chapter 4 memory

8/3/2019 Chapter 4 Memory

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Instructor: Nadia Ayub1

Chapter 4

Memory



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Human memory is an

information processingsystem that works

constructively to encode,

store, and retrieveinformation

What is Memory?



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What is Memory?

Memory –

Any system – human, animal, or machine – that encodes, stores, and retrievesinformation



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Metaphors for Memory

Cognitive psychologists see humanmemory more as an interpretive system,

such as an artist, rather than a systemthat takes an accurate recording, such asa video recorder



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Human Memory is Good at:

Information on which attention is focused

Information in which we are interested

Information that arouses us emotionally

Information that fits with our previous

experiencesInformation that we rehearse



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Encoding StorageAccess and

Retrieval

Memory’s Three Basic Functions




Retrieval

Involvesmodification ofinformation to fit thepreferred format ofthe memory system

Elaboration – Type of encoding inwhich meaning is added

to information in workingmemory so that it maybe more easily storedand retrieved




Encoding Storage Access and

Retrieval

Involves retentionof encodedmaterial over time




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Retrieval

Involves thelocation andrecovery ofinformationfrom memory




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Each of the three memory

stages encodes and storesmemories in a different way,

but they work together to

transform sensory experienceinto a lasting record that has apattern of meaning

How Do We

Form Memories?



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The Three Stages of Memory

SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory



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Sensory Memory

WorkingMemory

Long-termMemory

Preserves briefsensoryimpressions ofstimuli, also calledsensory register



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The First Stage: Sensory Memory

On the next slide, you will see a

series of letters for one second

Try to remember as many letters

as you can



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D J B

X H G

C L Y



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How many can you recall?



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D J B

X H G

C L Y



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The actual capacity of sensory memorycan be twelve or more items

All but three or four items disappear beforethey can enter

There is a separate sensory register for

each sense



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Psychologists believe that, in this stage,

memory images take the form of nerveimpulses



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SensoryMemory

Working Memory

Long-termMemory

Preserves recentlyperceived events orexperiences for lessthan a minute withoutrehearsal, also calledshort-term memory orSTM



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Encoding and Storage

in Working Memory

Chunking – Organizing pieces of information into asmaller number of meaningful units

Maintenance rehearsal – Process in which information is repeatedor reviewed to keep it from fading while in

working memory



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Acoustic encoding – Conversion of information to sound

patterns in working memory


in Working Memory

Elaborative rehearsal – Process in which information is activelyreviewed and related to informationalready in LTM



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in Working Memory

Levels-of-processing theory – Explanation for the fact that information

that is more thoroughly connected tomeaningful terms in LTM will be betterremembered



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SensoryMemory

WorkingMemory

Long-term Memory

Stores materialorganizedaccording tomeaning, alsocalled LTM



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The Third Stage:

Long-Term Memory

Procedural memory – Division of LTM that stores memories forhow things are done

Declarative memory – Division of LTM that stores explicitinformation

(also known as fact memory)



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Semantic memory – Subdivision of declarative memory

that stores general knowledge,including meanings of words andconcepts

The Third Stage:

Long-Term Memory

Episodic memory – Subdivision of declarative memory thatstores memories for personal events, or

“episodes”



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Semantic memory

Includes memoryfor:language, factsgeneral knowledge

Episodic memory

Includes memoryfor:events, personalexperiences

Includes memoryfor:motor skills,operant andclassicalconditioning

Long-term memory

Declarative memory Procedural memory



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The Biological Basis

of Long-Term Memory

Anterograde amnesia – Inability to form memories for new

information

Retrograde amnesia – Inability to remember information

previously stored in memory

H D W



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How Do We

Retrieve Memories?

Whether memories areimplicit or explicit, successful

retrieval depends on howthey were encoded and how

they are cued

H D W



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Explicit memory –

Memory that has been processed withattention and can be consciously recalled

How Do We

Retrieve Memories?

Implicit memory – Memory that was not deliberately learned

or of which you have no consciousawareness



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Retrieval Cues

Priming – Technique for retrieving implicit

memories by providing cues thatstimulate a memory without awareness ofthe connection between the cue and theretrieved memory



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Priming

If you are presented with the following

words:

assassin, octopus, avocado, mystery,sheriff, climate



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Priming

An hour later, you would easily be able toidentify which of the following words youhad previously seen:

twilight, assassin, dinosaur, mystery



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ch_ _ _ _ nk

o _ t _ _ _ us _ og _ y _ _ _

_ l _ m _ te

Priming

However, an hour later, you would alsohave a much easier time filling in theblanks of some of these words thanothers:



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Priming

While you did not actively try to remember“octopus” and “climate” from the first list,

they were primed in the reading, whichmade them easier to identify in this task

chipmunk

octopus

bogeyman

climate



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Retrieving Explicit Memories

Anything stored in LTM must be “filed”according to its pattern or meaning



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Recall and Recognition

Recall – Technique for retrieving explicitmemories in which one must reproduce

previously presented informationRecognition –

Technique for retrieving explicit

memories in which one must identifypresent stimuli as having been previouslypresented



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Other Factors Affecting Retrieval

Encoding specificity principle – The more closely the retrieval clues

match the form in which the informationwas encoded, the better the informationwill be remembered



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Other Factors Affecting Retrieval

Mood congruent memory – A happy moods is likely to trigger happy

memories, depression completes itselfthrough biased retrieval of depressingmemories

Factors Affecting the Accuracy of



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Factors Affecting the Accuracy of

Eyewitnesses:

Recollections are less influenced byleading questions if possibility of memorybias is forewarned

Passage of time leads to increase inmisremembering information

Age of the witness matters

Confidence in memory is not a sign ofaccuracy



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Improving Memory with Mnemonics

Mnemonics

Techniques for improving memory,especially by making connectionsbetween new material and information

already in long-term memory

chapter 4 memory

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