chapter 22: foreign policy and defense · chapter 22: foreign policy and defense 609 humanitarian...

606

A Global Society You are part of a globalcommunity. Increasingly, governments makechoices about how their citizens will be affect-ed by interaction with other nations. A democ-racy relies on informed citizens for direction inthese decisions.

To learn more about how our foreignpolicy is established, view the

Democracy in Action Chapter 22 video lesson:

Foreign Policy and National Defense

Chapter Overview Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter22–Overview to preview chapter information.

GOVERNMENT

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★

606-613 CH22S1-860053 12/4/04 12:06 AM Page 606

http://www.gov.glencoe.com

607

China is one of the few Communist na-tions remaining in the world today. Fornearly a half century after World War II,the global competition between commu-

nism and anticommunism known as the Cold Warshaped American foreign policy. With the collapseof the Soviet Union and the fall of Communistgovernments in Eastern Europe in the early 1990s,it was clear the Cold War was over. The West, led bythe United States, had won. Speaking to the U.S.Congress in 1992, the president of Russia stated:

“The idol of communism, which spreadeverywhere social strife, animosity andunparalleled brutality, which instilled fearin humanity, has collapsed. . . . I am hereto assure you that we will not let it riseagain in our land.”—Boris Yeltsin, 1992

Today the United States confronts a global en-vironment that is rapidly changing and marked bynew challenges, such as increased economic andtrade competition and the spread of terrorism. Atthe same time, there is reason for optimism.George Kennan, one of America’s most distin-guished diplomats, recently described thepost–Cold War period this way: “It is an agewhich, for all its confusions and dangers, ismarked by one major blessing: for the first time incenturies, there are no great power rivalries thatthreaten immediately the peace of the world.”

Goals of Foreign PolicyForeign policy consists of the strategiesand goals that guide a nation’s relations

with other countries and groups in the world.The specific strategies that make up U.S. foreignpolicy from year to year and even decade todecade change in response to changes in the in-ternational environment, such as the collapseof communism. However, the long-term goals

Development of Foreign PolicyS e c t i o n 1S e c t i o n 1

China Bills U.S. $1 MillionWASHINGTON, D.C., JULY 7, 2001

China has billed the

United States $1 mil-

lion to cover the cost of

keeping a U.S. spy plane on

its soil for three months.

The U.S. State Department

says that the government

will not pay this “exaggerat-

ed cost.” The plane was

forced to make an emer-

gency landing on the Island

of Hainan after it collided

with a Chinese military plane. China held the Ameri-

can plane and its crew on the island and refused to

allow the United States to repair and fly it out. The

Chinese government released the crew after 11 days

and finally allowed the plane to be disassembled and

transported back to the United States this week.

Satellite photo ofgrounded plane

Reader’s Guide

Key Termsforeign policy, national security, isolationism, internationalism, containment

Find Out■ What are the major objectives of United States

foreign policy?■ Why has a reevaluation of foreign policy been

necessary since the end of the Cold War?

Understanding ConceptsPublic Policy How did United States foreign policycontribute to winning the Cold War?

President and Mrs. Bush watch as a U.S. Marine honor guard raises the flag.▲

606-613 CH22S1-860053 12/4/04 12:07 AM Page 607

of that policy remain constant, reflecting both thenation’s ideals and its self-interest.

National Security The principal goal ofAmerican foreign policy is to preserve the securityof the United States. National security means pro-tection of a nation’s borders and territories againstinvasion or control by foreign powers. This goal isbasic because no nation can achieve other aimssuch as improving its educational system or pro-viding better health care if it is under attack.

The goal of national security helps determinehow the United States deals with other nations.Every part of U.S. foreign policy—from maintain-ing an ambassador in a small African country tosigning a mutual assistance treaty with allied na-tions in Europe—is related to the nation’s security.

Free and Open Trade In today’s global econ-omy national security means more than militarydefense. A nation’s vital economic interests mustalso be protected. Thus, maintaining trade withother nations and preserving access to necessarynatural resources have also been basic goals of U.S.foreign policy. Trade is an absolute necessity for

the United States. Highly productive American fac-tories and farms need foreign markets in which tosell their goods. The country also is in need of anumber of natural resources, including oil. Gener-ally, the United States supports trade that is freefrom both export and import restrictions.

World Peace American leaders work for worldpeace because they believe it helps the nation avoidoutside conflicts and aids national security. TheUnited States tries to help other nations settle dis-putes and has also supplied economic aid to at-riskcountries, in part to prevent uprisings and revolu-tions. The United States helped organize the UnitedNations after World War II in the hope that the or-ganization would promote world peace. The rise ofterrorist groups, along with direct terrorist attackson the United States, have made the goal of worldpeace an even greater challenge and greatly compli-cated how the United States views the world.

Democratic Governments Throughout itshistory the United States has been an example of democracy. In addition, the United States aidsdemocratic nations and helps others create

608 CHAPTER 22: FOREIGN POLICY AND DEFENSE

Pro-American RallyThese South Koreans marchin support of U.S. troopsbased in their country. ManySouth Koreans condemnedNorth Korea’s decision tostrengthen its nuclearweapons program. Why isthe United States con-cerned about the status of North Korea’s nuclear program?

Tensions Rise on the Korean Peninsula

606-613 CH22S1-860053 12/4/04 12:07 AM Page 608

democratic political systems. With U.S. assistance,many formerly Communist nations in Europe beganto form democratic political systems in the 1990s.

Concern for Humanity The United Stateshas often demonstrated its concern for others. Vic-tims of natural disasters or starvation have lookedto the United States for help. In such times of cri-sis, the United States has responded by providingfood, medical supplies, and technical assistance forhumanitarian reasons. At the same time, this aidserves the strategic interests of the United States bymaintaining political stability in the world.

Development of Foreign PolicyUntil the late 1800s, American foreign poli-cy was based on isolationism—avoiding in-

volvement in world affairs. During the twentiethcentury, presidents and foreign policy advisersshifted toward internationalism. Internationalistsbelieved that involvement in world affairs was nec-essary for national security. A look at the history ofAmerican foreign policy since 1789 will reveal howthese approaches to foreign policy developed.

Isolationism When George Washington be-came president in 1789, the United States was asmall nation, deeply in debt and struggling to builda new government. For this reason American lead-ers believed that the United States should not be-come involved in the politics and wars of Europe.Before leaving office President Washington urgedAmericans to follow a path of isolationism.

The Monroe Doctrine In 1823 PresidentJames Monroe announced a new foreign policydoctrine that extended the meaning of isolation-ism. Later known as the Monroe Doctrine, it stated:

“The American continents . . . are henceforthnot to be considered as subjects for futurecolonization by any European powers. . . .We owe it . . . to the amicable relationsbetween the United States and those powersto declare that we should consider anyattempt on their part to extend their systemto any portion of this hemisphere asdangerous to our peace and safety. . . .”—James Monroe, 1823

The United States as a World Power Bythe 1890s the United States was rapidly becomingan industrial power. Accordingly, it began to lookfor world markets for its products and for newsources of raw materials. For some governmentleaders, isolationism no longer fit the United States’srole as an economic power. These leaders believedthe United States should play a more active role inworld affairs. In their minds the nation needed toexpand and acquire a colonial empire.

In 1898 the United States fought the Spanish-American War, in part to free Cuba from Spanishrule. As a result, the United States acquired thePhilippine Islands, Guam, and Puerto Rico. Hawaiiwas annexed in 1898 and Samoa in 1900. Althoughisolationist sentiments survived, the United Stateswas now a major power in the Caribbean as well asthe Pacific region and East Asia.

CHAPTER 22: FOREIGN POLICY AND DEFENSE 609

Humanitarian Policies A Sudanese refugeefrom the country’s long civil war between northernMuslims and southern Christians waits to receivefood donated by the United States and its allies.Self-interest is usually the basis of a nation’s for-eign policy. Analyze how feeding Sudaneserefugees serves United States interests.

A Victim of War

606-613 CH22S1-860053 12/4/04 12:07 AM Page 609

Two World Wars When World War I began inEurope in 1914, isolationist sentiment in the Unit-ed States was still strong. After Germany sank neu-tral ships—including U.S. ships—President Wilsonasked Congress to declare war against Germany in1917. American troops went overseas to fight in aEuropean war for the first time.

Disillusioned by the terrible cost of war,Americans returned to isolationism. Throughoutthe 1920s and 1930s, mostAmericans wanted to avoidfurther involvement in Eu-ropean political affairs. Dur-ing these years, however,ruthless dictators came topower—Mussolini in Italy,Hitler in Germany, and mil-itary leaders in Japan. By the1930s, dramatic changeswere taking place around theglobe as these nations usedmilitary force to overtakeother nations.

