 16 and 19 evaluating the
forth question of the research, question No. 5 assesses the fifth
question of the research, question No. 18 evaluates the sixth
question of research and question No. 17 is devoted to seventh
question of the research.
4-1-4. Analysis of the data
Analysing the data is the next step after collecting the
primary and secondary data for the research work. The aim of
analysing the data is to answer the questions of the research for
arriving at a proper conclusion. In this stage the collected data
should be processed and analysed. The processing stage
Chapter Four
100
includes the editing, coding, classification and tabulation of the
collected data ready to analysis. The analysing stage includes
interpretation of the findings through statistical methods. For
this study, the descriptive and analytical methods have been
applied.
Within A Nation-Survey Of A Select….
101
4-2. RESULTS OF THE SURVEY
This section summarises the results of the questionnaire.
The graphs and tables show the distribution of the respondents
regarding every question.
4-2-1. Characteristics of respondents
4-2-1-1. Gender of respondents: In the total number of
respondents, men make up 80.4 percent and women 19.6
percent which will be showed in the following table and graph.
Table 4-1: Gender of Respondents
Gender Frequency Percent
Male 127 80.4
Female 31 19.6
Total 158 100
Figure 4-1 : Gender of Respondents
19.6%
80.4%
Male
Female
Chapter Four
102
4-2-1-2. Student status of respondents: In the total
number of respondents, 39.2 percent are Ph.D. students and
60.8 percent are studying in post-graduate level.
Table 4-2: Student status of Respondents
Student Status Frequency Percent
Ph.D. 62 39.2
Master 96 60.8
Total 158 100
Figure 4-2: Student Status of Respondents
60.8%
39.2%
Ph.D.Master
4-2-1-3. Age of respondents: Age of respondents that
have been classified in the groups of 20-30, 30-40 and above
40 are as follows: 51.2% of respondents are between 20-30,
43.8% are between 30-40 and 5% have above 40 years old.
Figure 4-3: Age of Respondents
5%
51.2%
43.8%
0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00%
20-30
30-40
>40
Ag
e
%
Within A Nation-Survey Of A Select….
103
4-2-2. Perception of corruption
The questions numbered 4,6,7 and 11 of the questionnaire
have been devoted to evaluate of public perception of corruption
in Iran. In the following the results will be discussed.
4-2-2-1. Question 4 of the questionnaire asks to evaluate
the acuteness of given problem in the country according to the
following scales: (1- not a problem, 2- it sometimes makes
problems, 3- impedes, 4- impedes much, 5- impedes greatly,
6- it blocks).
The results show that the most acute problems are the
following ones: Unemployment obviously ranks first place (the
average is 5.63). Second place belongs to corruption (the
average is 5.41). Third place belongs to frequent changes in
laws and regulations (the average is 5.01). 81% of respondents
marked unemployment with most extreme mark-6, as being
very acute. At the same time, 76% characterise corruption as
being one of the most acute problems. Table 4-3 shows the
factors and average marks given by respondents:
Table 4-3: Results of the question No. 4 of the questionnaire
Factors AVERAGE MARK
1. Inflation 4.73
2. Decreased quality of education services 4.51
3. Decreased quality of health care services 3.97
4. Unemployment 5.63
5. Crime 4.20
6. Corruption 5.41
7. High taxes 3.66
8. Political instability 3.54
9. Poverty 3.1
10. Poor public services 4.15
11. Bureaucracy 4.98
12. Frequent changes in laws and regulations 5.01
Chapter Four
104
4-2-2-2. Question 6 asks the respondents to evaluate the
problem of corruption in the country on a scale of 6 (where 1
means that it is not acute at all, 2- it is acute only to a low
extent, 3- it seldom causes problem, 4- it often causes
problem, 5- it is acute, 6- it is very acute). 49.3% rank
corruption from the position of “making problems often”. 7.6%
have said it is not acute at all and 6.96% have evaluated it is
very acute. Table 4-4 and figure 4-4 show the details:
Table 4-4: Results of question No. 6
Frequency Percent
It is not acute at all 12 7.6
It is acute only to a low extend 8 5.06
It makes problems seldom 27 17.08
It often makes problem 78 49.3
It is acute 22 13.91
It is very acute 11 6.96
Total 158 100
7.6%5.06%
17.08%
49.3 %
13.91%
6.96%
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
%
Not acute
at all
Acute only
to a low
extend
Makes
problems
seldom
Of ten
makes
problem
It is acute It is
v ery acute
Figure 4-4
Within A Nation-Survey Of A Select….
