chapter 27: the cold war era, 1945-1954...cold war reading strategy sequencing informationas you...

CHAPTER XX Chapter Title784

Why It Matters

TurningPoints1945–1975

American soldier inVietnam, 1966

The Problem We All Live Withby Norman Rockwell

As you study Unit 10, you will learnabout the changes that came after

World War II. Out of the war came a new sense of global responsibility as

the United States made every effort toprotect Western democracy. Many

Americans pressed for social reformand equal rights. In addition, the use

of new technology changed the way Americans lived and worked.

Primary Sources LibrarySee pages 976–977 for primary source

readings to accompany Unit 10. Use the American history

Primary Source Document LibraryCD-ROM to find additional primary

sources about the Cold War, the civilrights movement, and the Vietnam era.

“I had beenpushed as far as I could stand.”

—Rosa Parks, 1955

786

The ColdWar Era

1945–1954Why It Matters

After the end of World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union entered into abitter rivalry. Each side tried to gain allies and prove that its system—democracy and

free enterprise or communism—was better.

The Impact TodayThe rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union shaped much of the modern

world. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 marked the end of the Cold War era.

The American Journey Video The chapter 27 video, “The Wall and theBerlin Airlift,” details the Berlin blockade and the effects of the Berlin airlift.

1945• Conference at Yalta;

United Nations formed

1946• Churchill’s “Iron Curtain”

speech marks beginningof Cold War

1948• Soviets blockade

West Berlin

• State of Israel formed

Truman1945–1953

1948• Marshall Plan

enacted

CHAPTER 27 The Cold War Era

1944 1946 1948

1947• Truman Doctrine

proposed

787

1949• NATO pact signed

1954• Senator Joseph

McCarthy censured

1949• Communist victory in

China under Mao Zedong

1950• North Korea invades

South Korea

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit taj.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 27—Chapter Overviews to pre-view chapter information.


1950 19541952

Eisenhower1953–1961

1950• General MacArthur

leads troops intoKorea

1953• Korean War ends

Conflict in Korea United Nations troops fight in the streets of Seoul, SouthKorea, September 1950.

Step 1 Fold a sheet of paper from side to side,leaving a 2-inch tab uncovered along the side.

Step 2 Turn the paper and fold it in half.

Step 3 Unfold and cut along the inside fold line.

Step 4 Label the foldable as shown.

Fold it so theleft edge lies2 inches fromthe right edge.

Cut along thefold on the front

flap to make2 tabs.

Compare-Contrast Study Foldable Organizeand compare information about the rivalry thatshaped the Cold War era by making and usingthis foldable.

Reading and Writing As you read about thisperiod of time, write what you learn about dem-ocracy and communism under the tabs of your foldable. Compare the two sides and use whatyou learn to explain how the Cold War started.

The Cold WarDemocracy Communism

http://www.glencoe.com/sec/socialstudies/ushistory/taj2003/content.php4/288/1

May 1948Jewish leaders proclaimnew state of Israel

June 1948Soviets blockade West Berlin

October 1949Mao Zedong formsCommunist China

Main IdeaThe United States struggled to preventthe spread of communism.

Key Termsiron curtain, containment, airlift, cold war

Reading StrategySequencing Information As youread the section, re-create the timeline below and list important events inthe Cold War.

Read to Learn• how the United States attempted to

stop the spread of communism.• how foreign policy changed as a

result of the Cold War.

Section ThemeGlobal Connections Soviet expan-sion led to a cold war between theforces of democracy and communism.

Cold War Origins

The three most powerful men in the world met in Yalta to discuss the fate of thepostwar world. President Roosevelt hoped to promote his vision of postwar coopera-tion. Prime Minister Churchill spoke elegantly and forcefully. Soviet leader Stalinremained stubbornly opposed to much of what was proposed. Stalin stated to hisaides, “They want to force us to accept their plans on Europe and the world. Well,that’s not going to happen.” As the Allies discovered, Stalin had his own plans.

Wartime DiplomacyWhile fighting a common enemy during World War II, Western democracies

and Soviet leaders had set aside their differences. As the Allies moved towardvictory in 1945, questions about the organization of the postwar world arose.Soviet forces had pushed back German armies and occupied much of Easternand Central Europe. Should these areas—including Poland, Hungary, andCzechoslovakia—remain in Soviet hands?

788 CHAPTER 27 The Cold War Era

June1945

June1947

June1948

May1949

April 1945Harry S Trumansucceeds FDR

The Big Three at Yalta

February 1945Conference atYalta is held

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦ 1945 ✦ 1947 ✦ 1949

789CHAPTER 27 The Cold War Era

In February 1945, the “Big Three” Allied lead-ers—Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill,and Joseph Stalin—met at Yalta, a Soviet port onthe Black Sea. They came to discuss issues affect-ing the postwar world. Out of this meeting camethe Yalta agreement, in which the Soviet Unionagreed to enter the war against Japan. In return,the Soviets received some territories in Asia.

Reaching an agreement on postwar arrange-ments proved more difficult. Roosevelt andChurchill feared the Soviet domination of East-ern Europe and the spread of communism.Stalin, on the other hand, wanted to keep a large

area of land between the Soviet Union and itspotential enemies in the West. Germany pre-sented a special problem. The Allies finallyagreed to divide Germany into four zones untilelections could be held to determine its future.The Soviet Union, the United States, Britain, andFrance would each control a zone.

Stalin agreed to allow free elections in occu-pied Eastern Europe and to cooperate in planningfor the new international organization proposedby the United States and Britain. Roosevelt andChurchill felt encouraged about a peaceful post-war world. Their hopes went unfulfilled.

0°10°W

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50°N

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500 kilometers0Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

500 miles0

N

SE

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Atlantic

Ocean

NorthSea

BalticSea

BlackSea

AegeanSea

Adriatic

Sea

Mediterranean Sea

IRELANDUNITED

KINGDOM

FRANCE

SPAINPORTUGAL

ITALY

SWITZ.

SAARLUX.

BELG.

NETH.

WESTGERMANY

YUGOSLAVIA

ALBANIA

HUNGARYAUSTRIA

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

POLAND

DENMARK

SWEDEN

NORWAY

SOVIETUNION

ROMANIA

BULGARIA

GREECETURKEY

EASTGERMANY

ANDORRA

FINLAND

Berlin

Vienna

1. Place What nations of Europe remained neutral?2. Region Were most of the nations of Eastern Europe NATO

members or under Communist control?

Communist control

Divided nation

NATO member

Neutral nation

Jointly-occupied city

Europe After World War II

The United NationsPresident Roosevelt died suddenly on April

12, 1945. Vice President Harry S Truman suc-ceeded him. Facing the enormous responsibili-ties of the presidency, Truman told reporters,“When they told me yesterday [of Roosevelt’sdeath], I felt like the moon, the stars, and all theplanets had fallen on me.”

One of Truman’s first decisions as presidentwas to go ahead with the meeting to form thenew international organization discussed atYalta. On June 26, in San Francisco, California,50 nations—including the Soviet Union—signedthe charter creating the United Nations (UN).The members hoped the UN could settle dis-putes between nations and prevent future wars.

Describing How did the Alliesagree to divide Germany?