When World War IIbegan in 1939, the UnitedStates officially remainedneutral. The Japanese attackon Pearl Harbor in 1941, how-ever, drew the United States into the war. SinceWorld War II, U.S. foreign policy has been based oninternationalism.

The Cold War The United States emerged fromWorld War II as the leader of the free nations of theworld. The United States’s new role soon broughtit into conflict with the Soviet Union, which hadalso emerged from the war as a world power.American government leaders viewed the powerand ambitions of the Soviet Union as a threat tonational security. Between 1945 and 1949, the So-viet Union established control over the govern-ments of Eastern European countries. FormerBritish prime minister Winston Churchill warnedthat the Soviets would eventually look beyondEastern Europe and try to gain control of otherparts of the world. Meanwhile, in 1949 ChineseCommunists seized control of China. The Com-munist takeovers in these nations convincedAmerican leaders that they must halt Communistaggression.

As the rivalry between the United States andthe Soviet Union intensified, it became clear that a“cold war” had begun. The Cold War was a war ofwords and ideologies rather than a shooting war.

Containment and the Truman DoctrineFaced with the threat of expanding communism, theUnited States drew upon the ideas of George F. Ken-nan, an American diplomat and expert on Soviet his-

tory and culture, to keepthe Soviet Union fromspreading its power be-yond Eastern Europe. Thepolicy created, known ascontainment, in part in-volved responding to anyaction taken by the Sovietswith a countermove bythe United States.

American leadersalso wanted to halt thespread of communismby giving economic aidto nations they said werethreatened by totalitarianregimes. In keeping withthe containment policy,President Harry S Tru-

man announced what later became known as theTruman Doctrine in a speech in 1947:

“I believe that we must assist free peoples towork out their own destinies in their ownway. I believe that our help should be pri-marily through economic and financialaid which is essential to economic stabilityand orderly political processes. . . .”—Harry S Truman, 1947

Three months later the Marshall Plan providedbadly needed economic aid for war-torn Europe.Within four years the United States gave nations ofWestern Europe more than $13 billion.

Cold War tensions and fears also led to a costlyarms race. At the end of World War II, the UnitedStates was the world’s only nuclear power. However,by the late 1950s the Soviet Union had developednuclear weapons and large rockets that could delivernuclear warheads. Both nations began creatingmore weapons of greater power.


Fearing communism as depicted in this comic book (left), Americans launchedthe Marshall Plan to help the economies ofWestern Europe rebuild after World War II.

606-613 CH22S1-860053 12/4/04 12:07 AM Page 610

The Korean and Vietnam Wars The ColdWar policy of containment drew the United States into two wars. In the Korean War the United States aided pro-American South Koreawhen that country was invaded by CommunistNorth Korea. President Truman saw the invasion of South Korea as part of expansion-ism by the Soviet Union and sent Americantroops to Korea under UN sponsorship.

In the Vietnam War, the United Statescommitted troops for many years to fight on theside of the South Vietnamese government againstCommunist North Vietnam. Many American pol-icy makers and Presidents Lyndon Johnson andRichard Nixon said American involvement in theconflict was justified by the need to contain Com-munist expansion.

End of the Cold War By the late 1980s,decades of competition with the United States had taken their toll, and in 1989 the Soviet

Union began to collapse. Also that year, the BerlinWall dividing Communist East Germany fromdemocratic West Germany was torn down bydemonstrators. A year later the two Germanys werereunited. Soon thereafter the Eastern Europeancountries of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary,Romania, and Bulgaria overthrew their Communistgovernments. Then in 1992 the former Soviet Unionitself began changing its government and split intoRussia and 14 other separate nations. The ColdWar that had begun shortly after the end of WorldWar II was over.

Post-Cold War Foreign PolicyThe United States emerged from the ColdWar as the world’s single superpower, its

economic and military strength unrivaled by anyother nation. Yet as the decade of the 1990sunfolded, Presidents George H.W. Bush and BillClinton confronted a highly unsettled world.


Douglas Engelbart

Making a DifferenceMaking a Difference As technology develops, theworld becomes a smallerplace and the management

of United States foreign policy becomes more critical. Some ofthe credit for expanding technolo-gy and shrinking the world belongsto Douglas Engelbart. In 1963 Engelbart invented what he calledan “X-Y Position Indicator for aDisplay System.” You probablyknow his invention by anothername—a mouse. Engelbart claims,“No one remembers who firstcalled it that, but we all agreedthat it looked like a mouse.”

The mouse brought a point-and-click ease to computing andis essential for surfing the WorldWide Web, but Engelbart did not profit from the invention. He

explains, “I made a consciousdecision at age 25 that money

would be secondary.” Theengineer chose researchover wealth. Instead,

Engelbart’s employer, StanfordResearch Institute, reaped the financial rewards.

Since his contribution tomodern technology, Engelbarthas enjoyed other victories. In1989 he overcame lymphomaand retired from his job to starthis own research organization. He and his daughter, Christina,formed the Bootstrap Institute, athink tank located in office spacedonated by Logitech. Incidentally,Logitech manufactured its 100millionth mouse in 1996.

Today, in his 70s, Engelbartlectures to software and technol-ogy leaders and sells the benefitsof another invention—his five-but-ton, one-handed keyboard. Manypeople ask him if he is frustratedthat others have made billions onhis invention. Engelbart answers,“I feel frustrated in not havinghad more of an effect on theworld.”

A mouse

606-613 CH22S1-860053 12/4/04 12:08 AM 11

The Cold War foreign policy strategy did notseem well suited for dealing with the world thatwas evolving in the post-Cold War era. As theUnited States dealt with crises throughout theworld, no new strategic doctrine emerged to guideforeign policy. Instead, U.S. troops were sent to hotspots across the globe while policymakers calledfor the United States to stay involved in world pol-itics to protect American trade interests, encouragedemocracy, and advance human rights.

The Persian Gulf War In 1990 Iraq’s leader,Saddam Hussein, invaded neighboring Kuwait,threatening Middle Eastern oil supplies. PresidentGeorge H.W. Bush, along with a coalition ofnations that included Russia, Eastern Europeanstates, and many Arab states, defended Kuwait bysending American troops to the region to defeatIraq. The United States also won approval from theUN Security Council for a series of actions against

Iraq, including a program of inspections aimed atpreventing Iraq from developing weapons of massdestruction.

During the 1990s Saddam Hussein kept ten-sions high in the Middle East by failing to cooper-ate with UN-mandated inspections. In 1998President Clinton launched missile attacks againstIraqi installations related to the production ofchemical, biological, and nuclear weapons.

Other Interventions Throughout the 1990s,President Clinton sent U.S. forces to several

places in attempts to maintain politicalorder and protect humanitarian interests.In 1992 American troops joined a multi-national force in Somalia to protect relieforganizations operating during a civilwar. In 1994 the American troops pre-

served order in Haiti when the electedpresident was forced to flee the country. In

1995 American forces and NATO allies inter-vened to end bloody ethnic warfare amongst

Croats, Serbs, and Muslims resulting from thebreakup of the former country of Yugoslavia. Thenagain in 1999, American and NATO air power andtroops forced Serbian troops to withdraw from theYugoslavian province of Kosovo, where they hadbeen abusing the ethnic Albanian population.

A New Foreign Policy AgendaAn unprecedented challenge for Americanforeign policy presented itself on September

11, 2001, when terrorists hijacked commercialjetliners and crashed them into the World TradeCenter and the Pentagon, resulting in a devastatingloss of American lives. Another plane, bound forWashington, D.C., crashed in Pennsylvania whenheroic passengers fought the hijackers for controlof the aircraft. The FBI and intelligence sourcesidentified the attack as the work of al-Qaeda, aglobal network of Islamic terrorists whose leaderswere based in Afghanistan.

War on Terrorism President George W. Bushquickly announced that a war on terrorism wouldbecome the focus of his administration. In a shorttime, his administration coordinated a series ofmilitary and diplomatic steps to crush al-Qaeda,change the government of Afghanistan, and


Foreign Policy MotivesPresident Reagan and Soviet leaderGorbachev shake hands at a 1988 summit meeting in Moscow. Gorbachev initiatedthe meetings to convince Reagan that the Sovietswanted to end the arms race and make majorchanges in the U.S.S.R. Gorbachev named thesereforms “perestroika.” Why do you thinkGorbachev sought to establish closer ties with the United States?

606-613 CH22S1-860053 12/4/04 12:08 AM Page 612

Sect ion 1 AssessmentSect ion 1 Assessment

Public Policy In recent years, the develop-ment of an interdependent global economyhas led to an ongoing debate about the degreeto which free trade helps or hurts the UnitedStates. Create a political cartoon about thistopic illustrating either the benefits of freetrade or the potential problems that may resultfrom global interdependence.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one

to the right to show two foreign policy issues that are part of the nation’s new global agenda.