105
4-2-2-3. Regarding the public perception of corruption,
question number 7 of the questionnaire asks the interviewees
when in your opinion has corruption reached dangerous
proportions for the society? Here most of the respondents
(56.3%) mentioned about 15 years period which refers to the
reconstruction era after Iran – Iraq war. During this period, the
Socio-economic Development Plans started in Iran. 27.2% of
respondents have considered that corruption reached dangerous
proportion for the society 10 years ago, 12% have selected the
6 years ago and 4.5% have considered the 3 years ago. Table
4-5 and figure 4-5 show the details:
Table 4-5: Results of the question No. 7
Indicators Frequency Percent
3 years ago 7 4.5
6 years ago 19 12
10 years ago 43 27.2
Other (indicate) 89 56.3
Total 158 100
4.5%
12%
27.2 %
56.3 %
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
3 years ago 6 years ago 10 years
ago
other
(indicate)
Figure 4-5
Chapter Four
106
4-2-2-4. Question No. 11 of questionnaire also refers to
the public perception of corruption in the country. It asks the
respondents to imagine a low paid official, who is approached
by someone offering cash, gift or a favour to solve his
problem, what would he do? In answering this question 35.4%
believed that he would not accept, if this cause problems. Only
12% believed that he would accept, because all do that. 19%
answered that he would not accept, because he does not
approve this. Table 4-6 and figure 4-6 show the details:
Table 4-6: Results of the question No. 11
Indicators Frequency Percent
He would accept, because all do 19 12.1
He would accept, because this could help the person offering the bribe
41 25.9
He would not accept, if this cause problems 56 35.4
He would not accept, because he does not approve this
31 19.6
Do not know 11 7
Total 158 100
12.1%
25.9%
35.4%
19.6%
7%
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
%
Yes, because all do
that
Yes, because
this could help
the bribing
person
No, if this could
cause proble
No, because
he does not
approve it
Do not know
Figure 4-6
Within A Nation-Survey Of A Select….
107
4-2-3. Tolerance of and a propensity towards corruption
The questions numbered 10, 12 and 13 of the
questionnaire have assessed the public tolerance of and a
propensity towards corruption in the country. Questions and
results are as follows:
4-2-3-1. In question 10 interviewees have been asked to
imagine someone who has extended cash or gift to an official
has obtained what he wanted. How, in your view, is this
citizen most likely to feel? In answering this question, 36.7% of
respondents have positive feeling about offering bribe, while
62% have negative feeling about it. Table 4-7 and figure 4-7
show the results in details:
Table 4-7: Results of question No. 10
Indicators Frequency Percent
Angry 41 25.9
Humiliated 57 36.1
Fairly well 25 15.8
Satisfied 19 12
Glad 14 8.9
Missing 2 1.3
Total 158 100
25.9 %
36.1 %
15.8 %12%
8.9%
1.3%
0.00%5.00%
10.00%15.00%20.00%25.00%30.00%35.00%40.00%
Ang
ry
Hum
iliat
ed
Fairly
well
Satisfie
dGlad
Missing
Figure 4-7
Chapter Four
108
4-2-3-2. Question 12 in order to measure the propensity
towards corruption in the country asks respondents: if asked to
pay a bribe, will you pay it? Here the question is very direct.
