chapter 32
DESCRIPTION
Chapter 32. Control of Motor Function by Nervous System. Contents. Motor Unit and Final Common Pathway Spinal Reflexes Function of Brain Stem Function of the Basal Ganglion Function of Cerebellum Function of the Cortex. organization of motor subsystems. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 32Chapter 32
Control of Motor Function by Nervous System
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ContentsContents
Motor Unit and Final Common PathwaySpinal ReflexesFunction of Brain Stem Function of the Basal GanglionFunction of CerebellumFunction of the Cortex
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organization of motor subsystems
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Section 1. Motor Unit and Section 1. Motor Unit and Final Common PathwayFinal Common Pathway
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•Every striated muscle has encapsulated muscle fibers scattered throughout the muscle called muscle spindles.
•Extrafusal and intrafusal fibers
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The extrafusal muscle fibers are innervated by Alpha motor neuron
The intrafusal muscle fibers are innervated by Gamma motor neurons
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Motor units Motor units
A single motor neuron ( motor) and all (extrafusal) muscle fibers it innervates
The physiological functional unit in muscle (not the cell) All cells in motor unit contract synchronously
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Motor units and innervation ratio
Purves Fig. 16.4
Innervation ratio
Fibers per motor neuron
Extraocular muscle 3:1
Gastrocnemius 2000:1
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•The muscle cells of a motor unit are not grouped, but are interspersed among cells from other motor units
•The coordinated movement needs the activation of several motors
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Overview - organization of motor systems
Motor CortexMotor Cortex
Brain StemBrain Stem
Spinal CordSpinal Cord
Skeletal muscle
-motor neuron
Final common pathway
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Final common path - -motor neuron(-)
musclefibers
(+)
(-)
(+)
axon hillock
motor nerve fiber
NM junction
Schwanncells
Receptors? acetylcholineesterase
Transmitter?
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Final Common PathwayFinal Common Pathway, ,
a motor pathway consisting of the motor neurons by which nerve impulses from many central sources pass to a muscle in the periphery.
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Section 2. Spinal ReflexesSection 2. Spinal Reflexes
Somatic reflexes mediated by the spinal cord– May occur without the involvement of higher brain
centers– Was facilitated or inhibited by brain
For example– Stretch reflex– Deep tendon reflex– Crossed extensor reflex– Superficial reflex
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Part 1 Stretch ReflexPart 1 Stretch Reflex
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1 Anatomy of Muscle Spindle1 Anatomy of Muscle Spindle
3-10 intrafusal muscle fibers detect change in the length
of the muscle-- stretch receptors that report
the stretching of the muscle to the spine.
The central region and peripheral region of the intrafusal fibers
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Anatomy of Muscle SpindleAnatomy of Muscle Spindle Intrafusal fibers are wrapped by two types of
afferent endings– Primary sensory endings
Type Ia fibers Innervate the center of the spindle
– Secondary sensory endings Type II fibers Associated with the ends of the nuclear chain fiber
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Components of muscle spindleComponents of muscle spindle
Afferentaxons
IaII
Primaryending
Secondaryending}
}
Nuclear Bag Fiber
Nuclear Chain Fiber
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Anatomy of Muscle SpindleAnatomy of Muscle Spindle Primary sensory endings
– Type Ia fibers Stimulated by both the rate and amount of stretch (dynamic
response)
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Anatomy of Muscle SpindleAnatomy of Muscle Spindle Secondary sensory endings
– Type II fibers stimulated only by degree of stretch (static response)
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Anatomy of Muscle SpindleAnatomy of Muscle Spindle The contractile region of the intrafusal muscle
fibers are limited to their ends – only these areas contain actin and myosin filaments– are innervated by gamma () efferent fibers
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2. Muscle stretch reflex
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Muscle stretch reflex
Definition: Whenever a muscle is stretched, excitation of the spindles causes reflexive contraction of the same muscle from which the signal originated and also of closely allied synergistic muscle.