2. Define foreign policy, national security, isolation-ism, internationalism, containment.

3. Identify Cold War, preemption.4. What are the basic aims of American foreign

policy?5. How did the United States carry out its policy

of containment?

Critical Thinking6. Drawing Conclusions Do you believe the United

States could follow a policy of isolationism atthis time? Support your answer.


recruit countries and international organizationsto wage a long-term assault on terrorist groupsworldwide.

The Strategy of Preemption Following theSeptember 11 terrorist attacks, the Bush adminis-tration outlined a new strategic framework toguide American relationships with other nationsduring the war on terror. The administration’s newframework states that preemption should replacecontainment and deterrence as the foundation ofAmerican strategy. Preemption means that theUnited States will strike first with military forceagainst any terrorist groups or rogue states thatmight threaten the nation with weapons of massdestruction. A report to Congress outlining thestrategy stated that although cooperating withother states or international organizations like theUN is useful, “[The United States] will not hesitateto act alone, if necessary, to exercise our right ofself-defense by acting preemptively.”

Supporters of the new strategy argue thatrational discussion and deterrence do not work in aworld of suicide bombers, terrorist groups, and out-law nations that “reject basic human values.” Criticscharge that preemption ignores international law,which prohibits first strikes unless an attack isclearly imminent. They worry that if other nationsclaimed the same right, wars between longtimerivals might break out all over the world.

Iraq War President Bush applied preemption inMarch 2003 when the United States, with help fromGreat Britain and a coalition of other nations, in-vaded Iraq and removed the government of SaddamHussein. Congress had sanctioned the war with aresolution authorizing the president to use “allmeans . . . including force” to defend against threatsposed by Iraq. Bush argued that Iraq might developweapons that could be used by terrorists against theUnited States. Further, he believed that helping animportant Middle Eastern country like Iraq estab-lish a democracy would contribute to Americanefforts to fight terrorism.

The United Nations and many of America’straditional European allies did not support the war.They urged the United States to continue workingwith the United Nations to restrain Saddam Husseinthrough weapons inspections and economicsanctions. President Bush claimed that Hussein hadno intention of cooperating with the UN.

Coalition forces led by American troops quicklydefeated the Iraqi army and occupied the nation’smajor cities.On May 1,2003,President Bush declaredthat major combat operations were over, and inDecember American troops captured Saddam Hus-sein. Deadly fighting in Iraq continued, however, as astrong resistance movement developed to challengethe effort to democratize Iraq. U.S. and coalitionforces continue to fight in Iraq, and President Bushhas insisted that democracy will prevail there.

U.S. Foreign Policy

606-613 CH22S1-860053 12/4/04 12:08 AM Page 613

The Framers of the Constitution attemptedto divide the responsibility for foreign af-fairs between the president and Congress.They did not, however, clearly outline the

boundaries of power of each branch. As a result, onmany occasions the president and Congress havevied for power.

Over the years events have enabled the presi-dent to assume more responsibility in foreign pol-icy. Today, according to one political scientist,“Anydiscussion of the making of United States foreignpolicy must begin with the President. He is the ul-timate decider.”

Presidential Powers and Responsibilities

The president derives power to formulateforeign policy from two sources. First, the

Constitution lists certain presidential powers re-lated to foreign policy. Second, as the head of theworld’s superpower, the president functions as animportant world leader.

Constitutional Powers of the PresidentPresident Bill Clinton addressed the Americanpeople on September 15, 1994:

“My fellow Americans, tonight I want tospeak to you about why the United Statesis leading an international effort to restoredemocratic government in Haiti. Haiti’sdictators, led by [Lt.] General Raoul Cedras, control the most violent regime inour hemisphere. . . . In the face of this con-tinued defiance and with atrocities rising,the United States has agreed to lead amultinational force to carry out the will of the United Nations. . . . No presidentmakes decisions like this without deepthought and prayer.”—Bill Clinton, 1994

Shared Foreign Policy PowersS e c t i o n 2S e c t i o n 2

U.S. Supports Revolt WASHINGTON, D.C., NOVEMBER 6, 1903

President Theodore Roo-

sevelt today recognized the

independent nation of Panama,

four days after ordering war-

ships into the region and only

three days after Panamanian

rebels declared the province’s

freedom from Colombia. Roo-

sevelt’s action is believed to be

the fastest U.S. recognition of

another nation in history. The

revolt and diplomatic maneuver

clear the way for the United

States to construct a canal across

Panama, a proposal to which

Colombia refused to agree. U.S.

officials have long favored a canal across Central

America to provide a shorter water route from the At-

lantic to the Pacific. The rebels in Panama also sup-

port such a canal.

A map of thePanama Canal


Reader’s Guide

Key Termsambassador, treaty, executive agreement, bipartisan

Find Out■ How is the executive branch structured to

carry out United States foreign policy?■ What are the constitutional foreign policy

powers of the president and Congress?

Understanding ConceptsChecks and Balances What powers of Congressact as a check upon the president’s power to conduct foreign policy?

614-620 CH22S2-860053 12/4/04 12:08 AM Page 614

President Clinton’s speech illus-trates the president’s ability tocommit the nation to involve-ment in foreign affairs.

Commander in ChiefThe Constitution grants thepresident the power to

be the commander in chief of thenation’s military forces. As com-mander in chief, the president may send troops, ships, and planes or may even use nuclearweapons anywhere in the world,without congressional approval.For example, in 1991 PresidentGeorge H.W. Bush decided to sendmilitary forces to Saudi Arabia soonafter Iraq had invaded Kuwait.

Head of State In addition togiving powers as commander inchief, Article II, Section 2,1 grantsthe president certain diplomaticpowers. The president appointsambassadors, officials of the United States gov-ernment who represent the nation in diplomaticmatters. The president also receives ambassadorsfrom foreign governments. By receiving an ambas-sador or other diplomat from a certain country,the president gives formal recognition to that gov-ernment. Conversely, by refusing to receive an am-bassador, the president can withhold diplomaticrecognition of a foreign government. Formalrecognition of a government is vital because itqualifies that government to receive economic andother forms of aid. Article II, Section 2, also givesthe president power to make treaties. A treaty is aformal agreement between the governments oftwo or more nations.

As head of state, the president plays an impor-tant part in controlling foreign policy. The presi-dent represents the United States and symbolizesthe leadership and policies of the nation to theworld. In an international crisis, Americans alsolook to their president for leadership.

Foreign Policy AdvisersThe president has the final responsibility forestablishing foreign policy. Before making

foreign policy decisions, however, presidents usu-ally consult advisers. Generally, chief executivesrely upon the information and advice of the cabi-net members, the White House staff, and officialsin specialized agencies dealing with foreign policy.At times presidents also go outside the governmentand seek advice from private individuals who havespecialized knowledge in foreign affairs.

The Secretaries of State and Defense Intheir specialized fields, all cabinet members bringinternational problems to the president’s attentionand recommend how to deal with them. For twocabinet departments, however—the Departmentof State and the Department of Defense—foreignaffairs are a full-time concern.

The secretary of state supervises all the diplo-matic activities of the American government. Inthe past most presidents have relied heavily ontheir secretaries of state. In the early years of the


Peace Agreement With President Clinton looking on, Israel’sPrime Minister Yitzhak Rabin (left) and PLO leader Yasir Arafat(right) signed a peace agreement in 1993. What presidentialrole did Clinton fulfill in the Israeli-PLO agreement?

Brokering Peace

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. See The Constitution, pages 774–799.

614-620 CH22S2-860053 12/4/04 12:08 AM Page 615

Volunteering for the Armed Forces

B y volunteering for the military, you can serveyour country, learn a skill, and provide foryour future at the same time. Each branch of

the armed forces has its own requirements. In gen-eral, you must be at least 17 years old to enlist,have a high school diploma, have no criminalrecord, and be a U.S. citizen or legal alien. Youalso must meet certain physical requirements,pass a drug test, and take a multiple-choice testto identify your academic and vocational strengths.The results are used to qualify you for certain train-ing programs, some of which can pay up to a$12,000 bonus.

In addition to the skills you gain from yourtraining, you can often take college or technical

courses in your off-duty time. The military will helppay for these courses. When you complete yourfull-time military commitment, you can receive asmuch as $40,000 to continue your education.

Research Investigate your opportunities in a specific branch of the military. Contact a nearbyrecruiting station to find out information aboutthe branch you choose. Present your findings tothe class in the form of an advertising brochure.

A C T I V I T YA C T I V I T Yarticipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T articipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T

Looking forrecruits

Republic, four secretaries of state—Thomas Jeffer-son, James Madison, James Monroe, and JohnQuincy Adams—went on to become president.

Normally, the secretary of state carries ondiplomacy at the highest level. The secretary fre-quently travels to foreign capitals for importantnegotiations with heads of state and represents theUnited States at major international conferences.

The secretary of defense supervises the mili-tary activities of the United States government.The president receives information and advicefrom the secretary of defense on the nation’s mili-tary forces, weapons, and bases.