So, only 11.4% respondents answered unambiguously “Yes”,
and 30.4% “No”. For 58.2% answer was “It depends on the
situation”. This answer is another way of saying that they
probably would pay a bribe. Table 4-8 and figure 4-8 show the
details:
Table 4-8: Results of question No. 12
Frequency Percent
Yes 18 11.4
No 48 30.4
Depends 92 58.2
Total 158 100
Figure 4-8
No
30.4%
Yes
11.4%
It depends
58.2%
Within A Nation-Survey Of A Select….
109
4-2-3-3. Question 13 of the questionnaire assesses the
opinion about the results of paying bribe. This question asks
respondents: Do you think paying bribe will “ease” your life?
Results show that respondents are not optimistic about the
results of paying bribes and prefer not to pay it. Table 4-9 and
figure 4-9 show the details of the results:
Table 4-9: Results of question No. 13
Frequency Percent
Yes 31 19.6
No 127 80.4
Total 158 100
Figure 4-9
No
80.4%
Yes
19.6%
Chapter Four
110
4-2-4. Perception of corruption in public sector
Questions numbered 8,9,14,15,16 and 19 of the
questionnaire have considered the proliferation of corruption in
the country. The questions and their results are as following:
4-2-4-1. Question 8 asks the interviewees that when you
have to contact officials in the public sector, is it easier to
bypass the official ways and solve your problem via
“unofficial” way? In answer of this question, 46.8% of
respondents considered that some times it is possible to bypass
the official ways and solve the problem via “unofficial” way,
22.2% have selected often, 13.3% have answered to „in the
majority of time‟, 9.5% have considered the „seldom‟, 5% have
said „every time‟ and 3.2% have answered „never‟. Table 4-10
and figure 4-10 show the details:
Table 4-10: Results of question No. 8
Indicators Frequency Percent
Every time 8 5
In the majority of time 21 13.3
Often 35 22.2
Some time 74 46.8
Seldom 15 9.5
Never 5 3.2
Total 158 100
5%
13.3%
22.2%
46.8%
9.5%3.2%
0%5%
10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%
Every
tim
e
In m
ajorit
y of
cas
es
Ofte
n
Somet
imes
Seldo
m
Nev
er
Figure 4-10
Within A Nation-Survey Of A Select….
111
4-2-4-2. Question number 9 of the questionnaire refers to
the main forms of “informal relations” in the public sector and
asks respondents to indicate the main unofficial ways of
solving problems with public officials among the following
ways: (1- Contacts, 2- Gifts, 3- Money, 4- Pressure from the
side of top management). Here, 68.4% of respondents believe
that „contacts‟ are the main form of „unofficial ways‟ of solving
the problems in the country. This shows that the use of contacts
(friends, relatives and third parties) is more frequent in the
public sector. However, this is not the only one, but other
instruments are also used. Table 4-11 and figure 4-11 show the
details:
Table 4-11: Results of question No. 9
Indicators Frequency Percent
Contacts 108 68.4
Gifts 17 10.6
Money 12 7.6
Pressure of top
managers
21 13.4
Total 158 100
Figure 4-11
Pressure from
top managers
13.4%Money
7.6%
Gifts
10.6%
Contacts
68.4%
Chapter Four
112
4-2-4-3. Question 14 of the questionnaire assesses the
extent of corruption in the public sector. It asks the respondents
to evaluate on a scale of 6 (following), how corruption is
extended in the public sector? (1- there is no corruption
there, 2- it takes place very seldom, 3- it happens sometimes,
4- it happens frequently, 5- very often, 6- always). In response
to this question, 41.2% have selected the option 3. They believe
that corruption happens sometimes in the public sector. 6.3%
are believed that there is no corruption there and 5.7% have
evaluated always. Table 4-12 and figure 4-12 show the details:
Table 4-12: Results of question No. 14
Indicators Frequency Percent
There is no corruption there 10 6.3
It takes place very seldom 25 15.8
It happens sometimes 65 41.2
It happens frequently 29 18.4
Very often 20 12.6
Always 9 5.7
Total 158 100
6.3%
15.8%
41.2%
18.2%
12.6%
5.7%
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
%
No
corruption
is there
Takes
place very
seldom
Happens
sometimes
Happens
frequentl
Very often Always
Figure 4-12
Within A Nation-Survey Of A Select….