Geography

Soviet Expansion in EuropeThe uneasy wartime alliance between the

Western nations and the Soviet Union did notlast. Stalin did not keep his promise to hold freeelections in Eastern Europe. Instead the Sovietsset up Communist governments in these coun-tries, and Soviet forces remained in the region.

Developments in Eastern Europe led to agrowing distrust between the Soviet Union andWestern nations. Europe split into two camps—the Soviet-controlled Communist governments of the East and the capitalist democracies.

The Iron CurtainWinston Churchill believed that the division

between East and West was permanent. In 1946he declared in a speech in Fulton, Missouri, thatan “iron curtain” had descended on Europe.Churchill meant that the Soviets had cut offEastern Europe from the West. Behind this ironcurtain, he said, lay the countries of EasternEurope “in what I must call the Soviet sphere,and all are subject to a very high . . . measure ofcontrol from Moscow.”

Churchill warned that the Soviets wouldeventually look beyond Eastern Europe and tryto gain control of other parts of the world. Thisidea alarmed Americans, who had feared thespread of communism ever since the RussianRevolution in 1917.

Civil war raged in Greece, as Communistrebels armed by the Soviet Union attempted tooverthrow the Greek king and his pro-Westerngovernment. At the same time, the Soviets putenormous pressure on Turkey to give themnaval bases on the straits leading to theMediterranean Sea.


A

B C

B Joseph StalinA Secretary of State Byrnes C Soviet Minister Molotov

The iron curtain represented a barrier tothe free exchange of ideas between coun-tries under Soviet control and the rest ofthe world. The iron curtain often appearedin cartoons about the Cold War. Whatdoes the cartoon say about the atti-tude of Secretary of State Byrnestoward the Soviet leaders?

Analyzing Political Cartoons


Containing the SovietsSeeking ways to counter Soviet expansion,

President Truman drew from the ideas of GeorgeF. Kennan, an American diplomat and an experton Soviet history and culture. Kennan argued thatthe United States and the Soviet Union could notcooperate and that the United States must takeforceful steps to stop Soviet expansion. His ideasled to the policy of containment. The UnitedStates would try to “contain” Soviet expansionthrough limited military means and nonmilitarymeans in areas of the world that were of strategicimportance to the United States. Kennan definedthese areas narrowly—mostly Western Europeand Japan. But other U.S. officials graduallyexpanded their view of what was of strategicimportance to the country and its future.

The Truman DoctrineThe policy of containment soon went into

effect. Speaking to Congress in March 1947, thepresident proposed a policy that became knownas the Truman Doctrine, a commitment to helpnations threatened by communism and Sovietexpansion.

“I believe that it must be the policy of theUnited States to support free peoples who areresisting attempted subjugation [conquest] byarmed minorities or by outside pressures.”

Congress voted to give military and economicassistance to Greece and Turkey to hold back theSoviet threat.

The Marshall PlanAt the end of World War II, much of Europe

lay in ruins. Bombing had destroyed countlesshouses, factories, bridges, and roads. Many peo-ple lacked homes and jobs, and they often didnot have enough food. Their war-ravaged soci-eties provided fertile ground for communism,with its promises of housing and employmentfor all.

George Marshall, the U.S. secretary of state,saw Western Europe as strategically importantto the United States. He believed that the bestway to keep the countries of Western Europefree of communism would be to help restore

their economies. In June 1947, Marshall pro-posed a plan to provide massive economic aid toEurope. At first his plan met some resistance inCongress. After Soviet-supported Communiststook over the government of Czechoslovakiain February 1948, however, this resistance disappeared.

Congress approved the Marshall Plan, a pro-gram of economic aid for Europe that became avital part of the policy of containment. Between1948 and 1951, the Marshall Plan contributednearly $13 billion to the rebuilding of the coun-tries of Western Europe. As Marshall had pre-dicted, no Western government in the region fellto a communist revolution.

Explaining How was the MarshallPlan supposed to check communist expansion?

Crisis in BerlinThe Allied leaders at Yalta had divided Ger-

many into four occupation zones. The SovietUnion controlled the eastern part of the country,while the United States, Britain, and Francedivided the western part. The German capital of Berlin, located deep within Soviet-controlled East Germany, was also dividedamong the four nations.

President Truman believed that a reunitedGermany was essential to the future of Europe.Stalin, on the other hand, feared that a reunitedGermany would once again pose a threat to theSoviet Union. He sought to maintain Sovietinfluence in a divided Germany. Tensions overthe German issue led to a serious crisis in 1948.

The Berlin BlockadeOn June 7, 1948, the United States, Britain,

and France announced that they were unitingtheir zones to form a new West German repub-lic. Each nation’s section of Berlin would beincluded in this republic as well, even though the city lay within Soviet-held East Germany.

The Berlin blockade was Stalin’s answer to theWest’s plans for West Germany. On June 24, 1948,Soviet troops rushed into position around theedge of West Berlin. Almost overnight they cre-ated a blockade, stopping traffic on all highway,

nations—the Federal Republic of Germany, orWest Germany, and the German DemocraticRepublic, or East Germany—became official.

Analyzing How did the Soviet Unionrespond to plans to form a new West German republic?

Two Armed CampsThe crisis in Berlin confirmed that the United

States and the Soviet Union were locked in acold war—a war in which the two enemies didnot actually fight each other. Instead each nationbegan building up its military forces and armsto intimidate the other. European nations beganto take sides in this mounting cold war.

The United States and the countries of West-ern Europe agreed that the best way to containthe Soviets was through mutual defense. In


Berlin AirliftIn June 1948, the Soviet Union halted all traffic by land

or water into or out of Western-controlled Berlin. AlliedPowers began supplying the city’s 2.5 million residents withthe necessities of life—by air. Night and day for more than10 months, British and United States cargo planescarried food, medicine, clothing, raw materials,and even coal to Berlin. World opinion turnedagainst the Soviet Union and its tactics of starvinginnocent people to achieve its goals. Berlin becamea symbol of America’s fight against communism.

The effort—some 278,000 flights delivering 2 million tons of supplies—melted the hatredbetween former American and German enemies. InMay 1949, the Soviet Union finally lifted its blockade.

A West Berlin taxi driver explained how the airlift boosted the morale

of the people of Berlin.“There. You hear? There is another plane.

And there’s another. Our faith doesn’t comefrom our hearts or our brain anymore.

It comes through the ears.”

railroad, and water routes through East Germany to West Berlin. As a result, WestBerlin and its two million citizens were cut off from vital supplies. The Soviets hoped thisblockade would drive the West out of Berlin.

The Berlin AirliftPresident Truman refused to give in to the

Soviets. “We stay in Berlin, period,” he declared,but he did not want to risk war by using militaryforce to end the blockade. Instead he organizeda massive airlift to save the city. American andBritish cargo planes began flying food, fuel, andother supplies into West Berlin.

