chapter 26 tradition and change in east asia 1 the qianlong emperor (reigned 1735-1796)
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 26
Tradition and Change in East Asia
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The Qianlong Emperor (reigned 1735-1796)
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The Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
Ming (“Brilliant”) dynasty comes to power after Mongol Yuan dynasty driven out
Founded by Emperor Hongwu (r. 1368-1398) Used traveling officials called mandarins and
large number of eunuchs to maintain control Emperor Yongle (r. 1403-1424) experiments
with sea expeditions under Admiral Zheng He, moves capital north to Beijing to deter Mongol attacks
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Hongwu Emperor
Yongle Emperor, also known as Zhu Di
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Ming China, 1368-1644
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The Great Wall
Origins before fourth century B.C.E., with ruins from Qin dynasty in third century B.C.E.
The current wall dates from the Ming period, mostly rebuilt in the fifteenth to sixteenth century
1,550 miles, and between 33 and 49 feet high As many as 25,000 guard towers were constructed Barracks for housing soldiers Protected against Mongol raids, and later Manchu raids
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The Great Wall of China
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Eradicating the Mongol Past
Ming emperors encourage abandonment of Mongol names, dress
Support study of Confucian classics Restoration of old form of government
bureaucracy with the renewal of the civil service examinations
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Ming Decline
In the sixteenth century, maritime pirates harm coastal trade and hurt China economically
The Ming navy and government are unable to respond effectively
Emperors secluded in Forbidden City, the palace compound in Beijing, and increasingly lose touch with the outside Hedonists: Many emperors begin top pursue their own pleasure
rather than to state affairs Emperor Wanli (r. 1572-1620): In the last twenty years of his
rule, he abandons governance, leaving it to the imperial eunuchs. He ignores the increasing threat of Manchu raids from the north.
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Ming Collapse Famine, peasant rebellions become more
frequent in the early seventeenth century Chinese peasant rebels take Beijing in
1644; the last Ming emperor, Chongzhen, commits suicide
A Ming general fighting the rebels makes an alliance with Manchu fighters, who enter from the north and retake city
Manchus refuse to allow reestablishment of Ming dynasty
Establish Qing (“Pure”) Dynasty, installing Shunzhi as ruler of China
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Shunzhi Emperor, the first Qing emperor to reign over China (1644 – 1661)
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The Qing Empire, 1644-1911
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The Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) Manchus originally pastoral nomads, north of Great Wall Chieftain Nurhaci (r. 1616-1626) unifies tribes into state, develops laws, and strong military Establishes control over Korea, Mongolia, China
War with remaining Ming loyalists last until 1680 Support from many Chinese who were fed up with
Ming corruption
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Manchus forbid intermarriage with Han Chinese and the study of Manchu language by non-Manchus; force Manchu hairstyles on Han men as sign of loyalty
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Emperor Kangxi (r. 1661-1722)
Consolidates Qing rule, defeating last Ming resistance
Confucian scholar, poet Military Conquests: island of
Taiwan, Tibet, skirmished with the Russian empire to establish western border, and crushed a Mongol revolt
Persuaded Ming scholar-bureaucrats to support the Qing
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Emperor Qianlong (r. 1736-1795)
Grandson of Kangxi Rule was the height of the power and
prestige of the Qing dynasty Great prosperity, tax collection
cancelled on several occasions Pacified the western frontier—
Mongols, Uyghurs, Kazakhs, etc.—but failed to conquer Burma and Vietnam to the south, but made them “vassal states”
Stepped down from the throne in 1795 so as not to reign longer than his grandfather, Kangxi, out of filial respect
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Young Qianlong at the beginning of his reign (1737) painted by the Italian Jesuit, Giuseppe Castiglione.