The basic circuit: Spindle Ia or II nerve fiber dorsal root of the spinal cord synapses with anterior motor neurons -motor N. F. the same M. from whence the M. spindle fiber originated.
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Circuit of the Strength ReflexCircuit of the Strength Reflex
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The Stretch ReflexThe Stretch Reflex Exciting a muscle spindle
occurs in two ways– Applying a force that
lengthens the entire muscle– Activating the motor
neurons that stimulate the distal ends of the intrafusal fibers to contact,
thus stretching the mid-portion of the spindle (internal stretch)
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The Stretch ReflexThe Stretch Reflex
Whatever the stimulus, when the spindles are activated
their associated sensory neurons transmit impulses at a higher frequency to the spinal cord
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The Stretch ReflexThe Stretch Reflex
The reflexive muscle contraction resists further stretching of the muscle
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The Stretch ReflexThe Stretch Reflex
Branches of the afferent fibers also synapse with inter- neurons that inhibit motor neurons controlling the antagonistic muscles
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•Inhibition of the antagonistic muscles is called reciprocal inhibition•causes the antagonists to relax
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1) Tendon reflex (dynamic stretch reflex) Caused by rapid stretch of the muscle, as knee-jerk reflex Transmitted from the IA sensory ending of the M. S. Causes an instantaneous, strong reflexive contraction of the same muscle; Opposing sudden changes in length of the MA monosynaptic pathway being over within 0.7 ms
The types of the Stretch Flex
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2) Muscle tonus (static stretch reflex): Caused by a weaker and continues stretch of the muscle, Transmitted from the IA and II sensory ending of the M. S.
Multiple synaptic pathway, continues for a prolonged period. Non-synchronized contraction, M. C. for at least many seconds or minutes, maintaining the posture of the body.
The types of the Stretch Flex
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The Stretch ReflexThe Stretch Reflex
most important in large extensor muscles which sustain upright posture
Contractions of the postural muscles of the spine are almost continuously regulated by stretch reflexes (Muscle tonus )
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3 Gamma impact on afferent 3 Gamma impact on afferent responseresponse
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Muscle spindle: motor Muscle spindle: motor innervationinnervation
Gamma motoneurons:– Innervate the
poles of the fibers.
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-LOOP-LOOP
1a1a
Descending influence (UMN)Descending influence (UMN)
MUSCLE
Muscle spindle
Activation of the -loopresults in increased
muscle tone
Activation of the -loopresults in increased
muscle tone
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Functional significance of gamma Functional significance of gamma impact on spindle activityimpact on spindle activity
The tension of intrafusal fibers is maintained during active contraction by gamma activity.
The system is informed about very small changes in muscle length.
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Part 2. The Deep Tendon Reflex
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Structure and Innervation of Structure and Innervation of Golgi OrganGolgi Organ
Located in the muscle tendon junction.
Connective tissue encapsulating collagen fibers and nerve endings.
Attached to 10-20 muscle fibers and several MUs.