The National Security Adviser Thenational security adviser—who is also the direc-tor of the National Security Council (NSC)—playsa major role in foreign affairs. President George W.Bush chose political scientist Dr. Condoleezza Ricefor this office. She previously worked within theNSC between 1989 and 1991 and was the firstwoman to be chosen as national security adviser.

The Central Intelligence Agency In orderto make foreign policy decisions, the president and his advisers need information about the

governments, economies, and armed forces ofother nations. The task of gathering and coordi-nating this information is primarily the responsi-bility of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).

The National Security Act established the CIAand defined its duties in 1947. Today the CIA,under the direction of the National SecurityCouncil, coordinates the intelligence activities ofother agencies. The organization also safeguardstop-secret information and conducts intelligenceoperations that the council authorizes.

Although it does use foreign agents, or spies, toobtain information, such undercover operationsare only a small part of the CIA’s function. Most ofthe agency’s employees simply gather and evaluateinformation, much of it available from news mediacoverage of foreign officials and from official pub-lications in foreign countries.

Recently critics of the CIA have questioned theagency’s efficiency. Inefficiency was most evidentafter the CIA failed to predict Iraq’s invasion ofKuwait in 1990. In addition, the collapse of the So-viet Union during 1991 caught the CIA by sur-prise. With the end of the Cold War, oneprominent newsmagazine carried a lead article ti-tled “Is the CIA Obsolete?”

616

614-620 CH22S2-860053 12/9/04 12:20 PM Page 616

Making Foreign Policy The governmentemploys hundreds of foreign policy experts whomthe president may consult before making a deci-sion. In some cases family members and trustedpolitical friends have had more influence on apresident than the secretary of state. A mild-man-nered Texan named Colonel Edward House wasPresident Woodrow Wilson’s most trusted adviser,especially during World War I, even though heheld no cabinet post.

In recent years, however, each president hastaken a different approach to foreign policy. Presi-dent Eisenhower relied heavily on Secretary ofState John Foster Dulles for foreign policy advice.President Kennedy, on the other hand, put togeth-er a team of foreign affairs experts who worked to-gether in the basement of the White House. Agroup of advisers who lunched with the presidentin the White House every Tuesday often influencedPresident Johnson’s decisions on the Vietnam War.Included in this “Tuesday Cabinet” were the direc-tor of the CIA and the White House press secre-tary. In contrast, the opinions of National SecurityAdviser Henry Kissinger were the major influenceon President Nixon.

In the final analysis, however, it is the presidentwho determines what policies are to be followed.As President Ronald Reagan wrote, only the presi-dent can “respond quickly in a crisis or formulatea coherent and consistent policy in any region ofthe world.”

Powers of CongressAlthough the president directs UnitedStates foreign policy, Congress plays an

important role. The basis for this role lies in theConstitution. The Constitution gives Congress sig-nificant foreign policy powers, including thepower to declare war and appropriate money. TheSenate must ratify treaties and confirm diplomaticappointments. Even though Congress has thesepowers, some people believe it has seldom usedthem effectively. Instead, Congress has, in thewords of former senator Barry Goldwater, revealedits “inability to act decisively in time of need.”

Power to Declare War The Constitution bal-ances the president’s powers as commander inchief by granting Congress the power to declare

war. Although the president may send troops any-where in the world, only Congress may declarewar. Yet Congress has exercised its power to declarewar only five times in our nation’s history. It de-clared war in 1812 against Britain, in 1846 againstMexico, in 1898 against Spain, in 1917 against Ger-many, and in 1941 against Japan, Germany, andItaly. In these five cases the United States was offi-cially at war with a foreign government. In each instance the president asked Congress for a decla-ration of war. Then, in accordance with the Con-stitution, both houses of Congress adopted the warresolution by a majority vote.

In other instances, instead of requesting a for-mal declaration of war, presidents have asked Con-gress to pass a joint resolution concerning the use


Diplomatic Moves Secretary of State ColinPowell (left) met with South Korean Foreign Min-ister Han Seung-soo (right) in 2001 to discussways to bring North Korean officials to the nego-tiating table and thus reduce tensions in EastAsia. How are U.S. interests served by bring-ing together former enemies such as Northand South Korea?

Encouraging Peace

614-620 CH22S2-860053 12/4/04 12:09 AM Page 617

of American troops. In 1964, for example, Presi-dent Lyndon Johnson asked Congress for authori-ty to use troops in Vietnam. In response to analleged North Vietnamese attack on United Statesships that occurred in the Gulf of Tonkin off Viet-nam’s coast, Congress passed the Gulf of TonkinResolution.1 The resolution authorized the presi-dent “to take all necessary measures to repel anyarmed attack against the forces of the UnitedStates.”

Dismayed by the results of the Gulf of TonkinResolution, Congress tried to check the president’spower to send troops into combat by passing theWar Powers Act in 1973. The act declared that thepresident could not send troops into combat formore than 60 days without the consent of Con-gress. Seventeen years later, after the 1990 Iraqi in-vasion of Kuwait, some members of Congressquestioned President Bush’s commitment of troopsin the Middle East. The War Powers Act was not in-voked, however. Instead, Congress authorized theuse of force against Iraq. With this congressionalapproval, President Bush authorized OperationDesert Storm, which easily defeated the Iraqi forces.

Former senator Jacob Javits explained thedilemma facing members of Congress who sup-port the War Powers Act in this way:

“The reluctance to challenge the president isfounded in an awareness that he holds, inlarge degree, the fate of the nation in hishands. We all wish to assist and sustainthe presidency. But I have come to the con-clusion that the awesome nature of thepower over war in our time should requireus to withhold, in relevant cases, that un-questioning support of the presidency.”—Jacob Javits, 1985

Power to Appropriate Money By far thegreatest source of congressional power in foreignpolicy derives from Congress’s control over gov-ernment spending. Only Congress can appropriatethe funds to equip American armed forces and tobuild new weapons. Congress must authorizefunds for defense and foreign aid each year. If Con-gress disapproves of a president’s action, such ascommitting troops to a limited war, it can refuse toprovide the funds to maintain the force.

In a similar fashion, Congress may refuse toprovide funds for aid to other nations. Congressalso may decide not only the sum to be granted,but also the conditions that a foreign country mustmeet to be eligible for aid.

Power in Treaty Making The Constitutionalso gives the Senate the power of “advice and con-sent” on all treaties. The president may make


Presidential Actions TheUnited States sent food to war-torn Somalia in OperationRestore Hope. The U.S.–ledUnited Nations mission, although a humanitarian one,suffered casualties. PresidentClinton faced pressure fromboth Congress and the Ameri-can public to recall Americantroops, but he refused, believ-ing that Somali lives and Ameri-can credibility were at stake.Do you think presidentsshould have the power tokeep American troops in foreign countries, ignoringpressure from Congress?

Transporting Aid to Somalia

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, page 826.

614-620 CH22S2-860053 12/4/04 12:09 AM Page 618

treaties with foreign governments, but a two-thirdsvote of the Senate must ratify them. In reality, then,Congress is called upon for its consent, not its ad-vice—a practice that actually began with PresidentWashington.

The Senate’s power in treaty making is real,however. The Senate has voted down or refused toconsider more than 130 treaties since 1789. In 1978President Jimmy Carter faced strong oppositionfrom Senate conservatives regarding his proposedPanama Canal treaties. After much debate, theSenate did eventually ratify both treaties.

Increasingly presidents have turned to anothertool for making binding commitments with foreigngovernments. Executive agreements are pacts be-tween the president and the head of a foreign gov-ernment that have the legal status of treaties but donot require Senate approval. Today executiveagreements make up more than 90 percent ofall United States international agreements.

Most Favored Nation Presidents haverelied on executive agreements to enhancetheir foreign policy powers, and Congress hasnot strongly objected to these presidentialdecisions. In fact Congress has authorizedthat all trade agreements be handled as exec-utive agreements, requiring only a simplemajority vote of both houses. Under UnitedStates law the president may grant most-fa-vored-nation (MFN) status to trading part-ners. Such agreements reduce tariff rates onall exports from that nation to the UnitedStates. By a two-thirds majority vote Con-gress may overturn the president’s decisionto grant MFN status. In 1997, for example theHouse voted to kill a bill that would haveended renewal of most-favored-nation statusfor China. In 2000, China was granted per-manent MFN status.

Power to Confirm Appointments TheSenate must also confirm presidential ap-pointments to diplomatic posts. This powerwas intended to give the Senate an opportu-nity to screen applicants for foreign policypositions and thus help determine foreignpolicy. Usually the Senate is willing to acceptthe persons the president appoints to diplo-matic posts.

