Chapter 4: Conceptualization and Measurement

Measuring Anything that Exists

Measurement – Careful, deliberate observations of the real world

For the purpose of describing objects and events in terms of the

Attributes composing the variable

Conceptualization

Process: Of specifying what we mean when we use particular terms in research.

Conceptualization process creates an agreed-on meaning for a concept

For the purposes of research

Conceptions, Concepts, and Reality

Conceptualization – The mental process whereby fuzzy and imprecise notions (concepts) are made more specific and precise.

How would you conceptualize…Prejudice?

Compassionate?

Concepts

• Mental representations

• Typically based on experience • Concepts can be of real phenomena• Dogs, Clouds, Pain, Cars, Cell phones

• Concepts can be of agree-upon phenomena• Truth, Beauty, Justice, Prejudice, Value,

Concepts as Constructs

Concepts are constructs derived by mutual agreement from mental images.

Conceptions summarize collections of seemingly related observations and experiences.

Things that can be Measured

Three classes of things can be measured

1. Direct Observables

2. Indirect Observables

3. Constructs

Things that can be Measured

• Three classes of things can be measured•

1. Direct observables Height, weight, color, etc.

2. Indirect observables Questionnaires Information on Gender, age, income, etc.

Things that can be Measured

3. Constructs

Theoretical creations based on observations

Cannot be seen either directly or indirectly, such as:

IQ Leisure Satisfaction Environmental Values

Indicators and Dimensions

Indicator Concept or direct observable used

to measure a construct.

For example, consider a person’s extent of agreement with this statement:

“I am a person of worth”

As an indicator of person’s self-esteem

Indicators

Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale contains ten statements used to measure self-esteem.

Each statement assumed to accurately measure self-esteem as an indicator of it.

Indicators

Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale contains ten statements used to measure self-esteem.

Each statement assumed to accurately measure self-esteem as an indicator of it.

(Handout)

Gallup Index of Leading Religious Indicators

1. Believe in God

2. Religious preference

3. Member of a church

4. Attended church last 7 days

5. Religion very important in life

6. Religion answers problems

7. High confidence in organized religion

8. Give high ratings to ethical standards of clergy

Indicators: How would you measure…

Political party affiliation?

Age?

Grade point average?

Satisfaction with college?

Religious affiliation?

Dimensions

Constructs sometimes have multiple dimensions, each with indicators.

For example: The construct Locus-of-Control

Three dimensions: Internal External Powerful others

1/27 Identify Indicators & Dimensions

Identify appropriate indicators and dimensions for…

College success

Political activity

Poverty

Binge drinking

Fear of crime

Nominal, and Operational Definitions

Nominal definition: Assigned to a term without any claim that the definition represents a “real” entity. Name

Operational definition: Specifies precisely how a concept will be measured

Levels of Measurement

• Level of Measurement=Mathematical precision with which values of a variable can be expressed.

• Nominal level of measurement:

• Qualitative

• No mathematical interpretation

Levels of Measurement

Quantitative levels of measurement:

Ordinal

Interval

Ratio

Progressively more precise mathematically

Nominal Measures (Labels)

Identifies variables whose values have no mathematical interpretation

Categories are not ordered

If only two categories: Referred to as a dichotomous or “Dummy” variable

Examples of Nominal Measures

Ordinal Measures

Categorical--Some categories are higher than others.

For example: Income tax brackets Social class Levels of education

Ordinal Measures

Cannot measure the distance between categories Only which is higher or lower

Cannot say that someone is twice as educated as

someone else

Can be used as a dependent variable

Example: Ordinal Measures

When attributes can be rank-ordered… Distances between attributes do not have any meaning For example : code Educational Attainment as

0=less than H.S.

1=some H.S.

2=H.S. degree

3=some college

4=college degree

5=post college

Is the distance from 0 to 1 the same as 3 to 4?

Example: Ordinal Measures

Interval Measures

Called scalar or index variables

Provide scale or index to measure between levels

Can measure which is higher or lower and how much Measured between points on a scale with even

units Example: Temperature in Fahrenheit or

Celsius

Example: Interval Measures

When distance between attributes has meaning, for example, temperature (in Fahrenheit)

Distance from 30-40 degrees = Distance from 70-80 degrees

Used for a variety of statistical analyses:

Central tendency can be measured by mode, median, or mean

Standard deviation can be calculated

Cannot calculate ratios

Index of Feminist Attitudes

Feminist Attitude index = 30 (highest score possible)

Feminist Attitude index = 5 (lowest score possible)

Do you agree or disagree with the following statements?

(SD =1, D=2, N=3, A=4, SA=5)

1. A woman should have the same job opportunities as a man.

2. Men should respect women more than they currently do.

3. America should pass the Equal Rights Amendment.

4. Women should be considered as seriously as men as candidates for the Presidency of the United States.

5. Doctors need to take women's health concerns more seriously.

6. Women have been treated unfairly on the basis of their gender throughout most of human history.

An index of their feminist attitudes was calculated from 6 questions, but the index had no absolute zero.

Ratio Level Measurement

Similar to interval level Can measure distance between two points But can do so in absolute terms

Ratio measures have a true zero (unlike interval measures) Example, can say that someone is twice as rich

as someone else based on the value of their assets.

To have no money is based on a starting point of zero

Ratio Level Measurement

Has an absolute zero that is meaningful

Can construct a meaningful ratio (fraction), for example, number of clients in past six months

It is meaningful to say that “...we had twice as many clients in this period as we did in the previous six months.

Ratio Level Measurement

Ratio scales are the ultimate when it comes to measurement scales

They tell us about the order

They tell us the exact value between units

AND also have an absolute zero Allows for a wide range of both

descriptive and inferential statistics

Types of Comparisons That Can Be Made With Different Levels of Measurement

Measurement Hierarchy

NOMINAL

ORDINAL

INTERVAL

RATIO

WEAKEST

STRONGEST