Ib afferent fiber.sensitive to tension
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Golgi tendon organ: response Golgi tendon organ: response propertiesproperties
Less frequent than muscle spindle Sensitive to the change of tension caused by the
passive stretch or active contraction
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The Deep Tendon ReflexThe Deep Tendon Reflex When muscle
tension increases moderately during muscle contraction or passive stretching,
GTO receptors are activated and afferent impulses are transmitted to the spinal cord
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The Deep Tendon ReflexThe Deep Tendon Reflex
motor neurons in the spinal cord supplying the contracting muscle are inhibited
antagonistic muscle are activated
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The Deep Tendon ReflexThe Deep Tendon Reflex cause muscle relaxation and
lengthening in response to
the muscle’s contraction
– opposite of those elicited
by stretch reflexes
help ensure smooth onset
and termination of muscle
contraction
important in activities
involving rapid switching
between flexion and
extension such as in running
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Compare spindle and golgiCompare spindle and golgi
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Compare spindle and golgiCompare spindle and golgi
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Part 3. The Crossed Part 3. The Crossed Extensor ReflexExtensor Reflex
The reflex occur when you step on a sharp object
There is a rapid lifting of the affected foot (ipsilateral withdrawal reflex )
the contralateral response activates the extensor muscles of the opposite leg (contralateral extensor reflex)– support the weight shifted
to it
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Part 4. Superficial ReflexesPart 4. Superficial Reflexes
elicited by gentle cutaneous stimulationdependent upon functional upper motor
pathways – Babinski reflex
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Babinski reflex - an UMN signBabinski reflex - an UMN signAdult response - plantar flexion of the big toe and adduction
of the smaller toesPathological (Infant) response - dorsoflexion (extension) of
the big toe and fanning of the other toesIndicative of upper motor neuron damage
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Concept: When the spinal cord is suddenly transected in the upper neck, essentially all cord functions, including the cord reflexes, immediately become depressed to the point of total silence.
(spinal animal)
Part 5. Spinal cord transection and spinal shock
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During spinal shock:
complete loss of all reflexes
no muscle tone, paralysis
complete anesthesia,
no peristalsis, bladder and rectal reflexes absent (no defecation and micturition )
no sweating
arterial blood Pressure decrease ( 40 mmHg )
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the reason: The normal activity of the spinal cord neurons depends on continual tonic excitation from higher centers
(the reticulospinal-, vestibulospinal- corticospinal tracts).
The recovery of spinal neurons excitability.
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Section 3. Role of the brain stem
Support of the Body Against Gravity – Roles of the Reticular and Vestibular nuclei
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Areas in the cat brain where stimulation produces facilitation (+) or inhibition (-) of stretch reflexes. 1. motor cortex; 2. Basal ganglia; 3. Cerebellum; 4. Reticular inhibitory area; 5. Reticular facilitated area; 6. Vestibular nuclei.
Facilitated and inhibitory area
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1. Facilitated area—roles of the reticular and vestibular nuclei.:(1) The pontine reticular nuclei Located slightly posteriorly and laterally in the pons and extending to the mesencephalon Transmit excitatory signals downward into the cord (the pontine reticulospinal tract)
1. motor cortex; 2. Basal ganglia; 3. Cerebellum; 4. Reticular
inhibitory area;5. Reticular
facilitated area; 6. Vestibular nuclei.
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(2) The vestibular nuclei selectively control the excitatory signals to the different antigravity muscle to maintain equilibrium in response to signals from the vestibular apparatus.
1. motor cortex; 2. Basal ganglia; 3. Cerebellum; 4. Reticular
inhibitory area; 5. Reticular
facilitated area; 6. Vestibular
nuclei.
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MOTOR CORTEX
MOTOR TRACTS & LOWER MOTOR NEURON
SKELETALMUSCLE
MIDBRAIN &RED NUCLEUS
(Rubrospinal Tract)
PONS & MEDULLARETICULAR FORMATION
(Reticulospinal Tracts)
VESTIBULAR NUCLEI(Vestibulospinal Tract)
LOWER (ALPHA) MOTOR NEURONTHE FINAL COMMON PATHWAY
UPPER MOTOR NEURON(Corticospinal Tracts)
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Terminate on the motor neurons that exciting antigravity muscle of the body (the muscle of vertebral column and the extensor muscle of the limbs).
Have a high degree of natural (spontaneous) excitability.
Receive especially strong excitatory signals from vestibular nuclei and the deep nuclei of the cerebellum.
Cause powerful excitation of the antigravity muscle throughout the body (facilitate a standing position), supporting the body against gravity.
1. motor cortex; 2. Basal ganglia; 3. Cerebellum; 4. Reticular inhibitory area; 5. Reticular facilitated area; 6. Vestibular nuclei.
