chapter 21 reaction, revolution, and romanticism, 1815 - 1850
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 21
Reaction, Revolution, and Romanticism,
1815 - 1850
The Conservative Order (1815 – 1830)The Peace Settlement
Quadruple Alliance: Great Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia• Defeated Napoleon • Congress of Vienna (1814 – 1815)
Created policies to maintain European balance of power
• Lead by Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austrian foreign minister)
Believed European monarchs shared common interest of stability
• The principal of legitimacy Considered it necessary to restore legitimate monarchs to
preserve traditional institutions Restore Bourbon monarchy to the throne in Louis XVIII
• A new balance of power Strengthen countries to prevent one country from dominating Napoleon’s escape from Elba prompted the Congress of Vienna
to push France’s borders back to those of 1790 as punishment for enthusiastically accepting him back
Possible Test QuestionAt the Congress of Vienna, the Austrian representative Prince Metternich pursued the policy of legitimacy, meaning
He wished to legitimate the French defeat.He sought legitimate control over central Europe to benefit Austria.He endeavored to restore legitimate monarchs on their thrones and to preserve traditional institutions and values.He sought legitimate proof of England’s economic and industrial support of Austria.He demanded that the state churches, Catholic or Protestant, become the primary rulers throughout all of Europe.
Possible Test Question
The Congress of ViennaGave Prussia complete control over Polish lands.
Created policies that would maintain the European balance of power.
Failed to achieve long-lasting peace among European nations.
Treated France leniently following Napoleon’s One Hundred Days.
Sanctioned the political power of the bourgeoisie.
Conservative IdeologyConservatism became the dominant political thought after the fall of NapoleonFrom Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution of France
• Emphasized the dangers of radical political change
Conservative political thought• Obedience to political authority• Organized religion was crucial to social order• Hated revolutionary upheavals
Advocated slow, gradual changes• Unwilling to accept liberal demands or representative
government
• Wanted to preserve achievements of previous generations while sacrificing individual rights for the well being of the community
Possible Test QuestionConservatism, the dominant political philosophy following the fall of Napoleon
Was rejected by the Congress of Vienna as inappropriate in the new liberal age.
Expressed that individual rights remained the best guide for human order.
Was exemplified by Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France, emphasizing the dangers of radical and “rational” political change.
Was too radical for Joseph de Maistre, the French spokesman for a cautious, evolutionary conservatism.
Advocated the creation of oligarchic republics.
New Map of EuropeCongress of Vienna sought to weaken France and maintain a balance power
Created a new enlarged NetherlandsEnlarged SardinaPrussia was given territory on the RhineGermanic Confederation (Germanic States)Kingdom of PolandAustria got territory in northern Italy
Congress of Vienna managed to prevent an all out European conflict for almost a century
Map 21.1: Europe after the Congress of Vienna
Conservative Domination: The Concert of Europe
The Concert of EuropeFear of Revolution & war led to development of the Concert of Europe
Met several times: congresses
Quintuple Alliance • Withdraw armies from France, add France to the
Concert of Europe
Principle of intervention• Outbreak of revolution in Spain and Italy
• Great powers reserved the right to send armies into countries where there were revolutions to restore legitimate monarchs to their throne
• Britain objected to the principle of intervention leading to a breakdown in the Concert of Europe
• Austrian troops crushed Italian rebellion
• French troops crushed Spanish rebellion
• Britain’s refusal kept Continental Europe from interfering in revolutions in Latin America
Possible Test QuestionThe most important factor in preventing the European overthrow of the newly independent nations of Latin America was
European economic collapse.
The Monroe Doctrine guiding American foreign policy.
The sheer size of South America.
Growing support for pacifism in Europe.
British naval power.