The Berlin airlift continued day and night formore than 10 months, delivering tons of suppliesto West Berlin. Realizing that the Western powersintended to stay in the city, Stalin ended the Berlinblockade in May 1949. Despite the success of theairlift, Berlin and Germany remained divided. In October 1949, the division of Germany into two


April 1949, the United States, Canada, and 10Western European nations signed a pact estab-lishing the North Atlantic Treaty Organization(NATO). The agreement stated that “an armedattack against one or more of [the membernations] shall be considered an attack againstall.” To defend against a possible Soviet inva-sion of Western Europe, the NATO countriescreated a large military force.

In response to NATO, the Soviet Union cre-ated an alliance of its own with the Communistgovernments of Eastern Europe. The alliance,established in 1955 by mutual defense treatiesknown as the Warsaw Pact, had a military forcethat the Soviet Union controlled. The formationof NATO and the Warsaw Pact divided Europeinto two armed camps.

The United States RearmsAfter World War II, some of President Truman’s

foreign policy advisers in the National SecurityCouncil (NSC) argued that America could not relyon other nations to contain the Soviets and resistthe spread of communism. Unlike George Kennanand the supporters of the containment policy, theNSC advisers believed the United States neededto take a more active stand against communismeverywhere—not just in strategic locations.

In 1950 the NSC released a report, known asNSC-68, which said that the United States mustactively

“foster the seeds of destruction within theSoviet Union”

and fight communist movements wherever theyarose. The United States committed itself tocombating communist expansion everywhere inthe world.

5 kilometers0Albers Conic Equal-Area projection

5 miles0

N

S

EW

Spree R.

EASTGERMANY

Gatow Tempelhof

Tegel

EastBerlinWest

Berlin

Berlin Wall

Soviet leader Joseph Stalin closed all roads and railwaysinto the Western sections of Berlin, cutting off supplies offood and fuel. All flights were streamed along one of three20-mile wide air corridors.

Airports

American sector

British sector

French sector

Soviet sector

Berlin: A Divided City

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Write a paragraph in

which you use each of the followingterms correctly: iron curtain, con-tainment, airlift, cold war.

2. Reviewing Facts Did the Berlinblockade force the Western powersto leave the city? Explain.

Reviewing Themes3. Global Connections What was the

purpose of the Truman Doctrine?

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information Explain why

the United States’s actions during theBerlin blockade were considered partof a “cold war.”

5. Determining Cause and EffectRe-create the diagram below andexplain how the Marshall Plan helpedto contain the spread of communism.

Analyzing Visuals6. Geography Skills Examine the map

of Europe on page 789. Was Spain aneutral nation? Was Turkey a NATOmember?

Independence MovementsAs the Cold War grew more bitter in Europe,

nations in other parts of the world were under-going dramatic changes. Many states broke freeof colonial rule and established independence.

The Philippines gained independence fromthe United States in 1946. For years afterwardFilipinos struggled with terrible poverty, gov-ernment corruption, and civil war. In the late1940s, Asian countries such as India, Pakistan,and Burma broke away from the British Empireto form new nations. During the 1950s and theearly 1960s, more than 25 African nations gainedindependence from European colonial powers.The path to independence in Africa was oftenbloody. Once free, the new nations faced theenormous task of building modern societies.

In the Middle East, Jews and Arabs bothclaimed the region of Palestine, an area the

British had controlled. In 1947 the United Nationsproposed dividing Palestine into independentJewish and Arab states with Jerusalem as aninternational city. The Jews accepted the plan, butthe Arab states did not. After declaring its inde-pendence, the new Jewish state of Israel wasattacked by Arab armies in the first of six majorwars between the Arabs and Israel.

Communism in ChinaPerhaps the most threatening change of the

postwar period occurred in China, the largestcountry in Asia. In 1949 a long civil war endedwith the victory of Chinese Communist forcesled by Mao Zedong (MAU ZUH•DUNG) overthe armies commanded by Chiang Kai-shek(JEE•AHNG KY•SHEHK), the head of the Chi-nese government. Mao Zedong formed a newCommunist state, the People’s Republic ofChina, while Chiang Kai-shek retreated with hisforces to the island of Taiwan off the southeast-ern coast of China. The United States recognizedthe government in Taiwan as the legitimate gov-ernment of all China.

With Communists in control of mainlandChina, the Soviet Union had a powerful ally inAsia. It appeared to many people that the entirecontinent of Asia was in danger of converting to communism.

Identifying What new nation wasformed in the Middle East in the 1940s?


Geography Compare a map ofAfrica after World War II to a mapof Africa today. Photocopy or drawa modern map and indicate fivecountries that have changed theirnames or boundaries.

Germany is reunified On October 3, 1990, the two parts of Germany finally reunited, and Berlin—rejoined asone city—again became the nation’s official capital. TheGerman government’s move to Berlin from the WestGerman capital of Bonn is scheduled to be completed in the year 2003.

Germany

Marshall Plan

CHAPTER XX Chapter Title 795

Why Learn This Skill?Have you heard someone say, “You can’t judge him

on face value”? It means that people, things you see,or things you read might not be as they appear to be.There might be a double or hidden meaning to what you see or hear.

Learning the SkillInferences are ideas that are not directly stated.

Making Inferences involves reading between thelines to interpret what you are seeing. You call uponsome previous knowledge or just use common sense.

Practicing the SkillFirst published at the beginning of the Cold War,

Animal Farm by George Orwell tells the story of a farm taken over by its overworked, mistreated animals. The fable exposes the negative effects thattotalitarian government can have on society. Readthis passage from George Orwell’s novel AnimalFarm. Then answer the questions that follow.

Squealer tries to persuade the animals thatNapoleon is a good leader, saying, “Do notimagine, comrades, that leadership is a pleas-ure! On the contrary, it is a deep and heavyresponsibility. No one believes more firmlythan Comrade Napoleon that all animals areequal. He would be only too happy to let youmake your decisions for yourselves. Butsometimes you might make the wrong deci-sions, comrades, and then where should webe? Suppose you had decided to follow Snowball . . . ?”

“He fought bravely at the Battle of the Cowshed,” said somebody.

“Bravery is not enough,” said Squealer. “Loyalty and obedience are more important . . .”

1 Does Squealer represent the leaders or the common animals?

2 Why does he say that leadership is a “deep andheavy responsibility?”

3 Squealer says that all animals are equal. Does hereally believe this? Explain.

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

Making Inferences

On one level, George Orwell’s AnimalFarm describes the price we pay whenwe do not safeguard our freedoms.

Applying the SkillMaking Inferences Choose a poem, or a quotefound in a newspaper, that you think has morethan one meaning. Share your selection with aclassmate to see if they infer a hidden meaning.

Glencoe’s Skillbuilder InteractiveWorkbook CD-ROM, Level 1, providesinstruction and practice in key social studies skills.

796

1944Congress approves the GI Bill of Rights

1946Miners and railroadworkers strike

1947Taft-Hartley Actlimits unions

1948Truman wins thepresidency


When soldiers returned home after World War II, they came back to a nation facingthe difficult task of changing from wartime to peacetime. Would the economy collapseagain and another depression sweep the country? President Truman was optimistic:“We are having our little troubles now. Just a blow-up after a little let-down from war.”Public concern, however, forced the nation’s political leaders into a heated debate overthe best way to deal with America’s economic problems.