The President and Congress Congress’s powers could enable the legisla-ture to block some of a president’s foreign

policies and even initiate policies of its own. Con-gress, however, waits for the president to set a di-rection in foreign policy. On most issues Congresspasses the foreign policy bills and treaties the pres-ident and his advisers propose.

Over the past several decades, especially intimes of war and severe crisis, the president’s for-eign policies have enjoyed bipartisan, or two-party, congressional support. For example,Republican and Democratic members of Congressreadily supported President Wilson in World War Iand President Roosevelt in World War II. Duringthe Persian Gulf War in 1991, President Bush alsoreceived bipartisan support from Congress. During


A Change of Policy In 1978 President JimmyCarter won Senate ratification of the Panama Canaltreaties, which transferred control of the canal fromthe United States to Panama by the end of the centu-ry. Many Americans were outraged at the Panama“giveaway.” Why were Americans outraged andwhat do you think motivated the United Statesto make such a treaty?

A Historical Double Take

614-620 CH22S2-860053 12/4/04 12:09 AM Page 619

the Vietnam War, however, bipartisan supportbegan to unravel when Congress and the publicwere deeply divided about the nation’s role in thelong and costly war.

Presidential Advantages The president hasadvantages over Congress in conducting foreignpolicy. One is the president’s position as the leaderof the nation. Only the president—or a chosenspokesperson such as the secretary of state—canspeak for the nation in dealings with other govern-ments. It is the president to whom Americans lookfor leadership in foreign affairs.

A second advantage is that the president con-trols those agencies, such as the Department ofState and the National Security Council, that helpformulate and carry out foreign policy on a day-to-day basis. Consequently, the president hasgreater access to vital secret information about for-eign affairs. Such information often is not availableto members of Congress.

A third advantage is that the president is ableto take quick decisive action. Today it is often nec-essary to respond to events rapidly, and at timesextreme secrecy is essential. The House and Senatemust discuss, vote, and take into consideration theopinions of many members. Congress simply can-not act as quickly as the president or maintain se-crecy with so many people involved.

Finally, by using executive agreements, thepresident can bypass the Senate when making

agreements with other nations. As a result of theseadvantages there has been a steady increase in thepresident’s power over foreign policy matters.

Influence of Public OpinionThough the president and Congress havethe major responsibility for making foreign

policy, their decisions are often influenced by theopinions of the American people. Public opinion,for example, directly influenced the Vietnam War.Mass protests and demonstrations in the 1960sand the early 1970s had a direct impact on foreignpolicy. Early on, most Americans supported thefighting in Vietnam. But as the number of Ameri-cans wounded and killed grew and media coverageheightened public awareness of the situation,public opinion slowly began to turn against thewar. As the war dragged on, other groups joinedthe protests. The growing discontent contributedheavily to President Lyndon Johnson’s decision notto seek reelection in 1968 and later influenced Pres-ident Richard Nixon’s decision to begin pullingAmerican troops out of Vietnam.

Besides public opinion, pressure from interestgroups can also affect foreign policy. The votes ofCongress on foreign policy questions are subject tothe influence of organized interest groups. Thesegroups whose concerns range from trade tohuman rights issues can have a substantial impacton legislation that affects their areas of interest.


Checks and Balances Use library resources to find specific examples of how public opinionchanged U.S. policy in Vietnam in the 1960sand 1970s. Prepare a poster that illustratesthe public’s reaction to the war and the gov-ernment’s responses. Be sure to include pic-tures, captions, and headlines in your poster.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Use a Venn

diagram like the one to the right to compare executive agreements and treaties.

2. Define ambassador, treaty, executive agreement, bipartisan.

3. Identify secretary of state, national security adviser, Central Intelligence Agency.

4. Which cabinet members generally work mostclosely with the president on foreign policy?

5. What are the foreign policy powers of Congress?

Critical Thinking6. Forming an Opinion Do you think the president

has too much power in making foreign policy?Explain your answer.


ExecutiveAgreements

Treatiesboth

614-620 CH22S2-860053 12/4/04 12:09 AM Page 620

It is the duty of the president and Congress tomake American foreign policy. Appointed of-ficials in the executive branch, however, carryout foreign policy on a day-to-day basis.

Two departments in the executive branch areprimarily responsible for foreign policy and fornational security. The Department of State, one ofthe smallest cabinet-level departments in terms ofemployees, carries out foreign policy. The Depart-ment of Defense is the largest of all the executivedepartments both in terms of money spent andpeople employed. It looks after the national securi-ty of the United States.

The Department of StateCreated by Congress in 1789, the Depart-ment of State was the first executive depart-

ment. Originally known as the Department ofForeign Affairs, it was soon renamed the Depart-ment of State. The secretary of state, head of theState Department, is generally considered to be themost important member of the cabinet, rankingjust below the president and vice president.

The State Department advises the presidentand formulates and carries out policy. Officially,the Department of State’s “primary objective inthe conduct of foreign relations is to promote thelong-range security and well-being of the UnitedStates.” The Department of State carries out fourother important functions: (l) to keep the presi-dent informed about international issues, (2) tomaintain diplomatic relations with foreign gov-ernments, (3) to negotiate treaties with foreigngovernments, and (4) to protect the interests ofAmericans who are traveling or conductingbusiness abroad.

Organizational Structure Six assistantsecretaries direct the six geographic bureaus of the State Department. These bureaus are the Bureaus of African Affairs, European andEurasian Affairs, East Asian and Pacific Affairs,

State and Defense DepartmentsS e c t i o n 3S e c t i o n 3

Troops in SomaliaWASHINGTON, D.C., DECEMBER 4, 1992

President George H.W.

Bush ordered 28,000

U.S. troops into Somalia to

protect relief workers in

their efforts to distribute

aid to that nation’s starving

people. A civil war in the

East African nation has

prevented supplies from

reaching much of the pop-

ulation. Bush stressed that

the intervention is for hu-

manitarian, not strategic

reasons. “I understand that the United States alone

cannot right the world’s wrongs,” the president de-

clared. “But we also know that some crises in the

world cannot be resolved without American involve-

ment.” Analysts see Bush’s action as defining a new

role for the U.S. military in the post–Cold War world.

U.S. soldier hugs aSomali child.


Reader’s Guide

Key Termsembassy, consulate, consul, passport, visa, conscription

Find Out■ How is the State Department structured to

carry out United States foreign policy?■ What constitutional powers do Congress and

the president have over the military?

Understanding ConceptsSeparation of Powers What constitutional provisions separate the powers of Congress andthe president in developing and carrying out foreign policy?

621-626 CH22S3-860053 12/4/04 12:09 AM Page 621

Western Hemisphere Affairs, Near Eastern Affairs,and South Asian Affairs. Other bureaus analyze information about specific foreign policy topics.One such bureau deals with educational and culturalaffairs, another with political-military problems, andanother with intelligence and research. The work ofthe State Department, therefore, is organized both bytopics and regions.

The Foreign Service More than half of theemployees of the State Department serve in othercountries. The officials who are assigned to serveabroad in foreign countries belong to the ForeignService.

College graduates who seek a career in the For-eign Service must pass an extremely demandingcivil service exam. Successful applicants then re-ceive training in special schools. Foreign Service

Officers (FSOs) usually spend several years abroadin a diplomatic post. Then they may be recalled toWashington, D.C., to participate in foreign policydiscussions at the State Department.

For many FSOs, an overseas assignment is val-ued, but for others it may be a life of hardship. Asone observer of the State Department noted:

“Working at State demands far more thanthe usual 40-hour week. . . . Officers stationed overseas are almost never off duty.Not only may they be called on at any hourof the day or night, they also represent thegovernment in every aspect of their livesand personal encounters. Even socializing is work. Attending parties, seemingly an attractive way of making a living, pales afterweeks of mandatory and boring appearancesfollowing an intensive workday.”—Barry Rubin, 1985

In their service abroad, Foreign Service Officers arenormally assigned either to an American embassyor to an American consulate.

Embassies The United States maintains em-bassies in the capital cities of foreign countries—suchas Tokyo, Japan; Paris, France; and Nairobi, Kenya.An embassy includes the official residence and officesof the ambassador and his or her staff. The primaryfunction of an embassy is to make diplomatic com-munication between governments easier. Currently,the State Department directs the work of over 200American embassies and consulates.

Embassy officials keep the State Departmentinformed about the politics and foreign policies ofthe host government. They also keep the host gov-ernment informed about American policies.

An ambassador heads each American embassy.Most ambassadors today come from the ranks ofthe Foreign Service as experienced and highlyqualified professional diplomats. Some ambas-sadors, however, may be political appointees, se-lected for reasons other than their diplomaticknowledge or experience. In every case, however,an ambassador is appointed by the president andmust be confirmed by the Senate.

Each embassy includes specialists who dealwith political and military matters, trade, travel,and currency. The specialists help resolve disputes


Representing a Nation Guards patrol theUnited States embassy in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.Why do you think embassies have been atarget for political protests and terrorist activities in recent years?