The Revolt of Latin AmericaBourbon monarchy of Spain toppled
Latin American countries begin declaring independence• Simón Bolivar (1783-1830)
Freed Columbia (1819) & Venezuela (1821)
• José de San Martín (1778-1850) Freed Chile (1817) San Martin & Bolivar joined to crush the last Spanish
authority in Lima, Peru (1821) After 1825, almost all of Latin America was free of
colonial domination Continental Europe looked to intervene, U.S. passed the
Monroe Doctrine pledging to support Latin American countries
British Navy was more of a deterrent than U.S. words
Britain began to dominate Latin American economy• British merchants & investors moved in
Map 21.2: Latin America in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century
The Greek Revolt, 1821-1832
Intervention could support revolution as wellGreek revolt in, 1820
• European sympathy for their cause grew
Britain, France, Russia at war• French & British navy destroyed Ottoman Armada• Russia declared war on Ottoman Empire
Treaty of Adrianople, 1829• Ended the Russian-Turkish War• Greece was declared an independent kingdom
Possible Test Question
The Greek revolt was successful largely due to
A well-trained guerrilla army.
The Turks’ lack of fortitude.
European intervention.
Superior Greek military tactics.
Adopting a policy of peaceful coexistence.
Conservative Domination: The European States
Great Britain: Rule of the Tories
Landowning classes dominate Parliament
Tory and Whig factions; Tories dominate
Corn Law of 1815 – placed a high tariff on foreign grain – put a financial strain on working classes
• Peterloo Massacre (1819) – military fired on English protesting high bread prices
Restoration in France
Louis XVIII (r. 1814 – 1824)• Kept some of the Revolutionary changes
Accepted some of the Napoleonic CodeProperty RightsBicameral Legislature Established
Ultraroyalists – hoped to return to a monarchical system & criticized the king’s willingness to compromise
Intervention in the Italian States and SpainConservative reaction against the forces of nationalism and liberalism
• Austrian forces intervene in Italy• French forces intervene in Spain
Repression in Central EuropeMetternich and the forces of reactionLiberal and national movements in Germany
• Initially weak & remained controlled by landowning classBurschenshaften – students societies, dedicated to a free and united Germany (symbol of growing liberalism and nationalism)
Karlsbad Decrees (1819)• Metternich had this decree drawn up by the Germanic
Confederation in response to the Burschenschaften The Karlsbad Decrees (1819)
Disbanded the Burschenschaften Censored the press Supervised universities Restrictions on university activities
Possible Test Question
The Karlsbad Decrees of 1819 did all of the following except
Disband the Burschenshaften.
Impose censorship on the German press.
Placed most German universities under close government supervision.
Dissolved several smaller German states.
Placed restrictions upon university activities.
Russia
Start of 19th century, Russia was rural, agricultural, and autocratic
Alexander I (1801-1825)
• Raised on ideas of the Enlightenment & seemed sympathetic to reform
• Leader of Russia during Napoleonic Wars
• Reformed the Russian education system
• After the defeat of Napoleon, his rule turned stricter leading to opposition
• Used censorship to govern the people
Nicholas I (1825-1855)
• Military leaders of the Northern Union rebelled against Nicholas I taking the throne (Decembrist Revolt)
• Revolt was crushed by loyal troops
• Russia became a police state (secret police) Nicholas feared revolutions in Russia & in Europe
Possible Test Question
Tsar Alexander I of Russia did all of the following except
Become more reactionary after the defeat of Napoleon.
Grant a constitution, freeing the serfs.
Reform the Russian education system.
Revert to a program of arbitrary censorship as a tool of governing.
Was the leader of Russia during the Napoleonic Wars.
Ideologies of ChangeLiberalism
• Economic liberalism (classical economics) Laissez-faire – free from constraints
Supply & Demand would dictate the market Thomas Malthus Essay on the Principles of Population
Presented a case against government intervention Misery & poverty were simply the inevitable result of
the law of nature; no government or individual should interfere with its operation
David Ricardo Principles of Political Economy Iron Law of Wages Wages are cyclical, raising them arbitrarily is futile Increase in population means more workers, lower
wages, resulting in starvation & misery, reducing the population, which increases wages, causing a higher birth rate and the cycle continues
Possible Test Question
The argument that population must be held in check for any progress to take place was popularized by
Adam Smith.
David Ricardo.
Joeseph de Maistre.