Economics

The Postwar EconomyAfter World War II, the nation and its economy had to adjust to peacetime

life. Industries had to shift from producing war materials to making consumergoods. Defense workers had to be retrained to work in consumer industries,and returning soldiers needed jobs.

During the war, government price controls had kept the cost of consumergoods such as food and clothing quite stable. When the government removedthese controls, prices began to surge. This rise in prices, or inflation, also resultedfrom a huge increase in consumer demand and spending. During the war years,

$

Main IdeaThe Truman administration pushedfor economic and social reform.

Key Termsinflation, closed shop

Reading StrategyOrganizing Information As you readthe section, re-create the diagrambelow and identify three measuresthat were part of Truman’s Fair Deal.

Read to Learn• what economic problems Ameri-

cans faced after World War II.• what actions President Truman and

Congress proposed to deal with thenation’s problems.

Section ThemeEconomic Factors Americans tried toadjust to a peacetime economy afterWorld War II.

Postwar Politics

Harry S Truman

The Fair Deal

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦ 1944 ✦ 1948✦ 1946


Americans had saved their money because manyconsumer goods were unavailable or rationed.Now they were eager to spend this money onnew consumer products and services.

Workers Seek Higher WagesAs a result of inflation, consumer prices rose at

a much faster rate than wages. During the war,workers had accepted government controls onwages and agreed not to strike. Now they wouldno longer be put off. When employers refused toraise wages, labor unions called for strikes. In1945 and 1946, millions of steelworkers, railroadworkers, and others walked off their jobs,demanding higher wages and better conditions.

Labor unrest and strikes disrupted the nation’seconomy. When miners went on strike in 1946,many Americans feared that dwindling coal sup-plies would cause the economy to grind to a halt.At about the same time, a strike by railroadworkers caused a total shutdown of the nation’srailroads, which were vital to the economy.

Truman Takes ActionAlarmed by the labor unrest, President Tru-

man pressured the striking miners and railroadworkers to go back to their jobs. In May 1946, he threatened to draft them into the army if theydid not return to work. The president insisted hehad the right to take such steps to keep vitalindustries operating.

President Truman finally forced striking min-ers back on the job by having the governmenttake over the mines. At the same time, however,he persuaded the mine owners to grant many ofthe workers’ demands. Truman also pressuredrailroad workers to return to work.

Describing What happened to theprice of consumer goods when demand grew after the war?

Truman Faces the RepublicansIn September 1945, President Truman, a

Democrat, presented Congress with a plan ofdomestic reforms aimed at solving some of thenation’s economic problems. Truman latercalled this program the Fair Deal.

Truman proposed to raise the minimum wage,expand Social Security benefits, increase federalspending to create jobs, build new public hous-ing, and create a system of national health insur-ance. However, because of opposition by acoalition of Republicans and Southern Demo-crats, these measures failed to pass in Congress.

Republicans Control CongressMany Americans blamed Truman and the

Democratic Party for the nation’s economicproblems. In the congressional elections of 1946,the slogan “Had Enough?” helped Republicanswin control of both houses of Congress.

The new Republican Congress moved quicklyto create its own plans for the nation. Havingrejected Truman’s program for reform, theRepublicans now set up proposals to enact aprogram that would limit government spend-ing, control labor unions, reduce governmentregulation of the economy, and reverse policiesadopted in the 1930s under FDR’s New Deal.

For many Republicans in Congress, the mostimportant problem facing the nation was laborunrest and the growing power of labor unions.Conservative Republicans favored big business

797

President Truman and Congress were often at odds over the Fair Deal. What is the car-toonist saying about Truman’s power?


and wanted to limit the power of unions. In the spring of 1947, Congress introduced theTaft-Hartley bill. This bill limited the actionsworkers could take against their employers. Itoutlawed the closed shop, a workplace thathires only union members. It also allowed thegovernment to temporarily stop any strike thatendangered public health or safety. This provi-sion aimed to prevent any future strikes likethose of the miners and the railroad workers theyear before. Union members and their leaderssharply criticized the Taft-Hartley Act, calling ita “slave labor bill.” Although President Trumanopposed recent strikes, he also knew that theDemocrats needed the support of labor. Trumanvetoed the act, but the Republican-controlledCongress overrode his veto.

Government ReorganizationOne issue on which Truman and Congress

agreed was the need to improve the adminis-tration of the federal government, which had

greatly expanded since the New Deal. In 1947Truman appointed a commission headed byformer President Herbert Hoover to studyways of improving the efficiency of govern-ment. Out of the Hoover Commission’s workcame plans to create new government depart-ments and agencies.

In 1947 Congress passed the National Secu-rity Act. It unified the army, navy, marines, andair force under the Department of Defense. Asecretary of defense headed the new depart-ment. The act also set up a permanent JointChiefs of Staff, made up of the heads of each ofthe armed forces to coordinate military policy.A National Security Council, operating out ofthe White House, would advise the presidenton foreign and military matters.

The National Security Act also set up anotherinstitution, the Central Intelligence Agency(CIA). The CIA aids American foreign policy by collecting information about what is going onin other countries, evaluating it, and passing it


By making it possible for millions of GI’s to go to college,the GI Bill changed U.S. higher education forever. Universityeducation was now open to people from every income level.

The GI Bill

In 1944 Congress passed the Servicemen’sReadjustment Act, better known as the GI

Bill of Rights. GI stands for governmentissue. This law provided billions of dollarsin loans to help returning GI’s—soldiers,sailors, and marines—attend college,receive special training, set up businesses,or buy homes. It also provided unemploy-ment and health benefits for the GI’s asthey looked for jobs.


on to the president and other foreign-policydecision makers. The CIA uses its own secretagents, paid informers, and friendly govern-ments to collect such information.

Many Americans feared that the CIA wouldbe used to spy on American citizens. Truman,however, promised that the new agency wouldoperate only in foreign lands and would notbring “police state methods” into Americansociety. The CIA was so successful that in 1949Congress gave that agency the right to receive,exchange, and spend money without givingaccount to Congress.

The Election of 1948As the 1948 presidential election approached,

Truman appeared to be the underdog. Continu-ing economic problems made the presidentunpopular with many Americans, and his lackof success in winning passage of domesticreforms made Truman’s administration lookweak and ineffective.

Divisions within the Democratic Party alsoincreased the chances of an easy Republican vic-tory. At the party’s national convention, a groupof Southern Democrats walked out to protestTruman’s support for civil rights legislation. TheSouthern Democrats formed the States’ RightsDemocratic Party, or Dixiecrats, and nominatedGovernor Strom Thurmond of South Carolinafor president. At the same time, some liberalmembers of the Democratic Party left to formthe Progressive Party, with Henry Wallace astheir nominee for president. Wallace opposedTruman’s foreign policy and called for closer tiesbetween the United States and the Soviet Union.

Dewey Leads PollsWith the Democrats badly divided, it looked

as though Governor Thomas Dewey of NewYork, the Republican nominee, would surelywin the election. Opinion polls showed Deweywith a huge lead. One pollster remarked: “Mr.Dewey is still so clearly ahead that we might justas well get ready to listen to his inaugural.”

Landmark Legislation With roughly 8 million citizens in uniform in 1945and 22 million involved in war production, the GIBill helped guide a wartime economy smoothlyback into a peacetime economy.