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The “Son of Heaven”
Ming, Qing emperors were considered quasi-divine, with the title “Son of Heaven”
Hundreds of concubines and thousands of eunuch servants served within the “Forbidden City” in Beijing
Clothing designs and name characters of the emperors were forbidden to rest of population
The kowtow: three bows, nine head-knocks (British ambassador in 1793 refuses to perform)
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The Forbidden City
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Forbidden City as viewed from a hill to the north
Hall of Heavenly Purity, which served as the emperor’s quarters and then the audience hall during the Qing Dynasty
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The Forbidden City
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Map of the inner Beijing city walls, including the Forbidden City
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The Scholar-Bureaucrats
Ran government on a day-to-day basis Graduates from intense civil service examinations
Open only to men Curriculum: Confucian classics, calligraphy, poetry,
essay writing Also: history, literature
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The Civil Service Examinations First used in the Sui dynasty in 605 C.E., used in a
limited way in the Tang (618-907), and used on a broader scale during the Song (960-1269)
District, provincial, and metropolitan levels Only 300 allowed to pass at highest level
Multiple attempts common Students expected to bring bedding, chamber pots for
three-day uninterrupted examinations Students searched for printed materials before entering
private cells
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Examination System and Society
Ferocious competition Qing dynasty: One million degree holders
compete for 20,000 government positions Remainder turn to teaching, tutoring positions
Some corruption, cheating Advantage for wealthy classes: hiring private
tutors, etc. But open to all males, tremendous opportunity for
social mobility
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The Patriarchal Family
Filial piety understood as duty of child to parent on the familial level, and then the individual to emperor on the societal and political level
Eldest son favored; birth order accords status in families
Clan-based authority groups augment government services
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Gender Relations
Males receive preferential status Economic factor: girls join husband’s family
Infanticide of girls common Widows strongly encouraged not to remarry
Chaste widows honored with ceremonial arches celebrating their devotion to dead husbands
Men control divorce Grounds: from infidelity to talking too much
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Foot Binding
Origins in Song dynasty (960-1279 CE) Linen strips bind and deform female child’s feet Perceived aesthetic value Statement of social status and/or expectations
Commoners might bind feet of especially pretty girls to enhance marriage prospects
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Binding Feet
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Population Growth and Economic Development
Only 11 percent of China arable Intense, garden-style agriculture necessary American food crops introduced in seventeenth
century Maize, sweet potatoes, peanuts
Rebellion and war reduce population in seventeenth century Deaths offset by nutrition from American crops
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Chinese Population Growth
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Foreign Trade
Silk, porcelain, tea, lacquerware Chinese in turn import relatively little
Spices, animal skins, woolen textiles, and silver European traders pay for Chinese goods with
silver bullion from Americas After Emperor Yongle’s early maritime
expeditions (1405-1433), Ming dynasty abandons large-scale maritime trade plans
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Trade in Southeast Asia Chinese merchants continue to be active in
southeast Asia, especially Manila Extensive dealings with Dutch VOC with the silk
trade until the wars between Ming and Manchus disrupt it
Chinese warlord and Ming loyalist, Koxinga, destroys VOC trading station on Formosa (now Taiwan) in 1662, and hopes to use Formosa as a base to restore the Ming (also tries to conquer the Philippines)
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Government and Technology
During Tang and Song dynasties (seventh to thirteenth century), China is a world leader in technology
Stagnates during Ming and Qing dynasties European cannons purchased, based on early Chinese
invention of gunpowder Government suppressed technological
advancement, fearing social instability would result Mass labor over productivity
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Classes in Chinese Society
Privileged classes Scholar-bureaucrats, gentry Distinctive clothing with ranks Immunity from some legal proceedings, taxes, labor service
Working classes Peasants, artisans/workers, merchants Confucian doctrine gives greatest status to peasants Merchant activity not actively supported
Lower classes Military, beggars, slaves
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Neo-Confucianism Version of Confucian thought promoted by Zhu Xi
(1130-1200 C.E.) Confucian morality with Buddhist logic
