Chapter 3: Culture and Chapter 3: Culture and Society: Society:

Hardware and Software of Hardware and Software of Our Social WorldOur Social World

Soc 100 Dr. Santos

Culture and SocietyCulture and Society

►Society as “hardware”Society as “hardware”►Culture as “software”Culture as “software”

The Importance of SoftwareThe Importance of Software

► Culture makes societies unique. Culture is Culture makes societies unique. Culture is the way of life shared by a group of people.the way of life shared by a group of people.

KnowledgeKnowledge BeliefsBeliefs ValuesValues Rules or lawsRules or laws LanguageLanguage CustomsCustoms SymbolsSymbols Material productsMaterial products

► Culture provides a guideline for carrying out Culture provides a guideline for carrying out tasks and giving meaning to human tasks and giving meaning to human activitiesactivities

Society: The HardwareSociety: The Hardware

► Societies are composed of Societies are composed of structuresstructures

Positions we holdPositions we hold Groups we belong toGroups we belong to InstitutionsInstitutions

Society: The HardwareSociety: The Hardware

► Society develops in stages Society develops in stages depending on many thingsdepending on many things

Availability of resources Availability of resources Technological/scientific knowledgeTechnological/scientific knowledge Contact with other societiesContact with other societies Cultural beliefsCultural beliefs Political events and changesPolitical events and changes

Evolution of SocietiesEvolution of Societies► Mechanic societiesMechanic societies

Small, simple, pre-Small, simple, pre-modern societies modern societies

Held together by Held together by common beliefs, common beliefs, values, and values, and emotional tiesemotional ties

Labor is divided by Labor is divided by male/female male/female distinctions and distinctions and age groupings, with age groupings, with little or no status little or no status inequalityinequality

► Organic societiesOrganic societies Large, complex Large, complex

societies societies Held together by the Held together by the

specialization of tasks specialization of tasks Division of labor that Division of labor that

carry significant status carry significant status inequalitiesinequalities

Efficiency is a key valueEfficiency is a key value Institutions and rule-Institutions and rule-

driven bureaucratic driven bureaucratic organizations begin to organizations begin to exist.exist.

Types of SocietiesTypes of Societies► Hunting and Gathering (Band) SocietiesHunting and Gathering (Band) Societies

99% of human history99% of human history Rely on wild vegetation and animals to live (none Rely on wild vegetation and animals to live (none

domesticated); this includes fishing & scavengingdomesticated); this includes fishing & scavenging Organized around kinship --> spousal exchangesOrganized around kinship --> spousal exchanges Nomadic, usually in circular seasonal patternsNomadic, usually in circular seasonal patterns Small (between 20-50 members)Small (between 20-50 members) Gendered division of labor with little status Gendered division of labor with little status

differencedifference Resources shared fairly: sharing is highest valueResources shared fairly: sharing is highest value No rulers or chiefs - statelessNo rulers or chiefs - stateless Actions and behaviors dictated through tradition or Actions and behaviors dictated through tradition or

survival in specific ecological nichessurvival in specific ecological niches Lack material possessions and the desire for themLack material possessions and the desire for them

Types of SocietiesTypes of Societies► Herding and Horticultural SocietiesHerding and Horticultural Societies

Herding (pastoral) societiesHerding (pastoral) societies► produce small herds of domesticated produce small herds of domesticated

animals for food and survivalanimals for food and survival Horticultural societiesHorticultural societies

► maintain small garden plots of maintain small garden plots of domesticated plants for food and domesticated plants for food and survival: nomadic, semi-nomadic, survival: nomadic, semi-nomadic, settled village modessettled village modes

► Combined with gathering, hunting & Combined with gathering, hunting & fishing activities to various degreesfishing activities to various degrees

► Chiefdoms emerged, from temporary Chiefdoms emerged, from temporary to hereditary; from one village to to hereditary; from one village to manymany

Types of SocietiesTypes of Societies

►Herding and Horticultural SocietiesHerding and Horticultural Societies Semi-NomadicSemi-Nomadic Relatively small (50 - 3,000 members) in Relatively small (50 - 3,000 members) in

Old World; became quite large in New WorldOld World; became quite large in New World Status differences become important and Status differences become important and

produce inequalityproduce inequality ““Traditional” gender roles emerge: patriarchy & Traditional” gender roles emerge: patriarchy &

matriarchymatriarchy

Some material possessions are unequally Some material possessions are unequally distributed, as casts/strata emergedistributed, as casts/strata emerge

Types of SocietiesTypes of Societies

► Agricultural SocietiesAgricultural Societies Rely on raising domesticated crops for foodRely on raising domesticated crops for food Use technological advances for increased Use technological advances for increased

efficiency and higher crop yieldsefficiency and higher crop yields► PlowsPlows► IrrigationIrrigation► Use of animalsUse of animals► FertilizationFertilization

Very labor intensive --> peasantization is Very labor intensive --> peasantization is accompanied with the rise of the central accompanied with the rise of the central state & landlord classes, who exploit and state & landlord classes, who exploit and oppress the peasants & dispossess them of oppress the peasants & dispossess them of surplus.surplus.