“More than 2,250,000 American veterans of WWIIreceived at least part of their college education as aresult of legislation known as the GI Bill.” –Michael D. Haydock, historian

799


President Truman displays a newspaper headlinethat incorrectly declared Thomas E. Dewey as the winner of the 1948 presidential race.

The Election of 1948

WASH.8

OREG.6

CALIF.25

NEV.3

IDAHO4

MONT.4

WYO.3

UTAH4

ARIZ.4 N. MEX.

4

COLO.6

N. DAK.4

S. DAK.4

NEBR.6

KANS.8

OKLA.10

TEXAS23

MINN.11

WIS.12

IOWA10

MO.15

ARK.9

LA.10

MISS.9

ALA.11

FLA.8

GA.12

S.C.8

N.C.14TENN.

VA.11KY. 11

ILL.28

IND.13

MICH.19

OHIO25 W.

VA.8

PA.35

N.Y.47

N.J. 16

ME.5VT.

3

N.H.4

MASS. 16

R.I. 4CONN. 8

DEL. 3

MD.8

111

1. Region From which region did Thurmond receive support?2. Analyzing Information By how many electoral votes

did Truman win over Dewey?

CandidateElectoral

VotePopular

VotePolitical

Party

303 Democrat

39

189 Republican

24,105, 8 1 2

21,970,065

1, 1 6 9 ,021

Truman

Dewey

Thurmond States' Rights

Truman campaigned aggressively. Travelingmore than 30,000 miles (48,000 km) by train on a “whistle-stop” tour of the country, he gavesome 250 speeches along the way. In town aftertown, he sharply attacked what he called “that do-nothing, good-for-nothing, worst Congress”for rejecting his Fair Deal legislation.

Truman Stages an UpsetOn Election Day experts still expected Dewey

to win. Expectations for a Republican victorywere so great that on the evening of the elec-tion—before many votes were counted—theChicago Daily Tribune newspaper issued a specialedition announcing “Dewey Defeats Truman.”

The nation was in for a great surprise. Whenall the ballots were counted, Truman had edgedout Dewey by more than two million votes in anarrow upset victory. Democrats also regainedcontrol of both the House of Representativesand the Senate in the election.

Analyzing Why was the outcome ofthe 1948 presidential election a surprise?

A Fair Deal for AmericansTruman took the election results as a sign that

Americans wanted reform. He quickly reintro-duced the Fair Deal legislation he had presented to Congress in 1945. Some of thesereform measures passed, but his plan lackedbroad support, and Congress defeated most ofthe measures. Congress did pass laws to raisethe minimum wage, expand Social Security ben-efits for senior citizens, and provide funds forhousing for low-income families.

CitizenshipA Stand on Civil Rights

In a message to Congress in 1948, PresidentTruman declared:

“We shall not, however, finally achieve theideals for which this nation was founded so longas any American suffers discrimination as aresult of his race, or religion, or color, or theland of origin of his forefathers.”

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Use the terms inflation

and closed shop in sentences thatwill help explain their meaning.

2. Reviewing Facts What actions didPresident Truman take in order toadvance the civil rights of AfricanAmericans?

Reviewing Themes3. Economic Factors What factors

caused inflation of prices after World War II?

Critical Thinking4. Determining Cause and Effect How

did the Taft-Hartley Act affect busi-ness and unions?

5. Organizing Information Completea diagram like the one shown bydescribing the adjustments made inthe United States to convert from awartime to a peacetime economy.

Analyzing Visuals6. Geography Skills Examine the elec-

tion map on page 800. Was the totalnumber of votes cast for Dewey andThurmond greater than Truman’stotal?

CHAPTER 27 The Cold War Era 801

Economics At a library, view copiesof newspapers published five yearsago. Compare the prices of threeitems advertised at that time to thesame items today. Calculate the percent of increase (or decrease) in price for each of the products.

Peace-time

Although Truman championed ending suchdiscrimination, he was unable to persuade Congress to pass legislation that would protectthe voting rights of African Americans, abolishthe poll tax, and make lynching a federal crime.Still, President Truman did take serious steps toadvance the civil rights of African Americans. Heordered federal departments and agencies to endjob discrimination against African Americans

and ordered the armed forcesto desegregate—to end theseparation of races. The pres-ident also instructed the Jus-

tice Department to activelyenforce existing civil rights laws.When Truman proposed his

domestic agenda to Congress in 1949,he proclaimed that “every segment of our pop-ulation and every individual has a right toexpect from our government a fair deal.” Tru-man asked for the clearance of slums, govern-ment-backed medical insurance, higherminimum wages, and more federal money forpublic schools. Although much of the presi-dent’s Fair Deal vision went unfulfilled, hemade an important start toward improving thelives of millions of Americans.

Wartime

African Americans welcome Truman to Harlemduring his 1948 presidential campaign. How wasTruman successful in advancing civil rights?

History

1948 civil rights button

802

June 1950North Korea invades South Korea

April 1951Truman fires General MacArthur

July 1953Cease-fire agreement is signed


The bitter wind stung the raw faces of 12 U.S. Marine officers. They had just foughtfor five bloody days to lead their troops out of a Chinese trap in the icy wastes of north-east Korea. Now they listened to the words of their commander: “We are going tocome out of this as Marines, not as stragglers. We’re going to bring out our woundedand our equipment. We’re coming out . . . as Marines or not at all.” Two more days offighting followed, as the tired but determined Marines held off fierce enemy attacks.With the arrival of air cover on the third day, the Marines were able to push back theChinese and make their escape.

Conflict in KoreaBefore June 1950, few Americans knew much about Korea, a small east Asian

country located on the Korean Peninsula west of Japan. In 1945 Korea was acolony of Japan. At the end of World War II, Japan was stripped of its territorialpossessions. The United States and the Soviet Union both sent troops into Koreaand agreed to occupy it temporarily. They divided the peninsula in half alongthe 38th parallel of latitude, with the Soviets controlling North Korea and theAmericans controlling South Korea.

Main IdeaAmericans under the United Nationsflag fought to stop a Communisttakeover of the Korean peninsula.

Key Termsstalemate, demilitarized zone

Reading StrategySequencing Information As youread the section, re-create the timeline below and list key events in theKorean War.

Read to Learn• what events led to the Korean War.• how America’s war aims changed

during the war.

Section ThemeGlobal Connections The UnitedStates fought in Korea to stop Com-munist expansion.

The Korean War

June 25,1950

Oct. 19,1950

Nov. 26,1950

April 11,1951

July 27,1953

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦ 1950 ✦ 1952 ✦ 1954

Korean service medal


The Soviet Union and the United States couldnot agree on how to unify Korea. When thesetwo nations removed their forces in 1949, Korearemained divided. Tensions between the twoKoreas were high.

On June 24, 1950, President Truman flew to his home in Independence, Missouri, for a briefvacation. While sitting on his porch on a hotsummer night, the president received a tele-phone call from Secretary of State Dean Acheson.“Mr. President,” Acheson said in a grim tone, “Ihave very serious news. The North Koreans haveinvaded South Korea.” Truman knew this meantonly one thing: the United States soon would beinvolved in military action in Asia.

