10

CHAPTER - 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Chowdry, K.R., (1998) 1 conducted a study covering a sample of 92

households of farmers who committed suicide. The major cause reported by

most of the victims’ households is accumulated debts for digging or deepening

of wells. The bore wells many a time failed and consequently the crops are also

failed. The resulting inability to repay the loans and the feeling of threatened

self-respect acted as the triggers for farmers suicides.

Assadi Muzaffar (1998)2 analysed the distress of farmers growing Dal, Chilies

and Tomatoes in Northern Karnataka and the State Government’s desperate

attempts to pass them off as isolated incidents with individual histories raising

serious questions about the state of the economy in the country side. Most of

the time, farmers borrowed money in advance before the harvesting, thus

grapping the reasons further in the vicious circle of exploitation. He pointed

out that it was a paradise where the capitalist was system integrates the

peasants with the larger market. This trapped the peasants in the larger

framework of exploitation. 1 Chowdry.K.R (1998) Farmers Suicides in Andhra Pradesh, AWARE Development Research Advisory Group, Hyderabad.2

Assadi Muzaffar (1998) Farmers’ Suicides: Signs of Distress in Rural Economy, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.3, No.13.

11

Chowdry K.R. (1998)3 strongly argued that structural adjustment programme

as implemented by the Government of Andhra Pradesh is proved to be anti-

farmer. Agriculture is grossly neglected and the agrarian crisis is deepening

and this is responsible for preponderance of farmers’ distress. He concluded

that the economic reforms as prescribed that World Bank are surely a

misnomer for development. The development pattern which does not take

people as the central concern which is premised essentially upon market and

private profit and this needs to be rejected. For the rulers, the farmers who

killed themselves are not of any concern. Whose life was that any way?

Revati (1998)4 felt that there were some missing issues farmers’ suicides.

Firstly, she pointed out that irrigation was an implicit cause for the soaring

debts on the farmers. The cotton farmers of Warangal almost entirely depended

on private irrigation. She observed that in the creation of private irrigation,

farmers made heavy investment that led to accumulation of debts. Secondly,

she ascribed the sources of credit as another reason for the farmers’ suicides.

She pointed out that most of the studies conducted in the district revealed that it

was the commission agents and the pesticide dealers meet the credit needs of

the farmers. They charged 15 to 20 percent higher price over the normal price. 3 Chowdhary, K.R. (1998), “Who’s Life Was That Anyway…Farmers”, “Suicides in Andhra Pradesh”, Forum against Globalization.4 Revathi, E (1998), “Farmers’ Suicides: Missing Issues”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXXIII (20)

May 16.

12

Pardhasarathy G and Shameem (1998)5 conducted a study on “Suicides of

Cotton Farmers in Andhra Pradesh an Exploratory Study”. The paper

concludes that the main reason for the strain on the cotton peasant was the

growing indebtedness to the agriculturist cum-moneylender cum trader. But

this does not entirely explain the suicides. One has to understand the social

milieu in which an individual gets alienated from the family and the society.

Venkateswarlu Davuluri (1998) 6 reported that large number of farmers’

suicide deaths due to extreme distress. This study specifically focused attention

on a number of factors, which are held as responsible for farmers' suicides.

Those are: a)adverse seasonal conditions; b) massive pest attack; c) wrong

farm practices by the farmers; d) failure of formal credit institutions; e)

excessive dependence on private money-lenders/traders for credit and technical

advice; f) consecutive failure of crops; g) adverse prices; h) farmers shifting to

cash crops; i) government's liberalization policy; j) increasing prices of inputs;

k) mass hysteria and government incentives etc. He opined that institutional

credit is available to the farmers but failure of repaying the previous debts

blocked their accessibility to the institutional credit. So the farmers depended

fully on private credit where the interest rates are very high. The main reason

5

Parhasarathy.G, and Shameem (1998) “Suicides of Cotton Farmers in Andhra Pradesh an Exploratory

Study” Economic and Political Weekly March 28, vol. 33 pp720-726.6 Venkateswarlu Davuluri (1998) Cotton Farmers’ Suicides in Andhra Pradesh, November, Commissioned by

BASIX Equity for Equity, Hyderabad.