Edmund Burke.
Thomas Malthus.
Political liberalism Ideology of political liberalism
Believed in individual freedom Protection of civil liberties Freedom before the law, assembly, speech, press Modeled after the Declaration of Independence & the
Rights of Man & Citizen The rights of a representative assembly (legislature)
to make laws Political liberalism was embraced by the industrial
middle class They wanted voting rights so they could share power
with the landowning class but they didn’t advocate extending those rights to the lower class
• John Stuart Mill, On Liberty Supported the absolute freedom of opinion and
sentiment on all subjects Supported Women’s rights On the Subjection of Women
The legal subordination of one sex to the other was wrong
Important work for later suffrage movements
Possible Test Question
The foremost group embracing liberalism was made up by
Factory workers.
The industrial middle class.
Radical aristocrats.
Army officers.
The landed gentry.
Nationalism• Part of a community with common institutions, traditions,
language, and customs
• The community is called a “nation” Formation of political loyalty
• Nationalist ideology Arose from the French Revolution and spread across Europe National unity in Germany or Italy threatened to upset the
balance of power established with the Congress of Vienna An independent Hungarian state would breakup the Austrian
Empire Conservatives tried to repress nationalism (Concert of Europe)
• Allied with liberalism Liberals believed their goals could only be realized by people
who ruled themselves Nationalists believed that stronger states comprised of their own
people would eventually link communities and ultimately humanity
Map 21.3: The Distribution of Language in Nineteenth-Century Europe
Early SocialismUtopian Socialists
Against private property & competitive spirit of capitalismCharles Fourier (1772 – 1838)
• Proposed the creation of small model cooperative communities called “phalansteries”
People would live & work together for mutual benefit
Robert Owen (1771-1858)• British cotton manufacturer who believed human
goodness would reveal itself if people worked together
Developed a healthy community in Scotland but failed in U.S.
Early SocialismLouis Blanc (1813 – 1882)
• Thought social problems could be solved by government assistance Denounced competition as an economic evil Proposed establishing workshops that would manufacture goods for
public sale The state would finance the workshops but the workers would own and
operate them These national workshops would become little more than unemployment
compensation units through public works projects
Female Supporters• Utopian socialism attracted many women who hoped to help their
gender by reordering society
Flora Tristan (1803 – 1844)• Traveled Europe demanding equality for the sexes• She was largely ignored
Socialism remained a fringe movement in the early 19th century but it laid the groundwork for later attacks on capitalism
Possible Test Question
The French socialist, Flora TristanDemanded absolute equality of the sexes.Established a cooperative socialist community at New Harmony, Indiana.Felt that the greatest evil in society was the profit motive in business and economics.Started the international “Women’s Social and Political Union.”Condemned Karl Marx as being too revolutionary.
Revolution and Reform, 1830-1850
Another French RevolutionCharles X (1824-1830)
• Liberals were winning elections which angered the king• Issued the July Ordinances
Rigid censorship Dissolved the legislative assembly Reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections
• Immediate revolt by liberals
Louis-Philippe (1830-1848)• Group of moderate liberals appealed to Louis-
Philippe, the Duke of Orleans to become the constitutional king of France
• Charles X fled to Great Britain & a new monarchy was born
• The bourgeois monarch – support for his rule came from the upper middle class
• Constitutional changes favor the upper bourgeoisie Lower bourgeoisie & working class are disappointed that
they are excluded from political power
Revolutionary Outbursts in Belgium, Poland, and Italy (Nationalism)
Primary driving force for these three 1830 revolution was nationalism.
Austrian Netherlands (Catholic Belgium) given to (Protestant) Dutch Republic by the Congress of Vienna
Nationalistic revolt by the Belgians (Protestants) established a constitutional monarchy
Revolt attempts in Poland and Italy• Austrians crushed Italian revolution
• Russians crushed Polish revolution
The Revolution of 1830
Possible Test Question
The most successful nationalistic European revolution in 1830 was in
Poland.
Germany.
Italy.
The United Provinces.
Belgium.