The Invasion of South KoreaAfter the American troops pulled out of South

Korea, North Korea decided to unify the countryby force. On June 25, 1950, the armies of NorthKorea crossed the 38th parallel into South Korea.Poorly armed, the South Koreans were no matchfor the North. Within days the Communistforces had gained control over much of SouthKorea, including Seoul, the capital city.

President Truman reacted quickly to theKorean invasion, which he believed was sup-ported by the Soviet Union. Without askingCongress to actually declare war, Trumanordered the use of limited American air and seaforces in Korea. He called this “police action”necessary to carry out America’s policy of con-tainment. Truman said:

“Korea is the Greece of the Far East. If we aretough enough now, if we stand up to them likewe did in Greece three years ago, they won’ttake any next steps.”

United Nations RespondsAt the same time, President Truman asked the

UN to send forces to defend the South Koreans.The United Nations condemned the invasion ofSouth Korea and agreed to send a special forceto the region under the United States’s direction.President Truman quickly appointed GeneralDouglas MacArthur, a hero of World War II, tocommand the UN forces.

On June 30, just days after the North Koreaninvasion, General MacArthur led Americantroops into Korea to stop the Communistadvance. By the end of 1950, other nations weresupplying troops or other assistance to theAmerican-led war effort. Even so, Americansmade up the majority of troops throughout theKorean War.

The United Nations had a clear but difficultgoal—push the North Koreans back across the38th parallel. When China intervened in the con-flict, this goal changed, causing Truman andMacArthur to clash over military strategy.

11

44

33

22

N

S

EW

100 kilometers0Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection

100 miles0

134°E

42°N

38°N

34°N

122°E

YaluR.

Seaof

Japan

SOUTHKOREA

NORTHKOREA

PEOPLE'SREPUBLICOF CHINA

SOVIETUNION

JAPANPusan

SeoulInchon

Panmunjom

Pyongyang

The Korean War,1950–1953

The Korean War raged along the Korean Peninsula.1. Place What city is located along the 38th parallel?2. Analyzing Information Whose forces landed at

Inchon in September 1950?

Farthest advance ofNorth KoreansSept. 1950

UN landing Sept. 1950

Farthest advance ofUN forces Nov. 1950

Farthest advance ofNorth Koreans andChinese Jan. 1951

11

22

33

44

Capital city

Truce line, July 1953

Early Phases of the WarBy September 1950, North Korean forces had

pushed all the way to the southern tip of theKorean Peninsula. Only a small area in thesoutheast around the port city of Pusan was stillheld by the South Korean army.

After joining the South Koreans, GeneralMacArthur designed a bold counterattackagainst North Korea. In September, UnitedNations forces made a daring landing midwayon the Korean Peninsula near the port ofInchon. They took that strategic city and movedon to recapture Seoul.

Meanwhile American and UN troops beganpushing north from Pusan. By October 1 theNorth Koreans, caught between UN forcesadvancing from both Seoul and Pusan, wereforced to retreat north across the 38th parallel.South Korea now came under the control of theUnited Nations forces.

Taking the OffensiveEncouraged by this success, General Mac-

Arthur urged President Truman to order aninvasion of North Korea. He assured Trumanthat neither China nor the Soviet Union wouldenter the war to help North Korea, and he prom-ised to have troops “home by Christmas.” Tru-man sought and received approval from theUnited Nations to cross the 38th parallel, invadethe North, and create “a unified, independentand democratic Korea”—a new goal for the war.

After receiving these new orders, MacArthurmoved his forces northward. The UN forces cap-tured Pyongyang, the North Korean capital, onOctober 19, and then moved north toward theYalu River, part of North Korea’s border withChina. Total victory seemed just days away.

As the UN forces advanced, the United Statesreceived a warning from the Chinese. If theinvasion of North Korea continued, Chinawould send in its army to support the NorthKoreans. Believing the Chinese warning was abluff, President Truman allowed MacArthur tocontinue moving north.

The Chinese were not bluffing, however. Bylate October, thousands of Chinese troops beganmassing along the border, and some crossed theYalu River southward into North Korea. OnNovember 26, huge numbers of Chinese troopslaunched an attack on United Nations forces.Badly outnumbered, the UN forces retreatedsouth back across the 38th parallel. Withinweeks, the Communists had recaptured Seoul.

Describing What line separatedNorth from South Korea?

American Leadership DividedBy January 1951, United Nations forces man-

aged to stop their retreat. Launching a coun-teroffensive, they retook Seoul and pushed theCommunists back across the 38th parallel. Thewar now became a stalemate, a situation inwhich neither side was able to gain muchground or achieve a decisive victory. The stale-mate lasted for almost two years, with much bitter fighting along the 38th parallel.


American troops move forward to the battlefield,while South Korean women and children flee fromthe Communists. What was the state of theKorean conflict by January 1951?

History

Truman and MacArthur DisagreeAs the stalemate dragged on, President Tru-

man began to consider negotiating an end to thefighting. General MacArthur, however, arguedthat the UN forces should now attack China,either by invading the country or by bombingChinese troops stationed in North Korea. Tru-man opposed MacArthur’s plan, fearing thatsuch actions would lead to a larger war withChina or escalate into another world war.

In a letter to a member of Congress, Mac-Arthur complained that he was being kept fromdoing his job. “We must win,” he wrote. “Thereis no substitute for victory.”

On April 11, 1951, President Truman relievedGeneral MacArthur of his command in Korea. “Icould do nothing else and still be president of theUnited States,” Truman concluded. He wrote:

“If I allowed him to defy the civil authoritiesin this manner, I myself would be violating myoath to uphold and defend the Constitution.”

MacArthur’s firing created a storm of protestin the United States. The general was extremelypopular, and polls showed that a majority ofAmericans supported him against the president.Moreover, MacArthur did not go quietly. After receiving a hero’s welcome on his return to theUnited States, he delivered a farewell speech toCongress. “Old soldiers never die,” he said,“they just fade away.”

Ending the ConflictThe two sides in the

Korean War begannegotiations in July1951. The talks lastedfor two years before acease-fire agreementwas signed on July 27,1953, during the presi-dency of Dwight Eisenhower. This agreementending the war created a demilitarized zone—aregion where military forces could not enter—between North and South Korea. The zoneextended roughly a mile and a half on eitherside of the 38th parallel.

The Korean War ended with neither sideachieving victory and almost no change in terri-tory. Losses had been great. More than 54,000Americans died in the war, and another 103,000were wounded. Nearly two million Koreans andChinese lost their lives, and large portions ofNorth and South Korea were devastated.

America’s involvement in the Korean War senta clear message to the Soviet Union: The UnitedStates was committed to fighting Communistexpansion with money, arms, and even lives. Atthe same time, the inability of the United States towin a clear victory contributed to uncertainty athome about the nation’s foreign policy.

Comparing How did Truman’s viewon the Korean War differ from General MacArthur’s view?

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Define the following

terms: stalemate, demilitarizedzone.

2. Reviewing Facts How did theKorean War begin?

Reviewing Themes3. Global Connections How did Amer-

ican goals change during the courseof the Korean War?

Critical Thinking4. Identifying Central Issues Do you

think Truman should have allowedMacArthur to attack China? Why orwhy not?