Properties of the Facilitated Area
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2. Inhibitory area –medullary reticular system (1) Extend the entire extent to the medulla, lying ventrally and medially near the middle. (2) Transmit inhibitory signals to the same antigravity anterior motor neurons (medullary reticulospinal tract).
1. motor cortex 2. Basal ganglia 3. Cerebellum4. Reticular inhibitory area5. Reticular facilitated area 6. Vestibular nuclei.
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MOTOR CORTEX
MOTOR TRACTS & LOWER MOTOR NEURON
SKELETALMUSCLE
MIDBRAIN &RED NUCLEUS
(Rubrospinal Tract)
PONS & MEDULLARETICULAR FORMATION
(Reticulospinal Tracts)
VESTIBULAR NUCLEI(Vestibulospinal Tract)
LOWER (ALPHA) MOTOR NEURONTHE FINAL COMMON PATHWAY
UPPER MOTOR NEURON(Corticospinal Tracts)
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(3) Receive collaterals from the corticospinal tract, the rubrospinal tracts, and other motor pathways.
These collaterals activate the medullary reticular inhibitory system to balance the excitatory signals from the pontine reticular system.
1. motor cortex2. Basal ganglia 3. Cerebellum 4. Reticular inhibitory area 5. Reticular facilitated area 6. Vestibular nuclei.
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Areas in the cat brain where stimulation produces facilitation (+) or inhibition (-) of stretch reflexes. 1. motor cortex; 2. Basal ganglia; 3. Cerebellum; 4. Reticular inhibitory area; 5. Reticular facilitated area; 6. Vestibular nuclei.
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• Decerebrate Rigidity: transection of the brainstem at midbrain level (above vestibular nuclei and below red nucleus)
• Symptoms include:– extensor rigidity or posturing in both upper and lower
limbs
• Decerebrate Rigidity: transection of the brainstem at midbrain level (above vestibular nuclei and below red nucleus)
• Symptoms include:– extensor rigidity or posturing in both upper and lower
limbs
Decerebrate RigidityDecerebrate Rigidity
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•Results from:
–loss of input from inhibitory medullary reticular formation (activity of this center is dependent on input from higher centers).
–active facilitation from pontine reticular formation (intrinsically active, and receives afferent input from spinal cord).
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•The extensor rigidity is -loop dependent
–section the dorsal roots interrupts the -loop, and the rigidity is relieved. This is -rigidity.
THE -LOOP?THE -LOOP?
1a1a
Descending influence (UMN)Descending influence (UMN)
MUSCLE
Muscle spindle
Activation of the -loopresults in increased
muscle tone
Activation of the -loopresults in increased
muscle tone
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Section 4. The Cerebellum and its Motor Functions
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Cerebellar Input/Output Circuit
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Function of the cerebellumFunction of the cerebellum
Based on cerebral intent and external conditions– tracks and modifies millisecond-to-millisecond tracks and modifies millisecond-to-millisecond
muscle contractionsmuscle contractions– produce smooth, reproducible movementsproduce smooth, reproducible movements
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Without normal cerebellar function, Without normal cerebellar function, movements appear jerky and uncontrolledmovements appear jerky and uncontrolled
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Functional Divisions-cerebellum• Vestibulocerebellum (flocculonodular lobe)
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input-vestibular nuclei
output-vestibular nuclei
The vestibulocerebellum
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controlling the balance between agonist and antagonist M. contractions of the spine, hips, and shoulders during rapid changes in body positions.
Function 1: Control of the equilibrium and postural movements.
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During running
Receive the signals from the periphery how rapidly and in which directions the body parts are moving
Calculate the rates and direction where the different parts of body will be during the next few ms.
anticipatory correction (feed-forward control)
the key to the brain’s progression to the next sequential movement.