113
4-2-4-4. Question 15 also evaluates the spreading of
corruption in the public sector. This question asks interviewees
to assess on a scale of 6, how likely is, when using the public
services, the use of unofficial money, gifts and personal
contacts? (1- Always, 2- Most of time, 3- Frequently, 4-
Sometimes, 5- Seldom, 6- Never). 48% of respondents believe
that in using the public service they sometimes use the
mentioned informal ways. 7% say that it always takes place.
4.4% believed that the using of informal ways never happen.
Table 4-13 and figure 4-13 show the details:
Table 4-13: Results of question No. 15
Indicators Frequency Percent
Always 11 7
Most of time 20 12.7
Frequently 31 19.6
Sometimes 76 48.1
Seldom 10 6.3
Never 7 4.4
Missing Answer 3 1.9
Total 158 100
7%
12.7%
19.6%
48.1%
6.3%4.4%
1.9%
05
101520253035404550
%
Alway
s
Mos
t of t
imes
Frequ
ently
Somet
imes
Seldo
mNev
er
Missing
Figure 4-13
Chapter Four
114
4-2-4-5. Question 16 of the questionnaire asks the
respondents: have you ever had to use money, presents, or
contacts to solve a problem in the public sector? The question
here is very direct, so it is difficult to expect a lot of sincerity
from the respondents. 78.5% of the respondents have said no
to the question, while 21.5% have answered yes. Table 4-14
and figure 4-14 show the details:
Table 4-14: Results of question No. 16
Frequency Percent
Yes 124 78.5
No 34 21.5
Total 158 100
Figure 4-14
No
78.5%
Yes
21.5%
Within A Nation-Survey Of A Select….
115
4-2-4-6. The purpose of question 19 is to evaluate the
expectations with regards to the possibility of root out
corruption in Iran. This question asks the respondents: In view
of corruption in the public sector in Iran, which of the
following statements are the closer to what you think? Results
show that opinion regarding the possibility of dealing with
corruption in Iran is not pessimistic. 62% of the respondents
believe that corruption can be substantially reduced in the
country. 9.5% say that corruption proliferation cannot be
eliminated, and 7.6% believe that corruption can be completely
eradicated. Table 4-15 and figure 4-15 show the details:
Table 4-15: Results of question No. 19
Frequency Percent
Corruption proliferation cannot be eliminated 15 9.5
It can be limited to a degree 28 17.7
Corruption can be substantially reduced 98 62
Corruption can be completely eradicated 12 7.6
Do not know 5 3.2
Total 158 100
9.5%17.7%
62%
7.6%3.2%
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
%
Corruption
proliferation
cannot be
eliminated
in Iran
Corruption will
always be here,
yet it can be
limited to a degree
Corruption
can be
substantially
reduced
Corruption
can be completely
eradicated
Do not know
Figure 4-15
Chapter Four
116
4-2-5. Factors behind corruption in Iran
Question 5 of the questionnaire assesses the important
factors behind corruption. In this connection it asks respondents
to evaluate the possible causes of corruption in the country on
a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 corresponds to “least important”
and 5 corresponds to “very important”.