Guarding United States Interests

621-626 CH22S3-860053 12/4/04 12:09 AM Page 622


that arise between the host country and the Unit-ed States. Most disputes are minor enough to besettled by the embassy staff. In the case of majordisagreements, governments may break off diplo-matic relations by closing their embassies. Such ac-tion represents the strongest sign of displeasurethat one government can show toward another.

Consulates The United States also maintainsoffices known as consulates in major cities of for-eign nations. Consulates are not normally involvedin diplomatic negotiations with foreign govern-ments. They function primarily to promote Amer-ican business interests in foreign countries and toserve and safeguard American travelers in thecountries where consulates are located.

Heading each consulate is a Foreign ServiceOfficer called a consul. In the course of a routineday, the consul and staff handle individual prob-lems and inquiries about such matters as shippingschedules, business opportunities, and travelneeds.

Passports and Visas For Americans travel-ing abroad, the State Department issues a docu-ment called a passport. The traveler whosephotograph and signature appear on the passport

is entitled to certain privileges and protection es-tablished by an international treaty. With a pass-port, an American citizen can expect to be grantedentry into many countries.

In some cases, however, to be granted the rightto enter another country it is necessary to obtainanother document called a visa. A visa is a specialdocument issued by the government of the countrythat a person wishes to enter. If a citizen of Kenyawishes to visit the United States, for example, he orshe must apply for a visa at an American embassyor consulate in one of the major Kenyan cities.

American immigration laws require nearly allforeign visitors to obtain visas prior to entering theUnited States. The countries of Western Europe,however, do not require American travelers tocarry visas, only passports.

The Department of DefenseTo protect national security, the Depart-ment of Defense (DOD) supervises the

armed forces of the United States and makes surethese forces are strong enough to defend Americaninterests. The Department of Defense assists thepresident in carrying out the duties of commanderin chief.

Military ControlPresident Bush addresses U.S. ArmyAirborne troops stationed at CampBondsteel in Kosovo,Yugoslavia. Why do you think theFounders put the nation’s militaryunder civilian control?

The Commander in Chief

621-626 CH22S3-860053 12/4/04 12:10 AM Page 623

Establishing the Department of DefenseBefore 1947 the Departments of War and the Navywere responsible for the nation’s defense. Thecountry’s experiences in coordinating militaryforces in World War II, however, prompted a mili-tary reorganization. The result was the NationalSecurity Establishment, which two years later be-came the Department of Defense. From the outset,the secretary of defense was a member of the pres-ident’s cabinet.

Civilian Control of the Military TheFounders wanted to ensure that the military wouldalways be subordinate to the civilian leaders of

the government. As a result, the ultimate authorityfor commanding the armed forces rests with thecivilian commander in chief, the president of theUnited States.

Congress also exercises considerable authorityover military matters. Because of its constitutionalpower over appropriations, Congress determineshow much money the Department of Defense willspend each year.

Congress also has the power to determine howeach branch of the armed forces will be organizedand governed. In order to maintain civilian controlof the military, the top leaders of the Departmentof Defense all are required to be civilians.


Critical Thinking Military spending, as well as the percentage of enlisted females, has increased over the past 20 years. In which category did spending increase the most?

Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2002 (Washington, D.C.: 2002); Department of Defense,Population Representation in the Military Services, 2001.

Milit

ary

Constructi

on

Resea

rch an

d

Develo

pmen

t

Procu

rem

ent

Milit

ary

Perso

nnel

Operat

ions a

nd

Main

tenan

ce

200219901980

Sp

en

din

g (

in b

illi

on

s o

f d

oll

ars

)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

13044

.8

88.3

133.

6

40.9

7581

.2

29

81.0

13.1

37.5 45

.1

2.5 5.

7

5.1

59.6

Government Spending by Category

Males 85.5%

Females 14.5%

Males 91.6%

Females 8.4%

Males and Females in theU.S. Military

1980

2000

United States MilitaryUnited States Military

621-626 CH22S3-860053 12/4/04 12:10 AM Page 624

Size of the Department of Defense Withmore than 700,000 civilian employees and morethan 1 million military personnel on active duty,the Defense Department is the largest executive department. It is headquartered in the Pentagon inArlington, Virginia, near Washington, D.C.

Army, Navy, and Air Force Among themajor divisions within the Department of Defenseare the Departments of the Army, the Navy, andthe Air Force. A civilian secretary heads eachbranch. The United States Marine Corps, underthe jurisdiction of the Navy, maintains its ownleadership, identity, and traditions.

The Joint Chiefs of Staff The president, theNational Security Council, and the secretary of de-fense rely on the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) formilitary advice. This group is made up of the top-ranking officers of the armed forces. Included arethe Chief of Staff of the Army, Chief of Staff of theAir Force, and the Chief of Naval Operations. TheCommandant of the Marine Corps also attendsmeetings of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The fifth andsixth members are the Chairman and Vice Chair-man of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Chairman isappointed for a two-year term by the president.

A Volunteer Military The United States hasused two methods of staffing its armed forces—by

conscription, or compulsory military service, andby using volunteers. Conscription was first usedduring the Civil War and was implemented duringWorld War I and world War II.

By executive order President Richard Nixonsuspended conscription, or the draft, in 1973.Since then membership in the military has beenvoluntary. Nixon’s order, however, did not repealthe law that created the Selective Service Systemthat administered the draft. For that reason, malesbetween the ages of 18 and 25 could be required toserve if conscription is reinstated.

Military Registration Since 1980 all youngmen who have passed their eighteenth birthdayshave been required to register their names and addresses with local draft boards. Though womenare not eligible to be drafted, they may volunteer toserve in any branch of the armed services. All military services are now committed to the goal ofincreasing the number of female recruits.


Separation of Powers What foreign policygoals do you think the State Departmentshould carry out today? Review the major for-eign policy goals of the United States outlinedin Section 1. Choose the two goals that youthink are most important today. Present a two-minute speech outlining why you thinkthese goals are the most important.


below to show the organizational structure of theState Department.

2. Define embassy, consulate, consul, passport,visa, conscription.

3. Identify Foreign Service, Joint Chiefs of Staff.4. What are the powers of Congress in military

matters?

Critical Thinking5. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Do you

think an armed forces of volunteers will performbetter or worse than one of draftees?


Student Web Activity Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web site atgov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 22–Student Web Activities for an activity about the State and Defense departments.

GOVERNMENT

Regions Topics

621-626 CH22S3-860053 12/4/04 12:10 AM Page 625



toto

WHEN SHOULD MILITARYFORCE BE USED?

The goals of U.S. foreign policy are to maintain national security and world peace,protect free trade, support democratic governments, and promote the humane

treatment of people in other nations. When national security is threatened, most peoplesupport the use of military force. Should military force be used to promote other

goals such as intervening in a civil war to support a democratic government?

POST–COLD WAR INTERVENTION

Since the end of the Cold War, the UnitedStates has faced many different situations thathave required the nation’s military to give adviceon, negotiate, and police conflicts throughout theworld. The scope of these military actions hasranged from two full-blown wars against Iraq (1990,2003) to sending troops into Somalia (1992) toprotect deliveries of food during a civil war. Since1989 the United States has sent troops into suchareas as Panama (1989), the Persian Gulf (1990,2003), the Balkans (1991), Somalia (1992), Haiti(1994), Bosnia-Herzegovina (1995), and Afghanistan (2002).

SOLVING PROBLEMS

Diplomacy is always the firstchoice when trying to resolve a conflict. However, if diplomacy fails,the United States has resorted toother means. Economic and politicalsanctions placed on a conflictingcountry have been used in some instances. Forging alliances with other nations through the United Nations can also place pressure on a nation. If those methods fail, the show or use of military force is usually a final option.

Was national security at stake in each interven-tion listed above? How do you think the UnitedStates should have dealt with those conflicts?

KEY ISSUES✔ What foreign policy goals do you think prompt-ed the United States to get involved in each of theconflicts? ✔ What would the probable outcome of each ofthe conflicts have been if the United States had notintervened?✔ What are the possible consequences if a worldpower, such as the United States, does not get in-volved in international conflicts?

Debate Divide the class into five groups. Each group should choose one of the conflicts listedabove and research the role the United Statesplayed in that conflict. Then each group should divide into two teams. One team should use thefacts that each of the groups has gathered to justifythe United States’s actions in the conflict. The otherteam should prepare an alternative policy that theUnited States could have implemented to handlethe situation.

Vote Team members should vote on each issue to see what percentage of the class favors militaryintervention.

Debating the IssueDebating the Issue

IS MILITARY FORCE JUSTIFIED WHEN NATIONAL SECURITY IS NOT AT STAKE?