5. Organizing Information Re-createthe diagram below and provide tworeasons for the Korean War endingin a stalemate.

Analyzing Visuals6. Geography Skills Examine the map

on page 803. When did UN forcesmake their farthest advance?


Persuasive Writing Write a one-page editorial in which you arguewhether a U.S. military leadershould or should not be able tooverride a president’s decision.

Stalemate

HISTORY

Student Web ActivityVisit taj.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 27—Student Web Activitiesfor an activity on theKorean War.

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806

1947House Un-American ActivitiesCommittee holds hearings

1950Congress passes theMcCarran Act

1954McCarthy is censured


In 1947, a congressional committee held public hearings on the alleged communistinfluence in the Hollywood film industry. Many witnesses called before the committeewere asked the same questions: “Are you now or have you ever been a member ofthe Communist Party?” Two witnesses denied having communist ties, but 10 othersrefused to give a straight “yes” or “no” answer. In dramatic moments worthy of themovies, these “Hollywood Ten” challenged the committee’s right to ask about theirpolitical beliefs. One of the accused yelled, “This is the beginning of an American concentration camp!”

Cold War FearsThe Cold War intensified Americans’ fears of communist subversion, or

sabotage. Stories of stolen government documents and spy rings gripped thecountry in the late 1940s. Then in 1949 Americans learned that the Soviet Unionhad built its own atomic bomb.

Many Americans worried that Communist spies and sympathizers—peoplefriendly to Communists, or “Reds” as they were known—had penetrated alllevels of American society and were attempting to weaken the government.

Main IdeaLife in Cold War America was markedby a search for security.

Key Termssubversion, blacklist, perjury,allege, censure

Reading StrategyClassifying Information As you readthe section, re-create the diagrambelow and explain why these individ-uals are important.

Read to Learn• what effect Cold War fears had on

domestic politics.• how McCarthyism affected the

nation.

Section ThemeGovernment and Democracy Ameri-cans of the postwar era took steps tocombat the spread of communismwithin the United States.

The Red Scare

John Howard Lawson of the “Hollywood Ten”

Historical significance

Alger HissEthel RosenbergJoseph McCarthy

1953The Rosenbergs areexecuted as spies

Preview of Events

Guide to Reading

✦ 1945 ✦ 1950 ✦ 1955


This Red Scare dominated the nation’s politicsfor years and led to a massive hunt to uncoverCommunists. In this climate of fear, few Ameri-cans were safe from accusations of disloyalty—not even the president.

Republican critics began accusing PresidentTruman of being too easy on Communists. In1947 Truman responded by ordering an investi-gation into the loyalty of all federal employees.Millions of government workers had to undergosecurity checks, and thousands were investi-gated by the FBI. Although the investigationsfound little evidence of espionage, many federalemployees lost their jobs.

Loyalty Oaths and InvestigationsMany state and local governments, colleges,

and businesses began similar campaigns touncover communist subversion. Some organiza-tions required individuals to sign oaths swearingtheir loyalty to the United States. Those whorefused risked losing their jobs.

In 1950 Congress passed the McCarran Act,which required all Communist organizations toregister with the government and to providelists of members. President Truman vetoed theact. “In a free country, we punish men for crimesthey commit,” he said, “but never for the opin-ions they hold.” Congress overrode his veto.

In 1947 a congressional committee, the HouseUn-American Activities Committee (HUAC),began investigating communist subversion inthe nation. In widely publicized hearings, thecommittee questioned people about their knowl-edge of Communists or Communist sympathiz-ers. Individuals came under suspicion because ofthe beliefs of their friends or coworkers—guiltby association. The committee’s activities fueledan anti-Communist hysteria in the nation.

HUAC launched a sensational investigationof the Hollywood film industry, rumored to befull of Communists. A number of those whowere summoned refused to testify, and severalscreenwriters and directors—the “HollywoodTen”—went to jail for refusing to answer ques-tions about their political beliefs or those of theircolleagues. Reacting to public and governmentpressure, film companies created blacklists—

lists of individuals whose loyalty was suspi-cious—that barred people from working in Hollywood’s film industry.

American Spies RevealedIn 1948 Whittaker Chambers, a magazine

editor, volunteered to testify before HUAC.After admitting that he had spied for the SovietUnion in the 1930s, Chambers accused AlgerHiss, a former State Department official, of giv-ing him secret government documents in 1937and 1938 to pass on to the Soviets.

Chambers produced secret State Departmentpapers he claimed were written by Hiss andmicrofilm of other secret documents. Chambersswore that he had received the microfilm (whichwas hidden in a pumpkin) from Hiss. Investiga-tors could not prosecute Hiss for spying becausetoo much time had passed since the events had occurred. However, he was found guilty ofperjury, or lying, and sent to prison.

The Cold War pitted the Soviet Union and its alliesagainst the United States and its allies.

Analyzing Information What organization did theWestern powers form?

• The Soviet Union expands intoEastern Europe.

• Communism extends into WesternEurope, the Middle East, and Asia.

• Western governments fear Sovietaggression.

• The United States aids anti-Communist forces.

• Western powers form NATO.

• The Korean War erupts.

• A U.S.–Soviet arms race develops.


Margaret Chase Smithof Maine was the firstwoman to be elected toboth houses of Congress.

First elected to theHouse in 1940, Smithmade many contributionsduring her four terms.During World War II, sheworked to improve theposition of women in themilitary. She played amajor role in the passage

of a new law, theWomen’s Armed ServicesIntegration Act (1948),that allowed women toserve as permanent, regu-lar members of thenation’s military forces.

Smith also served fourterms in the Senate.Never afraid to speak outon the issues, she wasone of the first to con-demn the tactics used by

Senator Joseph McCarthyin his crusade againstcommunism.

In 1964 Smith was oneof the presidential nomi-nees at the RepublicanNational Convention,making her the firstwoman to have her nameplaced in nomination by amajor political party.

The most dramatic spy case to come beforeHUAC involved the atomic bomb. Julius andEthel Rosenberg, a New York couple who weremembers of the Communist Party, were accusedof plotting to pass secret information about theatomic bomb to the Soviet Union. Brought totrial in 1951, the Rosenbergs were convicted andsentenced to death. The judge in the casedeclared their crime “worse than murder.”

Groups around the world protested the sen-tence as a gross injustice, but higher courtsupheld the death sentence decision. Executed in1953, the Rosenbergs maintained their inno-cence to the end and claimed that they were per-secuted because of their political beliefs.

Explaining What did the McCarranAct require?

McCarthyismFrom 1950 to 1954, the hunt for Communists

in America was dominated by Senator JosephMcCarthy of Wisconsin. During those years,McCarthy publicly attacked many peoplealleged—declared without proof—to be Com-

munists. His unfounded accusations destroyedthe careers of many innocent Americans andheightened the atmosphere of anti-Communisthysteria in the country. A new word was coined,McCarthyism, which came to mean the use ofunproved accusations against political oppo-nents.