Education at various levels promoted Hanlin Academy in Beijing dictates official interpretation of the
Confucian classics, and thus sets standards of evaluation of imperial exams
Provincial schools
Compilation of massive Yongle Encyclopedia during early Ming (1403-1408)
Development of popular novels as well: Dream of the Red Chamber (published 1791) a hugely popular romance
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Christianity in China Nestorian and Roman Catholic
Christians had presence in China Disappeared with plague and social chaos
of fourteenth century Jesuits return under Matteo Ricci
(1552-1610), attempt to convert Ming Emperor Wanli Mastered Chinese before first visit in 1601 Brought western mechanical technology
Prisms, harpsichords, clocks
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Matteo Ricci
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Confucianism and Christianity Argued that Christianity was consistent with
Confucianism Differences due to neo-Confucian distortions
Yet few converts in China Approximately 200,000 mid-eighteenth century, about 0.08
percent of population Christian absolutism difficult for Chinese to accept
Franciscans and Dominicans convince pope that Jesuits compromising Christianity with Chinese traditions (e.g. ancestor worship)
Emperor Kangxi bans Christian preaching in China
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The Unification of Japan
Shoguns rule Japan, twelfth to sixteenth century Large landholders with private armies Emperor merely a figurehead Constant civil war: sixteenth century sengoku, “country
at war” Tokugawa Ieyasu (r. 1600-1616)
establishes military government Bakufu: “tent government” Establishes Tokugawa dynasty
(1600-1867)
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Tokugawa Ieyasu
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Tokugawa Japan, 1600-1867
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Control of Daimyo (“Great Names”)
Approximately 260 powerful territorial lords Independent militaries, judiciaries, schools, foreign
relations, etc. From capital Edo (Tokyo), shogun requires “alternate
attendance”: daimyo forced to spend every other year at court Controlled marriage, socializing of daimyo families
Beginning 1630s, shoguns restrict foreign relations Travel, import of books forbidden Policy strictly maintained for 200 years
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Economic Growth in Japan
End of civil conflict contributes to prosperity New crop strains and irrigation systems improve
agricultural production Yet population growth moderate, unlike many
other places in the world Contraception, late marriage, abortion Infanticide: “thinning out the rice shoots”; typical
method was to smother a baby’s mouth and nose with wet paper
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Population Growth
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1600 1700 1850
Millions
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Social Change
End of civil disturbances create massive unemployment of daimyo, samurai warriors
Encouraged to join bureaucracy, scholarship Many declined to poverty, creating a source of
social instability Wealthy urban merchant classes develop from
trade activity; they become dominant in society
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Neo-Confucianism in Japan
Chinese cultural influence extends through Tokugawa period
Chinese language essential to curriculum Zhu Xi and neo-Confucianism remains popular “Native learning” also popular in eighteenth
century Folk traditions Shintoism: worship of spirits, called kami
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Floating Worlds (ukiyo) New merchant class develops a new urban culture
expressed in entertainment and pleasure industries Ihara Saikaku (1642-1693), The Life of a Man Who
Lived for Love: novel that describes the mores of the new urban merchant class; about a member of this new class’s sexual adventures from age 8 to 61.
Marked contrast to solemn bakufu leadership Kabuki theatre, men playing women’s roles Bunraku puppet theatre Geisha districts
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Floating Worlds (ukiyo)
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Kabuki actor dressed as a samurai character
Bunraku puppetTraditional Geisha make-up and hairstyle
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Christianity in Japan
Jesuit Francis Xavier in Japan, 1549 Remarkable success among daimyo
Daimyo also hoping to establish trade relations with Europeans
Government backlash Fear of foreign intrusion Confucians, Buddhists resent Christian absolutism
Anti-Christian campaign 1587-1639 restricts Christianity, executes staunch Christians Sometimes by crucifixion
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Persecution of Catholics
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Twenty-six Christians crucified in Nagasaki in 1597 during the shogun’s crackdown
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Dutch Learning Dutch presence at Nagasaki principal route for Japanese
understanding of the world Before ban on foreign books lifted (1720), Japanese scholars
study Dutch to approach European science, medicine, and art
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Dutch ship approaching the Dutch island trading post on the artificial island of Dejima in Nagasaki harbor