Types of SocietiesTypes of Societies

► Agricultural Societies Agricultural Societies Permanent settlementsPermanent settlements Use of advanced technologies Use of advanced technologies Populations can be large (1,000,000 or more) Populations can be large (1,000,000 or more) Stratification intensifiesStratification intensifies

► Peasant classesPeasant classes► Ruling classes: kings & dynasties, landlord nobilities, Ruling classes: kings & dynasties, landlord nobilities,

priests priests Institutions beyond the family are establishedInstitutions beyond the family are established

► ReligiousReligious► PoliticalPolitical► Military organizationsMilitary organizations

Types of SocietiesTypes of Societies► Industrial SocietiesIndustrial Societies

Rely on mechanized productionRely on mechanized production Pronounced division of labor Pronounced division of labor Rise in overall standard of livingRise in overall standard of living

► Wide gaps between owners and laborers appear Wide gaps between owners and laborers appear and are the subject of bitter class struggleand are the subject of bitter class struggle

State power and coercive apparatus State power and coercive apparatus become consolidated --> bigger wars & become consolidated --> bigger wars & revolutionsrevolutions

Population concentrates in cities: Population concentrates in cities: urbanization and de-peasantizationurbanization and de-peasantization

Kinship patterns change: women lose statusKinship patterns change: women lose status Social change becomes ever more rapidSocial change becomes ever more rapid

Types of SocietiesTypes of Societies► Postindustrial SocietiesPostindustrial Societies

Technology, or scientific knowledge used for utilitarian Technology, or scientific knowledge used for utilitarian or economic purposes, is very importantor economic purposes, is very important

Majority of labor force in service positionsMajority of labor force in service positions The division of labor more pronounced & globalizedThe division of labor more pronounced & globalized Technical and professional education increasingly Technical and professional education increasingly

importantimportant► Stratification based on technological knowledge and Stratification based on technological knowledge and

education now overlaps wealth & status stratificationeducation now overlaps wealth & status stratification Emphasis on science to solve social problems including:Emphasis on science to solve social problems including:

► Creating alternate energy sourcesCreating alternate energy sources► Finding automated ways of completing tasksFinding automated ways of completing tasks► Using computers and robots to complete tasks Using computers and robots to complete tasks

formerly done by individualsformerly done by individuals Information Revolution: the internet, cable TV, etc.Information Revolution: the internet, cable TV, etc.

Culture: The SoftwareCulture: The Software

► CultureCulture is the way of shared life by a is the way of shared life by a group of people—the knowledge, group of people—the knowledge, beliefs, values, rules or lays, beliefs, values, rules or lays, language, customs, symbols, and language, customs, symbols, and material products within a society material products within a society that help meet human needs & give that help meet human needs & give meaning to human activitiesmeaning to human activities

Real Versus Ideal CultureReal Versus Ideal Culture

► We teach new We teach new members of our members of our society the ideal society the ideal culture, or the culture, or the practices and practices and beliefs that are beliefs that are most desirable & most desirable & avowedavowed

► However, the real However, the real culture of a society culture of a society refers to the way refers to the way things in society things in society are actually done, are actually done, including those including those practices and practices and beliefs that are beliefs that are unavowed or unavowed or deemed deemed undesirableundesirable

Ethnocentrism and Cultural Ethnocentrism and Cultural RelativityRelativity

► EthnocentrismEthnocentrism is is the tendency to the tendency to view one’s own view one’s own group and its group and its cultural values & cultural values & expectations as expectations as right, proper, and right, proper, and superior to others:superior to others:

We’re Number We’re Number One!One!