According to opinion poll, the main cause of corruption is
lack of independent and efficient media with an average mark of
4.83. Lack of people‟s trust in officials has got an average of
3.21 mark as the least important factor. Table 4-16 shows the
results in details:
Table 4-16: Results of question No. 5
4-2-6. Effects of corruption
Factors behind corruption
Average Mark
1. General cultural traditions 3.52
2. Lack of culture and traditions of accountable civil services 4.25
3. Lack of political will and public will to oppose corruption 4.68
4. Low salary of public officials 4.32
5. Lack of trust among people and officials 3.21
6. Lack of transparent procedures 4.08
7. Lack of independent and effective Judiciary 4.30
8. Lack of independent and efficient media 4.83
9. Public officials are too greedy 3.41
10. Crisis in ethics values 3.91
11. Discretionary power of public officials 4.15
12. Lack of administrative control 4.56
13. The penalties are mild and rewards great 4.72
14. Risks of corruption are low 4.69
15. Weakness of laws and regulations to fight corruption 4.25
Within A Nation-Survey Of A Select….
117
Question 18 of the questionnaire evaluates the negative
consequences of corruption. In this line, it asks interviewees:
how acute are the negative effects of corruption on the
political and socio economic affairs on a scale of 6 as follows?
(1- it has not effect at all, 2- its effect is low, 3- impedes, 4-
impedes a lot, 5- impedes very much, 6- it blocks).
Respondents consider poverty with an average mark of 5.57
which is more being affected by corruption and civil society with
3.1 which is less being affected by corruption. Figure 4-16
shows the other details:
Figure 4-16
4.24.33
5.01 4.97
5.57
4.74.52
3.54
4.17
3.64
4.124.31
4.43
3.1
4.19
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Polit
ical sta
bility
Legitim
acy o
f govern
ment
Econom
ic g
row
th
Fore
ign d
irect
investm
ent
Povert
y
Privatisation
Polit
ical develo
pm
ent
Hum
an r
ights
Qualit
y o
f govern
ance
Qualit
y o
f goods a
nd s
erv
ices
Resourc
e a
llocation
Polit
ical part
icip
ation
Civ
il socie
ty
Accounta
bility
and t
ranspare
ncy
Polit
ical com
petition
Av
era
ge M
ark
s
4-2-7. Remedial and preventive measures of corruption
Chapter Four
118
Question 17 of the questionnaire is to assess the
important remedial and preventive measures of corruption in
Iran. In this connection a list of measures was given to the
interviewees to evaluate them on a scale of 6 where 1 was not
efficient and 6 was very efficient. “Downsizing the government,
reduction of staff in public sector and decentralisation of the
government” as a measure received the maximum average
mark (5.41). „Financing the political parties by government‟
received the minimum average mark (4.1). However, the
average marks for all measures are close to each other and
show that all are important for reducing corruption in the
country. Table 4-17 shows the details:
Table 4-17: Results of question No. 17
4-3. SUMMARY
Measures Average Marks
1. Increasing financial suport from the government to public servants 4.30
2. Downsizing the government, reduction the staff in public sector and decentralisation of the government
5.41
3. Strengthening controling over public servants 5.07
4. Conducting anti-corruption propaganda campaigns in society 4.32
5. Increasing the risks of corruption 5.32
6. Financing the political parties by government 4.10
7. Promote strong coordination among governments, the private sector and civil society
4.55
8. Establishing an efficient social security system in the country 5.35
9. Utilizing the information technology in the administrative system 5.17
10. Establishing an indepentnt organisation for fighting corruption 5.21
Within A Nation-Survey Of A Select….
119
In this chapter the collected data by questionnaire have
been analysed and related tables and graphs have provided
results.
Results of the survey show that corruption is the second
biggest problem in the country after unemployment. Survey
shows that 41.2% of the respondents believed that corruption
takes place sometimes in the public sector. 6.3% believed that
there is no corruption there.
According to the survey, main cause of corruption is lack
of an independent and efficient media. Therefore, this can be
concluded that existing a strong and free press can be helpful to
reduce corruption in the society. Survey also reveals that
downsizing the government; reduction of staff in public sector
and decentralisation of the government can be the most
important remedial and preventive measures against corruption
in Iran.