Reform in Great BritainThe Reform Act of 1832
New political power for industrial urban communities (Whigs take power over Tories)July Revolution in France set the stage for changeBenefited the upper middle class (wealthy industrial middle class)
• Reform Act of 1832 – Industrial communities gained a voice in voting
• Number of voters increased from 478,000 – 814,000• Artisans, industrial workers & lower middle classes still had no vote
New Reform LegislationPoor Law of 1834 – based on the theory that giving aid to the poor & unemployed would encourage laziness
• The poor were crowded into workhouses where the living & working conditions were intentionally miserable so people would be encouraged to find employment
Repeal of the Corn Laws (1846)• Economic liberals advocated free trade & lower bread prices for
workers
Possible Test Question
The Reform Bill of 1832 in Britain primarily benefited the
Landed aristocracy.
Peasants.
Working class.
Clergy.
Upper middle-class.
The Revolutions of 1848Yet Another French Revolution
1846 – agricultural & industrial depression
1847 – 33% unemployment rate in Paris
Government was corrupt & failed to initiate reform• No suffrage for the middle class
Louis-Philippe abdicates, February 24, 1848 (fled to Britain)
Provisional government established• Elections to be by universal manhood suffrage
• National workshops – jobs for unemployed
• Growing split between moderate and liberal republicans Moderate Government – most of France Radical liberals – Parisian working class
Provisional government established workshops under the influence of Louis Blanc
• Unemployed workers got jobs raking leafs, ditch digging & other manual labor jobs
• Unemployed workers in the national workshops rose from 10,000 to 120,000, emptying the treasury & prompting moderates to halt the programs
• Became little more than unemployment compensation units through public works projects
• Workers refused to except the decision leading to four days of fighting in this working class revolt (government prevailed)
Second Republic established• New Constitution ratified• Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected in December,
1848 (nephew of Napoleon)
Map 21.4: The Revolutions of 1848 – 1849
Revolution in Central Europe
French revolts led to promises of reformFrederick William IV (1840-1861)
• Germanic state rulers made concessions to the growing revolutionary sentiments
Freedom of press, abolishing censorship, new constitutions, & working towards a united Germany
• Frankfurt Assembly All German parliament elected by universal male suffrage Purpose was to prepare a constitution for a united Germany Frederick William IV refused the offer of “emperor of the
Germans” Frankfurt Assembly disbanded without accomplishing their goal
of a united Germany
Possible Test Question
In 1848, the Frankfurt AssemblyUnanimously adopted a Grossdeutsch solution for the Germanies.
Succeeded in making Prussia’s Frederick William IV president of a united Germany.
Failed in its attempt to create a united Germany.
Gained the support of Austria.
Declared its solidarity with revolutionary France.
Austrian Empire Louis Kossuth, Hungary
Advocated the formation of a legislature
• Metternich flees the country after demonstrations begin & he is dismissed from office
• In Vienna, revolutionary forces took control calling for a constituent assembly
• Hungary’s wishes granted Own Legislature National army Control over its foreign policy & budget
Austria Cont’d• Emperor Ferdinand I & Austrian officials made
concessions to revolutionaries but waited for an opportunity to reassert conservative control
• Tried to capitalize on division between radical & moderate revolutionaries
• Military forces suppressed Czech rebels• Ferdinand I abdicated in favor of his nephew• Francis Joseph I (1848-1916)• Nicholas I of Russia sent in troops to defeat
Kossuth’s forces and suppress the revolution Austrian emperor & propertied classes remained in power
Revolts in the Italian StatesGiuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872)
Risorgimento - resurgenceFounded organization called Young Italy, 1831Goal: a united Italy
Cristina Belgioioso (1808-1871)Wealthy aristocrat who worked for a united ItalyItalian citizens rose up in 1848
Charles Albert (r. 1831 – 1849)King of Italian state of Piedmont took up to the call for a war of liberation from AustriaThe revolution (resurgence) was defeated by combined forces from the Pope, France and Austria.
Possible Test QuestionGiuseppe Mazzini’s nationalist organization, Young Italy,
Liberated Italy’s northern provinces from Austrian control.