Function 1: Control of the equilibrium and postural movements. ( Cont. )
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Function 2 regulate the eye Function 2 regulate the eye movementmovement
– Through vestibulo-ocular reflex keep the eyes still in space when the head moves
– Damage of the flocculonofular lobe result in positional nystagmus ( 位置性眼震颤)
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The VOR: DefinitionThe VOR: Definition
A eye movement reflex Stimulated by head movements Moves the eyes opposite of the head Helps keep the retinal image stabilized
The VOR contributes to clear vision during head movements
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Cerebellar NystagmusCerebellar NystagmusHorizontal oscillating eye movement
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•Spinocerebellum (vermis & intermediate)
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•Spinocerebellum (vermis & intermediate)
–input-
–somatic sensory information via spinocerebellar tracts
–Branch from corticospinal tract
–Output
–Thamalus – motor cortex
–-fastigial ( 顶) and interposed (中间核) nuclei → vestibular nuclei, reticular formation and red nucleus → vestibulospinal tract, reticulospinal tract and rubrospinal tract → motor neurons of anterior horn
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Function of spinocerebellumFunction of spinocerebellum
Provide the circuitry for coordinating the movements of the distal portions of the limbs, especially the hands and fingers– Compared the “intentions ” from the motor cortex and red
nucleus, with the “performance” from the peripheral parts of the limbs
– Send corrective output signals to the motor neurons– Provides smooth, coordinate movements– Feedback control
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•Cerebrocerebellum (lateral zone)
input- from the cerebral cortex via a relay in pontine nuclei
output- to dentate nucleus → dorsal thalamus and red nucleus→ primary motor cortex → corticospinal tract → motor neurons of anterior horn
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Cerebrocerebellum Cerebrocerebellum (functions)(functions)
Planning and programming of sequential movements– Panning (计划形成) : begins in the sensory
and promotor area of the cortex and transmitted to the cerebrocerebellum
– Programming (运动程序编制) : what will be happening during the next sequential movement a fraction of the second later….
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•Vestibulocerebellum (flocculonodular lobe)
Balance and body equilibrium
•Spinocerebellum (vermis & intermediate)
Rectify voluntary movement
•Cerebrocerebellum (lateral zone)
Plan voluntary movement
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Clinical Abnormalities of the Clinical Abnormalities of the CerebellumCerebellum
Dysmetria (辨距障碍) and Ataxia ( 共济失调)
Past pointing: (过指) Failure of progression
– Dysdiadochokinesia ( 轮替运动障碍)– Dysarthria (构音障碍)
Intention tremor
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Dysmetria Dysmetria (辨距障碍)(辨距障碍) and Ataxia and Ataxia (( 共济失调)共济失调)
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Past PointingPast Pointing
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Dysdiadochokinesia (Dysdiadochokinesia ( 轮替运动障轮替运动障碍)碍)
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Intention Tremor Intention Tremor
Present during reaching movement
Not at rest
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Section 5 The motor functions of basal ganglia
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Putamen
Caudate
GPi
GPe
1. Corpus Striatum(1. Corpus Striatum( 纹状体)纹状体)Caudate Nucleus Caudate Nucleus (尾状核)(尾状核) Putamen (Putamen ( 壳核)壳核)
Globus Pallidus (Globus Pallidus ( 苍白球,苍白球, GP)GP)
Components of Components of Basal GangliaBasal Ganglia