621-626 CH22S3-860053 12/4/04 12:10 AM Page 626

The desire to preserve national securityand economic well-being often can leadto conflicts between nations. To minimizethe danger to national security, the

United States tries to settle such conflicts peace-fully and to negotiate agreements with foreigngovernments. The tools that are available includealliances, programs of foreign aid, economic sanc-tions, and, in extreme circumstances, military action.

Alliances and PactsThroughout history, when nations felt acommon threat to their security, they nego-

tiated mutual defense alliances. Nations that be-came allies under such alliances usually agreed tosupport each other in case of an attack.

Through such alliances the United States hascommitted itself to defending the regions of West-ern Europe and the North Atlantic, Central andSouth America, and the island nations of the SouthPacific. The United States has signed mutual de-fense treaties with nations in these three regions.The treaties that protect these areas are referred toas regional security pacts.

The North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationIn 1945 the United States and leaders of the war-torn nations in Western Europe agreed to protecteach other from domination by the Soviet Union.The mutual defense treaty that was the basis for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)stated: “The parties agree that an armed attackagainst one or more of them in Europe or NorthAmerica shall be considered an attack againstthem all.”

During the Cold War, NATO countered themilitary might of the Soviet Union by stationingtroops from the United States, West Germany,Great Britain, and other NATO nations onmilitary bases across Western Europe under asingle NATO commander. By providing thisframework of military security, NATO gave the

Foreign Policy In ActionS e c t i o n 4S e c t i o n 4


Playing ChickenBRUSSELS, BELGIUM, APRIL 2, 1997

Adispute between the

United States and

the European Union over

chickens and turkeys is

threatening to erupt into

a trade war. At the center

of the controversy are

differences in each side’s

meat-inspection system.

EU officials contend that

poultry processed in U.S.

plants does not meet Eu-

ropean health standards and cannot be imported.

An EU import ban would cost U.S. industry $50 mil-

lion to $86 million annually. American officials say

they will respond by blocking $300 million in EU

meat exports to the U.S. The EU denounced the

threat as counterproductive to an agreement. Nei-

ther side is optimistic that a deal is near.

Target of controversy

Reader’s Guide

Key Termsmutual defense alliance, regional security pact,multilateral treaty, bilateral treaty, collective security, sanction

Find Out■ What are the main alliances of the United

States today?■ What are some ways the United States can

influence the policies of other nations?

Understanding ConceptsGrowth of Democracy What changes in the roleof NATO are consistent with the promotion ofdemocracy in Europe?

627-633 CH22S4-860053 12/4/04 12:11 AM Page 627

nations of Western Europe time to establish soliddemocratic governments and strong, free-marketeconomies. While primarily a military alliance,NATO has also served as a useful place forAmerican and European policy makers to meetregularly and discuss mutual problems.

The end of the Cold War also meant the end ofNATO’s original purpose, but it was not the end of NATO. Since the major military threat to itsmembers ended in the early 1990s, the alliance hasbeen redefining itself in two ways.

First, NATO has expanded its mission to in-clude crisis intervention and peacekeeping in otherareas of the world. When war broke out in Bosnia in1995, NATO intervened with air strikes thatbrought an end to the fighting. Then in 1999 NATOused a massive bombing campaign followed by theinsertion of NATO peacekeeping troops to haltSerbian aggression in the province of Kosovo. An-other crisis intervention occurred in 2001 whenNATO troops moved into Macedonia to stop thefighting between the country’s ethnic Macedonianmajority and an ethnic Albanian minority. After theSeptember 2001 terrorist attacks on the United

States, NATO countries pledged military and otherkinds of assistance in the war on terrorism.

Second, NATO has expanded its membership.In 1999 three former Warsaw Pact nations—Poland,Hungary, and the Czech Republic—were invited tojoin. Russia was made a NATO partner in 2002.While not the same as membership, partnershipallowed Russia to take an active role in alliancediscussions. Seven other former Communist coun-tries—Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania,Slovakia, and Slovenia—entered the alliance in 2004.This growth in membership means that the globalresponsibilities of the United States have increased.Expansion also means that the United States couldbecome involved in more peacekeeping missionssuch as those in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Macedonia.President George W. Bush has supported expansionof NATO membership.“All of Europe’s new democ-racies,” he stated, “should have the same chance forsecurity and freedom and the same chance to jointhe institutions of Europe.”

At the same time, many European leaders haveobserved that the United States is less interested inNATO now than it was during the Cold War. Theynote that the United States is becoming more con-cerned with threats to its national security that ariseoutside of Europe. Further, they note that in recentyears, the United States has spent more than twice asmuch on its own national defense than all of theother NATO members combined have spent ontheir own countries’ defenses. As a result, manyEuropean leaders believe that the United States isnow less concerned about cooperating with its alliesand more willing to act on its own in dealing withglobal threats to American security.

Latin America and the Pacific In 1947 theUnited States and its Latin American neighborssigned the Rio Pact. Among its provisions is thisstatement:

“An armed attack by any State against anAmerican State shall be considered as anattack against all the American States,and, consequently, each one of the . . .contracting parties undertakes to assist in meeting the attack. . . .”—Rio Pact, 1947

Since 1947 most Latin American nations and theUnited States have participated in the Rio Pact.


Difficult Diplomacy A president’scareer often hinges on how he deals withinternational incidents. Just ask Jimmy Carter.In 1979 anti-American students in Iran held52 members of the U.S. embassy hostage inTehran. President Carter tried unsuccessfully toget the Americans released by using economicpressure, diplomacy, and finally military force.The frustrating situation angered Americansand is widely believed to have contributed toCarter’s loss to Ronald Reagan in the 1980election. After promising to release Iranianassets, Reagan got the hostages—who hadspent 444 days in captivity—released, thusboosting his popularity.

627-633 CH22S4-860053 12/4/04 12:11 AM Page 628

Following its revolution, Cuba withdrew from thepact in 1960. In 1948 the United States signed a related treaty, establishing the Organization ofAmerican States (OAS). Unlike the Rio Pact, theOAS is primarily concerned with promoting eco-nomic development.

The United States also has a regional se-curity pact with Australia and New Zealand. TheANZUS Pact, signed in September 1951, obligedAustralia, New Zealand, and the United States tocome to one another’s aid in case of attack. In 1984the government of New Zealand adopted a policythat excluded nuclear weapons and nuclear-pow-ered ships from the nation’s ports and waters. Inresponse to this policy, the United States an-nounced in 1986 that it would no longer guaranteeNew Zealand’s security under the ANZUS treaty.

Bilateral Treaties of Alliance NATO, theRio Pact, OAS, and ANZUS are all examples ofmultilateral treaties. Multilateral treaties are inter-national agreements signed by several nations. TheUnited States has also signed bilateral treaties ofalliance. A bilateral treaty is an agreement that involves only two nations.

One bilateral treaty, signed in 1951, makes theUnited States an ally of Japan. A similar treaty, alsosigned in 1951, pledges the United States to the de-fense of the Philippines. A third bilateral treaty,signed in 1953, makes the United States an ally ofSouth Korea.

The United States has alliances with almost 50nations. These nations can count on the militarysupport of the United States in case of an attack.The objective of these treaties is to provide collec-tive security for the United States and its allies.Collective security is a system by which the par-ticipating nations agree to take joint action againsta nation that attacks any one of them.

Foreign Aid ProgramsMilitary alliances are one benefit that theUnited States may offer to friendly nations.

American leaders can also offer military support inthe form of grants or loans to purchase Americanarmaments. Economic aid is another benefitAmerican leaders can offer. Economic aid has longbeen used to forge closer ties between the UnitedStates and the world’s developing nations. Since


the end of World War II, this aid has had two pur-poses. One purpose has been to establish friendlyrelations with these nations. The second purposehas been to help these nations emerge as eventualeconomic partners.

Many developing nations have problems satisfy-ing even the minimum needs of their people forfood, housing, and education. They urgently needloans and technical assistance. Since 1946 the UnitedStates has provided more than $300 billion in eco-nomic aid worldwide and about $160 billion in mil-itary aid. Today the Agency for International Development (AID), an agency of the State Depart-ment, administers American programs of economicaid. AID has considerable independence, however,and dispenses loans and technical assistance to coun-tries throughout the world with very little directionfrom the secretary of state.

The United States spent over $16 billion in foreign aid during the 2000 fiscal year. What government body or agency appropriates funds for foreign aid?

Critical Thinking

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2002 (Washington, D.C.: 2002).

Principal Recipients By Region, 2000

Far East and Pacific 3.3%Western Europe 1.2%

EasternEurope11.1%

LatinAmerica

7.1%

Africa6.3%

Other/unspecified

24.5%

Near East andSouth Asia

46.6%

U.S. Foreign AidU.S. Foreign Aid

627-633 CH22S4-860053 12/4/04 12:11 AM Page 629

Economic SanctionsAlliances and economic benefits are twomethods of influencing the policies of other

nations. The withdrawal or denial of benefits is athird diplomatic strategy. American policy makerssometimes use this strate-gy when they deal withgovernments that followpolicies the U.S. dislikes.