► Cultural relativismCultural relativism is setting aside is setting aside one’s own one’s own personal beliefs personal beliefs and prejudices to and prejudices to understand and understand and value a culture by value a culture by its own standards, its own standards, or as a member of or as a member of that culture wouldthat culture would

Culture and Our Social World (at Culture and Our Social World (at the National Level)the National Level)

Geoculture of the world-system

Micro-level Analysis: Micro-level Analysis: MicrostructuresMicrostructures

► MicroculturesMicrocultures – organizations that – organizations that influence only a small segment of an influence only a small segment of an individual’s lives or only affects an individual’s lives or only affects an individual’s life for a small period of individual’s life for a small period of timetime

Meso-level Analysis: Meso-level Analysis: Subcultures and Subcultures and CounterculturesCountercultures

► A A subculturesubculture is a social unit smaller than & is a social unit smaller than & embedded in a national state but large enough embedded in a national state but large enough to sustain people throughout the life spanto sustain people throughout the life span

Elements that make them uniqueElements that make them unique Share conventions and expectations of national Share conventions and expectations of national

dominant culturedominant culture Influence people’s lives in pervasive waysInfluence people’s lives in pervasive ways

► Not so “Sub:” May actually exist “repeatedly” Not so “Sub:” May actually exist “repeatedly” in various contiguous or dispersed national in various contiguous or dispersed national states: oppressed nationalities (Kurds), states: oppressed nationalities (Kurds), diasporas (African, Chinese, Jewish) and culture diasporas (African, Chinese, Jewish) and culture regions (Western Hemisphere Indigenous regions (Western Hemisphere Indigenous Peoples)Peoples)

Meso-level Analysis: Meso-level Analysis: Subcultures and Subcultures and CounterculturesCountercultures

► A A counterculturecounterculture is a group or movements with is a group or movements with expectations and values that challenge or expectations and values that challenge or contrast sharply with the dominant values of a contrast sharply with the dominant values of a particular societyparticular society

Values or practices that go against laws and Values or practices that go against laws and regulations of the dominant cultureregulations of the dominant culture

► May wish to replace values of the larger culture May wish to replace values of the larger culture Most often short-lived, but may have lasting impactMost often short-lived, but may have lasting impact Some aspects accepted by the dominant cultureSome aspects accepted by the dominant culture Countercultures can challenge unfair treatment of Countercultures can challenge unfair treatment of

powerless groups in society or various powerless groups in society or various shortcomings in its dominant culture (consumerism, shortcomings in its dominant culture (consumerism, eco-toxic, violent prone or militaristic, shallow & eco-toxic, violent prone or militaristic, shallow & unenchanted, etc.)unenchanted, etc.)

Macro-level Analysis: Macro-level Analysis: National and Global CultureNational and Global Culture

► Natural Culture and SocietyNatural Culture and Society Every culture intricately related to a societyEvery culture intricately related to a society

► Global Society and CultureGlobal Society and Culture GlobalizationGlobalization is the process where the entire is the process where the entire

globe is becoming a “single socio-cultural globe is becoming a “single socio-cultural place” - each world era has its “geoculture”place” - each world era has its “geoculture”

► Globalization or Westernization?Globalization or Westernization? Global cultureGlobal culture is the behavioral standards, is the behavioral standards,

symbols, values, and material objects that symbols, values, and material objects that have become common across the globehave become common across the globe

Material Culture: The Artifacts of Material Culture: The Artifacts of LifeLife

► Material cultureMaterial culture includes all the includes all the objects we can see or touch, all the objects we can see or touch, all the artifacts of a group of peopleartifacts of a group of people

Nonmaterial Culture: Beliefs, Nonmaterial Culture: Beliefs, Values, Rules, and Language Values, Rules, and Language

► Nonmaterial culture is the invisible Nonmaterial culture is the invisible and intangible parts of cultureand intangible parts of culture

BeliefsBeliefs ValuesValues Norms/RulesNorms/Rules LanguageLanguage

Nonmaterial Culture: BeliefsNonmaterial Culture: Beliefs

► BeliefsBeliefs are ideas we hold about life, are ideas we hold about life, about the way the society works, and about the way the society works, and about where we fit into itabout where we fit into it

Based in tradition Based in tradition Influence choices we makeInfluence choices we make

Nonmaterial Culture: ValuesNonmaterial Culture: Values

► ValuesValues are nonmaterial shared are nonmaterial shared judgments about what is desirable or judgments about what is desirable or undesirable, right or wrong, good or undesirable, right or wrong, good or badbad

So much a part of the way of life that So much a part of the way of life that they can be hard to identifythey can be hard to identify

Groups in society can have different Groups in society can have different valuesvalues

► can lead to group conflictcan lead to group conflict

Nonmaterial Culture: RulesNonmaterial Culture: Rules

► Norms are rules of behavior shared Norms are rules of behavior shared by members of a society and rooted by members of a society and rooted in the value systemin the value system

FolkwaysFolkways MoresMores TaboosTaboos LawsLaws

Non-material Culture: Non-material Culture: SanctionsSanctions

► Sanctions are behaviors that Sanctions are behaviors that reinforce norms through rewards and reinforce norms through rewards and penaltiespenalties