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2. Substantia Nigra 2. Substantia Nigra (( SNSN))
Pars Compacta (SNc)Pars Compacta (SNc)
Pars Reticulata (SNr)Pars Reticulata (SNr)
Components of Components of Basal GangliaBasal Ganglia
3. Subthalamic Nucleus (STN)3. Subthalamic Nucleus (STN)
STN
SN (r & c)
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Basal Ganglia Basal Ganglia ConnectionsConnections
•Circuit of connections–cortex to basal ganglia to thalamus to cortex–Helps to program automatic movement sequences (walking and arm swinging or laughing at a joke)
•Output from basal ganglia to reticular formation
–reduces muscle tone–damage produces rigidity of Parkinson’s disease
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excitation
inhibition
directindirect
D1
D2
D1 & D2 Dopamine receptors
somatosensory cortices
Thalamus
Putamen
GPe
GPi
STN
SNc
motor cortices
cortex to basal ganglia to thalamus to cortex
GPe/i: Globus pallidus internal/external
STN: Subthalamus Nucleus
SNc: Pars Compacta Pars Compacta (part of substantia Nigra)(part of substantia Nigra)
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• Direct Pathway: – Disinhibition of the thalamus facilitates cortically mediated
behaviors
excitation
inhibition
directindirect
D1
D2
D1 & D2 Dopamine receptors
somatosensory cortices
Thalamus
Putamen
GPe
GPi
STN
SNc
motor cortices
GPe/i: Globus pallidus internal/external
STN: Subthalamus Nucleus
SNc: Pars Compacta (part Pars Compacta (part of substantia nigra))of substantia nigra))
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•Indirect pathway:
–Inhibition of the thalamus inhibits cortically mediated behaviors
excitation
inhibition
directindirect
D1
D2
D1 & D2 Dopamine receptors
somatosensory cortices
Thalamus
Putamen
GPe
GPi
STN
SNc
motor cortices
GPe/i: Globus pallidus internal/external
STN: Subthalamus Nucleus
SNc: Pars Compacta (part Pars Compacta (part of substantia nigra)of substantia nigra)
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Medical Remarks
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• Hypokinetic disorders result from overactivity in the indirect pathway.
example: Decreased level of dopamine supply in nigrostriatal pathway results in akinesia, bradykinesia, and rigidity in Parkinson’s disease (PD).
excitation
inhibition
directindirect
D1
D2
D1 & D2 Dopamine receptors
somatosensory cortices
Thalamus
Putamen
GPe
GPi
STN
SNc
motor cortices
GPe/i: Globus pallidus internal/external
STN: Subthalamus Nucleus
SNc: Pars Compacta Pars Compacta (part of substantia (part of substantia nigra)nigra)
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Muhammad Ali in Alanta OlympicMuhammad Ali in Alanta Olympic
Parkinson’s Parkinson’s DiseaseDisease
Disease of mesostriatal Disease of mesostriatal dopaminergic systemdopaminergic system
PDPD
normalnormal
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Substantia Nigra, Substantia Nigra, Pars Compacta (SNc)Pars Compacta (SNc)
DOPAminergic DOPAminergic
NeuronNeuron
Slowness of MovementSlowness of Movement- - Difficulty in Initiation and Cessation Difficulty in Initiation and Cessation of Movementof Movement
Clinical Feature (1)Clinical Feature (1)
Parkinson’s DiseaseParkinson’s Disease
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Clinical Feature (2)Clinical Feature (2)
Resting TremorResting TremorParkinsonian PostureParkinsonian PostureRigidity-Cogwheel RigidityRigidity-Cogwheel Rigidity
Parkinson’s DiseaseParkinson’s Disease
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•Hyperkinetic disorders result from underactivity in the indirect pathway.
example: Lesions of STN result in Ballism. Damage to the pathway from Putamen to GPe results in Chorea, both of them are involuntary limb movements.