Joseph McCarthy rose to national attentionalmost overnight. In a speech in Wheeling, WestVirginia, in February 1950, he announced thatAmerica had been betrayed by the “traitorousactions” of certain individuals. Raising a sheetof paper, he claimed to have in his hand a list of205 State Department employees who weremembers of the Communist Party. Millions ofAmericans believed McCarthy’s charges.

During the next four years, McCarthy contin-ued to accuse government officials and others ofbeing Communists. His congressional subcom-mittee attacked and bullied the people it calledto testify. Many federal employees resigned orwere dismissed as a result of McCarthy’s inves-tigations.

Even the most powerful government officialshesitated to oppose him. McCarthy often targetedDemocrats. He and his Republican colleagues in

Congress saw anticommunism as an importantissue to use against the Democratic Party. SomeRepublican candidates for Congress, includingRichard Nixon, successfully smeared their oppo-nents with charges of being soft on communism.Such tactics worked because so many Americansfeared the threat of communism.

McCarthy’s DownfallIn 1954 McCarthy launched an investigation

of the United States Army. He made alarmingclaims that Communists had infiltrated the mili-tary. In a series of televised hearings watched bymillions of Americans, McCarthy hurled wildaccusations at highly respected army officials.

The televised Army-McCarthy Hearingsproved the turning point in the McCarthy inves-tigations. For weeks Americans witnessedMcCarthy’s sneering and cruel attacks. Towardthe end of the hearings, Joseph Welch, an attor-ney for the army, said to McCarthy:

“Until this moment, Senator, I think I neverreally gauged your cruelty or your recklessness.. . . Have you left no sense of decency?”

Many Americans now came to viewMcCarthy as a cruel bully who had little basisfor his accusations. Congress also turned againstMcCarthy. In December 1954, the Senate votedto censure, or formally criticize, him for “con-duct unbecoming a senator.” Censure and the

Checking for Understanding1. Key Terms Define the following

terms: subversion, blacklist, per-jury, allege, censure.

2. Reviewing Facts Describe the aimof loyalty oaths.

Reviewing Themes3. Government and Democracy What

negative effects did McCarthy’s anti-Communist actions have on Americansociety?

Critical Thinking4. Drawing Conclusions How do you

think television affected the outcomeof the Army-McCarthy hearings?

5. Organizing Information Re-createthe diagram below and give twoexamples of the government’sresponse to growing fears of communism.

Analyzing Visuals6. Graphic Organizer Skills Examine

the cause-and-effect chart on page807. Into what areas did the SovietUnion expand? What was one effectof the Cold War?


Art Draw a political cartoon thatdescribes the effect you thinkJoseph McCarthy had on the Amer-ican people. Make sure you includea caption with your cartoon.

This 1950 cartoon shows McCarthy spreading chargesof disloyalty. Why does the cartoonist portrayMcCarthy as the Statue of Liberty?


Government response

loss of public support ended McCarthy’s influ-ence. Yet during the years when fears of com-munism had raged in the country, McCarthyismhad damaged the lives of many innocent people.

Describing What claims didMcCarthy make against the United States Army?

810

Reviewing Key TermsOn graph paper, create a word search puzzle using thefollowing terms. Crisscross the terms vertically and hori-zontally, then fill in the remaining squares with extra let-ters. Use the terms’ definitions as clues to find the words inthe puzzle. Share your puzzle with a classmate.1. iron curtain 5. inflation2. containment 6. closed shop3. airlift 7. perjury4. cold war 8. allege

Reviewing Key Facts9. Who coined the phrase “iron curtain”? What did

it represent?10. What did the Marshall Plan provide?11. What is a “cold war”?12. Why did many labor unions strike after the war?13. What did the GI Bill provide?14. Who did the major parties nominate for the presi-

dency in 1948? Who won the election?15. What was the outcome of the conflict in Korea?16. What was the purpose of the House Un-American

Activities Committee?

Critical Thinking17. Analyzing Themes: Global Connections What was

the strategy behind the Marshall Plan?18. Analyzing Information How did Truman exercise his

power as commander in chief of the United States mil-itary during the Korean War?

19. Drawing Conclusions In addition to fighting commu-nism, what other motivation do you think SenatorMcCarthy had for his actions?

20. Determining Cause and Effect Re-create the diagrambelow and identify two ways the United States used itsposition as the strongest and wealthiest nation in theworld to shape economic recovery in Europe.

The Cold War EraSoviet UnitedUnion States

Shaping European recovery

Soviets occupy much of Eastern and Central

Europe

Truman Doctrine proposed; Congress

approves Marshall Plan

U.S., Britain, and France unite to form

West German Republic

Berlin blockade

Berlin airlift

NATO Pact

Warsaw Pact

With UN, U.S. fights inKorean War

U.S. builds largest military force

Self-Check QuizVisit taj.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 27—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for the chapter test.

HISTORY


Directions: Choose the bestanswer to the following question.

The United States started the Marshall Plan as a wayto prevent an economic collapse in Europe thatwould open the door to communism. Which of thefollowing was another purpose of the Marshall Plan?

A To shift the balance of power away from Asiannations

B To encourage European Allied efforts in WorldWar II

C To build a strong Europe on which Americaneconomic security could depend

D To prevent the Soviet Union from becoming amajor military power

Test-Taking Tip

This question requires you to remember a fact aboutthe Marshall Plan. Remember that the plan was aneconomic program—that is it provided money tohelp rebuild European economies. Which answer

fits best with this information?

Standardized Test Practice

Technology Activity31. Using the Internet Search the Internet for information

about how the United Nations is organized. Design aflowchart or graphic organizer that shows the names ofeach of the main bodies of the UN and how they arerelated to each other.

Alternative Assessment32. Portfolio Writing Activity The United States govern-

ment was anxious to avoid military conflict after WorldWar II. Review the chapter and make a list of examples ofhow the United States government used negotiation andother nonviolent means to resolve international problemswithout resorting to war.

Practicing SkillsMaking Inferences Examine the photograph that appears onpages 784 and 785. Then, answer the questions that follow.21. Describe the details in the painting. 22. What feelings does the face of the young girl express? 23. What do you know about the movement to integrate

schools during the 1950s? 24. Putting all this together, what do you infer as the reason

for the girl’s expression?25. Find a newspaper or magazine photograph and write at

least three inferences based on the photo.

Geography and History ActivityStudy the map on page 793. Then answer the questions thatfollow.26. Region Among what four countries was Germany divided?27. Place What country or countries occupied East Berlin?28. Place What country or countries occupied West Berlin?29. Location What is unusual about the location of the air-

ports in Berlin? Explain your reasoning.

Citizenship Cooperative Activity30. Military Service The GI Bill provided many benefits to

soldiers returning from World War II. Through these ben-efits Americans who thought they could never go to col-lege or own their own homes could now achieve thesegoals. Organize into four groups to explore the incentivesoffered today for people who join the United StatesArmy, Navy, Marines, and Coast Guard. Use the list ofquestions that follow to guide your group’s research.

• Is attending college or another institution of extendedlearning still an option?

• What kinds of economic incentives are offered torecruits?

• What advantages are awarded to those joining thearmed services today that were not available at theend of World War II?

Use your information to design a recruitment plan toattract people to a particular branch of the service.Include all forms of media in your plan such as bill-boards, newspaper ads, radio, and television.

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