Failed to achieve his goal of “resurgence” by 1849.
Helped inspire successful liberal constitutions throughout Italy.
Used the liberals in governments to extend suffrage to Italy’s working classes.
Allied itself with the papacy to drive France out of Italy.
The Failures of 1848
Division within the revolutionariesRadicals and liberals
Liberties from propertied classes failed to extend male suffrage to the working classes
Liberals were concerned about their property & security & the fear of a social revolution by the working class
Divisions among nationalitiesHungarians demanded autonomy from Austrians but refused to offer the same autonomy to their minorities
The Maturing of the United States
The American Constitution contained forces of liberalism and nationalismAlexander Hamilton (1757-1804), Federalist
Favored a financial program that would establish a strong central government
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), RepublicanFeared centralization & consequences for popular liberties
Effects of War of 1812Brought an end to the Federalists who had opposed the war
John Marshall (1755-1835)Strengthened the Supreme Court (checks Congress)
Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) and democracy Male suffrage – dropped property qualification
The Emergence of an Ordered SocietyDevelopment of a regular system of police
Purpose of police• Preserve property & lives, maintain domestic order, investigate crime, & arrest offenders & to
create a disciplined law-abiding society
French Police – Known as SerfientsFirst appearance of new kind of police in Paris
British Bobbies“Bobbies” introduced in 1829 – 1830Goal was to prevent crime
Crime and Social ReformNew poor lawsMoral reformersOrganized religion
Prison ReformThe United States takes the lead (Auburn Prison in New York, Walnut Street Prison in Philadelphia)Prison reform in France and Britain
Possible Test QuestionProfessional civilian police forces known as serfients first appeared in 1829 in
Germany.
Russia.
Italy.
Bavaria.
France.
The Characteristics of RomanticismEmotion, sentiment, and inner feelings
Reaction to Enlightenment’s preoccupation with reason Romantic movement had its roots in Germany
Tragic figureJohann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832),The Sorrows of the Young Werther
• Literary model for early Romantics
Individualism – interest in unique traits of each personRebellion against middle-class conventions – changes in hair, clothes
Interest in the pastGrimm Brothers (published local fairy tales)Hans Christian Andersen (fairy tales from Denmark)Walter Scott
• Best selling novels (Ivanhoe)
Gothic literatureEdgar Allan Poe (1808-1849)Mary Shelley (1797-1851)
Possible Test Question
The romantic movement can be viewed as a(n)
Reaction against the Enlightenment’s preoccupation with reason.Continuation of Enlightenment ideals and practices.Attempt to create a socialist society.Movement of lower-class, less literate people.Fascination with war and conflict.
Romantic Poets and the Love of Nature
Poetry was the most important literary formArtists focused on landscapes and naturePercy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822)
Prometheus Unbound (revolt of human against laws & customs)Lord Byron (1788-1824)
Dramatized himself as a romantic hero (died in Greek revolt)Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage
William Wordsworth (1770-1850)The mysterious force of nature Mirror where people could learn about themselves
Edgar Allan PoeAmerican romantic author of The Fall of the House of Usher
Critique of ScienceWorship of nature led criticism of industrialized world Shelly’s Frankenstein symbolized the dangers of science trying to conquer nature
Religion in the age of RomanticismCatholic revival especially in Germany
Possible Test Question
Which of the following were major themes/subjects of Romantic artists?
Portraits
Madonnas and religious scenes
Landscapes and depictions of nature
Scenes from aristocratic family life
Urban scenes.
Romanticism in Art and MusicHector Berlioz (1803-1869)
Symphonie Fantastique – first complete program symphony
Casper David Friedrich (1774-1840)Art depicted God and nature
Eugène Delacroix (1798-1863)Most famous French Romantic artistPassion for color
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)Beethoven, whose compositions bridged the gap between Classicism and Romanticism
Romantic architecture favored Gothic style
Caspar David Friedrich, Man and Woman Gazing at the Moon
Eugène Delacroix, The Death of Sardanaplus