Formal sanctionsFormal sanctions► Positive formal sanctionsPositive formal sanctions► Negative formal sanctionsNegative formal sanctions

Informal sanctionsInformal sanctions► Positive informal sanctionsPositive informal sanctions► Negative informal sanctionsNegative informal sanctions

Nonmaterial Culture: Nonmaterial Culture: LanguageLanguage

► LanguageLanguage is the spoken, written, or is the spoken, written, or nonverbal use of symbols to convey nonverbal use of symbols to convey meaning, objects, or ideasmeaning, objects, or ideas

Takes three forms:Takes three forms:► SpokenSpoken► WrittenWritten► NonverbalNonverbal

The foundation of every cultureThe foundation of every culture Makes culture possibleMakes culture possible

Nonmaterial Culture: Nonmaterial Culture: LanguageLanguage

► Spoken languageSpoken language Uses a set of sounds to symbolize objects or ideasUses a set of sounds to symbolize objects or ideas Sounds generally hold common meaning to all Sounds generally hold common meaning to all

members of a culturemembers of a culture► Written languageWritten language

Uses a set of images to symbolize objects or Uses a set of images to symbolize objects or ideasideas

Societies tend to store information through Societies tend to store information through written languagewritten language

Makes communication over distances possibleMakes communication over distances possible► Nonverbal languageNonverbal language

Uses gestures, facial expression, and body Uses gestures, facial expression, and body posture to symbolize an object or ideaposture to symbolize an object or idea

Nonmaterial Culture: Nonmaterial Culture: LanguageLanguage

► The The linguistic relativity theorylinguistic relativity theory posits posits that people who speak a specific that people who speak a specific language make interpretations of language make interpretations of their reality based on their their reality based on their knowledge of that languageknowledge of that language

Understanding Culture:Understanding Culture:Symbolic Interaction TheorySymbolic Interaction Theory

► How we learn to share meanings of How we learn to share meanings of symbolssymbols

► Symbols are the basic element of all Symbols are the basic element of all culturescultures

► ““Humanness” comes from the impact we Humanness” comes from the impact we have upon each other through shared have upon each other through shared understandings of symbolsunderstandings of symbols

► We learn meanings of symbols through We learn meanings of symbols through interaction with othersinteraction with others

► We define how we should act through our We define how we should act through our definition of situationsdefinition of situations and symbols and symbols

Understanding Culture:Understanding Culture:Symbolic Interaction TheorySymbolic Interaction Theory

►Three steps through symbols gain Three steps through symbols gain meaning and importancemeaning and importance The symbol is createdThe symbol is created The symbol is objectified, assuming a The symbol is objectified, assuming a

reality independent of the creatorreality independent of the creator The group internalizes the symbolThe group internalizes the symbol

Understanding Culture:Understanding Culture:Structural FunctionalismStructural Functionalism

► Looks for the functions or purposes Looks for the functions or purposes behind the actions and practices of a behind the actions and practices of a cultureculture

► Shared norms, values, and beliefs Shared norms, values, and beliefs serve the function of holding a society serve the function of holding a society or a subculture togetheror a subculture together

► However sometimes shared norms, However sometimes shared norms, values, and beliefs are dysfunctional values, and beliefs are dysfunctional for individuals or groups of individuals for individuals or groups of individuals within a societywithin a society

Understanding Culture:Understanding Culture:Conflict TheoryConflict Theory

► Societies are composed of groups; each of which Societies are composed of groups; each of which protects its own self-interests and struggles to protects its own self-interests and struggles to make its own cultural ways dominant in the make its own cultural ways dominant in the societysociety

► Dominant groups may impose their cultural Dominant groups may impose their cultural beliefs on minorities and other subcultural groupsbeliefs on minorities and other subcultural groups

This practice can create conflictThis practice can create conflict► People with privilege and power in society People with privilege and power in society

manipulate agents of socialization so people learn manipulate agents of socialization so people learn the values, beliefs, and norms of the privileged the values, beliefs, and norms of the privileged group(s)group(s)

► However, conflict theory does not explain stable However, conflict theory does not explain stable societiessocieties

Policy and Cultural ChangePolicy and Cultural Change

Technology is bringing change to Technology is bringing change to societies around the worldsocieties around the world

Cultural lagCultural lag occurs when shifts in occurs when shifts in society occur unequally between society occur unequally between material culture and nonmaterial culturematerial culture and nonmaterial culture

New technologies must be used New technologies must be used cautiouslycautiously

► Some can save lives Some can save lives ► Others can disrupt and destroy culturesOthers can disrupt and destroy cultures