excitation
inhibition
directindirect
D1
D2
D1 & D2 Dopamine receptors
somatosensory cortices
Thalamus
Putamen
GPe
GPi
STN
SNc
motor cortices
GPe/i: Globus pallidus internal/external
STN: Subthalamus Nucleus
SNc: Pars Compacta Pars Compacta (part of substantia nigra)(part of substantia nigra)
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SYDENHAM’S CHOREA SYDENHAM’S CHOREA (风湿性(风湿性舞蹈病)SYDENHAM’S CHOREA SYDENHAM’S CHOREA (风湿性(风湿性舞蹈病)
- Fine, disorganized , and - Fine, disorganized , and random movements ofrandom movements of extremities, face andextremities, face and tonguetongue- Accompanied by - Accompanied by Muscular HypotoniaMuscular Hypotonia- Typical exaggeration of- Typical exaggeration of associated movements associated movements during voluntary activityduring voluntary activity- Usually recovers- Usually recovers spontaneously spontaneously in 1 to 4 monthsin 1 to 4 months
Clinical FeatureClinical Feature
Principal Pathologic Lesion: Principal Pathologic Lesion: Corpus StriatumCorpus Striatum
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Clinical FeatureClinical Feature
Principal Pathologic Lesion:Principal Pathologic Lesion:
Corpus Striatum Corpus Striatum (esp. caudate nucleus)(esp. caudate nucleus) and Cerebral Cortexand Cerebral Cortex
- - Predominantly Predominantly autosomal dominantlyautosomal dominantly inherited chronic fatal diseaseinherited chronic fatal disease (Gene: chromosome 4)(Gene: chromosome 4)- Insidious onset: Usually 40-50- Insidious onset: Usually 40-50- Choreic movements in onset- Choreic movements in onset- Frequently associated with- Frequently associated with emotional disturbancesemotional disturbances- Ultimately, grotesque gait and sever- Ultimately, grotesque gait and sever dysarthria, progressive dementiadysarthria, progressive dementia ensues.ensues.
HUNTINGTON’S CHOREAHUNTINGTON’S CHOREA亨廷顿舞蹈症
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HEMIBALLISM HEMIBALLISM ((半侧投掷症)HEMIBALLISM HEMIBALLISM ((半侧投掷症)
- - Usually results from CVAUsually results from CVA (Cerebrovascular Accident)(Cerebrovascular Accident) involving involving subthalamic nucleussubthalamic nucleus- sudden onset- sudden onset- - Violent, writhing, involuntaryViolent, writhing, involuntary movements of wide excursionmovements of wide excursion confined to confined to one half of the bodyone half of the body- The movements are continuous- The movements are continuous and often exhausting but ceaseand often exhausting but cease during sleepduring sleep- Sometimes fatal due to exhaustion- Sometimes fatal due to exhaustion- Could be controlled by- Could be controlled by phenothiazines and stereotaxicphenothiazines and stereotaxic surgery surgery
Clinical FeatureClinical Feature
Lesion: Lesion: Subthalamic NucleusSubthalamic Nucleus
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•Two principal components
–Primary Motor Cortex
–Premotor Areas
Section VI Control of muscle function by the motor cortex
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The primary motor cortex
The topographical representations of the different muscle areas of the body in the primary motor cortex
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Characteristics of the PMC:
1, It has predominant influence on the opposite side of the body (except some portions of the face)
2. It is organized in a homunculus pattern with inversed order
3. The degree of representation is proportional to the discreteness (number of motor unit) of movement required of the respective part of the body. (Face and fingers have large representative)
4. Stimulation of a certain part of PMC can cause very specific muscle contractions but not coordinate movement.
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•Projects directly
–to the spinal cord to regulate movement
–Via the Corticospinal Tract
–The pyramidal system
•Projects indirectly
–Via the Brain stem to regulate movement
–extrapyramidal system
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Descending Spinal PathwaysDescending Spinal Pathways pyramidal system
Direct Control muscle tone
and conscious skilled movements
Direct synapse of upper motor neurons of cerebral cortex with lower motor neurons in brainstem or spinal cord
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Descending Spinal PathwaysDescending Spinal Pathwaysextrapyramidal system
Indirect coordination of head &
eye movements coordinated function of
trunk & extremity musculature to maintaining posture and balance
Synapse in some intermediate nucleus rather than directly with lower motor neurons
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• Premotor area composed of supplementary motor area and lateral Premotor area
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Premotor Areas•Receive information from parietal (顶) and prefrontal (前) areas
•Project to primary motor cortex and spinal cord
•For planning and coordination of complex planned movements