One way of withdraw-ing benefits is by applyingsanctions. Sanctions aremeasures such as with-holding loans, arms, oreconomic aid to force a for-eign government to ceasecertain activities. Duringthis century, the UnitedStates has employed sanc-tions more than 75 times.Sanctions were directedagainst Iraq beginning in1990, but most were liftedin 2003 following the warbetween Iraq and U.S.-led coalition forces.

The United States may also restrict trade withanother nation as an economic sanction. In the1980s President Reagan banned the use of Ameri-can technology in building a natural gas pipelinein the Soviet Union. He did this to protest the Soviet Union’s suppression of a Polish trade union.

The Use of Military ForceThose who believe that military force is anecessary tool of foreign policy argue that

many times in recent history limited military ac-tion might have preserved peace. In 1938, for ex-

ample, rather than riskwar Great Britain andFrance agreed to allow theGerman dictator AdolfHitler to take over part ofCzechoslovakia. Thus em-boldened, Hitler went on toswallow the rest of thatcountry, a move that even-tually led to World War II.

The United Statesgovernment has usedmilitary force to settledisputes with other na-tions. American troopshave been used abroad ona number of occasions.Since World War II, theUnited States has com-

mitted troops without a declaration of war inKorea, Vietnam, Grenada, Panama, the PersianGulf region, and in war-torn Bosnia-Herzegovina.In 2001, President Bush ordered the military toattack Afghanistan as part of the war on terrorism.In 2003 American troops led coalition soldiers intoIraq to defeat Saddam Hussein.

A U.S. soldier with children in war-torn Bosnia-Herzegovina


Growth of Democracy Research the require-ments needed to be Peace Corps volunteersand the kinds of work they perform. Imaginethat you are a Peace Corps volunteer who wasinvited to speak to your class and present theinformation you have researched.


below to show the results that the United Statestries to achieve through foreign aid.

2. Define mutual defense alliance, regional security pact, multilateral treaty, bilateral treaty,collective security, sanction.

3. Identify NATO, OAS.4. Analyze why NATO is important to the United

States.5. List two mutual defense alliances, besides

NATO, in which the United States is a partner.

Critical Thinking6. Making Inferences Why would the stipulation of

“an attack against one shall be considered asan attack against all” create a sense of security?


CAUSE EFFECTS

627-633 CH22S4-860053 12/4/04 12:11 AM Page 630

TechnologyTechnology

Evaluating a Web Site

The Internet has become a valuable researchtool. It is convenient to use, and the infor-mation contained on the Internet is plenti-

ful. However, some Web site information is notnecessarily accurate or reliable. When using theInternet as a research tool, you will need to dis-tinguish between quality information and inac-curate or incomplete information.

Learning the Skill

There are a number of issues to considerwhen evaluating a Web site. Most important is tocheck the accuracy of the source and content. Theauthor and publisher or sponsor of the siteshould be clearly indicated. The information onthe site should be current, and the design and or-ganization of the site should be appealing andeasy to navigate.

To evaluate a Web site, ask yourself the fol-lowing questions:• Are the facts on the site documented?• Is more than one source used for background

information within the site?• Are the links within the site appropriate and

up-to-date?• Is the author clearly identified?• Does the site contain links to other useful

resources?• Is the information easy to access? It is properly

labeled?• Is the design appealing?

Practicing the Skill

Visit the following Web site and answer thequestions that follow.

http://www.state.gov

1. Who is the author or sponsor of the Web site?2. What links does the site contain? Are they ap-

propriate to the topic?3. Is the design of the site appealing? Why or

why not?4. How is the home page organized?

631

Application ActivityApplication Activity

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practicein key social studies skills.

Locate two other Web sites about UnitedStates foreign policy. Evaluate them for accuracy and usefulness, then compare themto the site featured in this lesson. Be certainto explore the various links that the site includes to conduct a thorough evaluation of the site. Share your findings with the class.

627-633 CH22S4-860053 12/4/04 12:11 AM Page 631

Reviewing Key TermsChoose the letter of the correct term or conceptbelow to complete the sentence.

a. executive agreement e. sanctionb. internationalism f. consulatec. foreign policy g. isolationismd. bipartisan h. multilateral treaty1. In the 1800s the U.S. avoided involvement in

world affairs, a policy known as _____.2. Imposing an economic _____ on another

nation restricts trade with that nation. 3. The president’s foreign policies often have en-

joyed _____ congressional support.

4. Located in major cities of foreign nations, a_____ promotes American business interestsand safeguards American travelers.

5. A nation’s _____ guides its relations with othercountries and groups in the world.

6. An international agreement signed by a groupof several nations is called a _____.

7. The United States now follows a policy of_____ regarding world affairs.

8. A pact between the president and the head ofa foreign government, called an _____, doesnot require the Senate’s approval.

Recalling Facts1. What have been the major characteristics of

American foreign policy since 1945?2. Who, in addition to the cabinet, advises the

president on foreign policy?3. What four advantages does the president have

over Congress in conducting foreign policy?4. Describe the organization of the Department of

State.5. What is the responsibility of the Department of

Defense in foreign policy?

Assessment and ActivitiesChapter 22Chapter 22

Self-Check Quiz Visit the United States Government:Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 22–Self-Check Quizzes to preparefor the chapter test.

GOVERNMENT

• Isolationism—United States avoided involvement in world affairsuntil the late 1800s.

• Internationalism—United States involvement in world affairs grewwith the outbreak of two world wars in the mid-1900s.

• Interdependence—Key foreign policy issues today include theglobal economy and global terrorism.

Growth of Foreign Policy

• Alliances and pacts, such as the North Atlantic TreatyOrganization (NATO)

• Foreign aid programs to establish friendly relations with develop-ing nations and help them emerge as economic partners

• Economic sanctions, such as withholding loans or restricting trade• Military force to settle disputes with other nations

Tools of Foreign Policy

• President serves as head of state and commander in chief of thearmed forces.

• Advisers such as secretaries of state and defense and nationalsecurity adviser influence the president’s foreign policy.

• Congress has power to declare war and appropriate money;Senate ratifies treaties and confirms diplomatic appointments.

Foreign Policy Powers

• State Department keeps president informed about internationalissues, maintains diplomatic relations and negotiates treaties withforeign governments, and protects the interests of Americans trav-eling or conducting business abroad.

• Department of Defense supervises the armed forces of theUnited States and assists the president in carrying out the duties ofcommander in chief.

State and Defense Departments

627-633 CH22S4-860053 12/4/04 12:12 AM Page 632


UnderstandingConcepts

1. Public Policy Many Ameri-can presidents haveachieved more success inforeign policy than in do-mestic affairs. Explain whythis might be so.

2. Separation of PowersShould Congress play agreater role in the forma-tion of American foreignpolicy? Why or why not?

Critical Thinking1. Drawing Conclusions With

the changes in world poli-tics after the Cold War, doyou believe the role of theCIA will change? Explain.

2. Synthesizing InformationUse a Venn diagram likethe one below to show how the roles of the Departments of State and Defense overlap.

Analyzing Primary SourcesGeorge Kennan was one of the United States’smost distinguished diplomats to the Soviet Unionin the late 1940s and 1950s. He was also the ar-chitect of the U.S. policy of containment, which di-rected American foreign policy during the Cold War.Read the excerpt detailing Kennan’s vision of con-tainment and answer the questions that follow.“In these circumstances it is clear that the main element ofany United States policy toward the Soviet Union must bethat of a long-term, patient but firm and vigilant contain-ment of Russian expansive tendencies. It is important tonote, however, that such a policy has nothing to do withoutward histrionics: with threats or blustering or superfluousgestures of outward ‘toughness.’. . . [I]t is a sine qua nonof successful dealing with Russia that the foreign government

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity

in question should remain at all times cool and collectedand that its demands on Russian policy should be put for-ward in such a manner as to leave the way open for acompliance not too detrimental to Russian prestige.”

1. How does Kennan recommend that the UnitedStates deal with the Soviet Union’s expansion-ist tendencies?

2. Do you think that this type of foreign policypractice is relevant today, or similar to anyideas promoted by the U.S. government in itswar on terror?

Participating inNational GovernmentProviding foreign aid is a way for the United States to maintaingood relationships with foreignnations. Find out how you cancontribute to an international relief effort. Outline the results of your research.

Chapter 22Chapter 22

1. What do the cacti in this cartoon represent?2. How does this cartoon characterize United States foreign

policy?3. How does this cartoon characterize a president’s role in

foreign policy?


State Defenseboth

627-633 CH22S4-860053 12/4/04 12:13 AM Page 633

chapter 22: foreign policy and defense · chapter 22: foreign policy and defense 609 humanitarian...

Documents