13

for the suicides of many of the farmers in the study area is the growing

indebtedness to the private moneylenders.

Shambu Prasad, C (1999)7 in his paper on “Suicide Deaths and Quality of

Indian Cotton – Perspective from History of Technology and Khadi

Movement”, pointed out that the suicide death of farmers is a failure of

agricultural science. Historical nature of the crisis needs to be appreciated. This

paper seeks to retrace the route by which the present connections between

Indian cotton and the mechanized textile industry were first established and

also a direction that has led to the present crisis on the fields of the cotton

farmers. It also explores the alternatives in the khadi movement which, with the

aim of reintroducing spinning to the masses, had to look at varieties of cotton

suited for home-based production and evolve tools for use in the movement.

Vasavi. A. R (1999)8 in her paper on “Agrarian Distress in Bidar – Market,

State and Suicides” reported that spate of suicides by agriculturists in

Karnataka was largely the result of ecological, economic and social crises in

the region. This situation calls for attention to the problems of commercial

agriculture in the region and the role of the state in solving such problems.

7

Shambu Prasad .C (1999) “Suicide Deaths and Quality of Indian Cotton – Perspective from History of Technology and Khadi Movement”. Economic and Political Weekly January 30th.8

Vasavi .A.R (1999) “Agrarian Distress in Bidar – Market, State and Suicides” Economic and Political Weekly, August 7.

14

Internal social complexities such as the growth of local usury and the

increasing individualization of agriculture also compounded distress of

farmers.

Assadi Muzaffar (2000)9 stated that the “seed tribunal “was recently held in

Karnataka where farmers from various parts of India testified to their problems

in agriculture. In the face of large –scale suicides by farmers in India, such a

meeting assumes enormous significance. The testimonies of the farmers

revealed their frustrations, while the jury’s ‘verdict’ ignored important issues.

Damodaran A (2001) 10 in his study on “WTO Agriculture Agreement,

Common Property Resources and Income Diversification Strategy”, analyzed

different aspects of WTO and specially Agreement on Agriculture (AOA).

India and other like-minded developing countries have been raising

fundamental concerns on the likely adverse impact of the AoA on their food

and livelihood security systems. Simultaneously, the government of India has

also initiated measures for carefully monitoring and regulating the import

liberalization process ushered in by the Exim policy 2001-02. Based on these

developments, the paper advocates rigorous negotiation positions and proactive

9

Muzaffar Assadi, (2000) “Karnataka Seed Tribunal: Interrogating Farmers’ Suicides”, Economic and Political Weekly, October 28.10

Damodaran, A (2001) WTO Agriculture Agreement, Common Property Resources and Income Diversification Strategy, Economic and Political Weekly, September 22nd.

15

programmes of development in order to address the pressing problems arising

from the AOA in developing countries, whose agrarian economies are

characterized by “ecosystem multi-functionality”. These programmes have the

scope for providing income diversification opportunities for the weaker

sections of the farming communities through development of common property

resources. This could form the best safety net to contain the fallout of the

Agreement on Agriculture of W.T.O

Despond. R.S (2002) 11 conducted a study on “Suicide by Farmers in

Karnataka, Agrarian Distress and Possible Alleviatory Steps” The study

revealed that Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Punjab have been rocked by the

suicides of a large number of farmers, posing a serious challenge to policy-

makers. This paper attempts to identify different agro-economic situations

faced by the farming community and other factors, as reflected by the case

studies of the suicide victims, and also to suggest remedial measures to avert

such tragedies in future.

Shourie David.G and Y V S T Sai, (2002)12 conducted a field survey on “Bt

Cotton: Farmers’ Reactions in Andhra Pradesh”. They elicited the views of

11

Despond.R.S (2002) “Suicide by Farmers in Karnataka Agrarian Distress and Possible Alleviatory Steps” Economic and Political Weekly, June 29th.12

Shourie David.G, and Sai.Y.V.S.T (2002) “Bt Cotton: Farmers’ Reactions” Economic and Political Weekly, November 16.

16

farmers in two districts in the state on the efficacy of Bt cotton in withstanding

pest attacks, use of pesticides, compliance with government norms, and

farmers’ willingness to continue with cultivation of Bt cotton in the coming

seasons. The researchers felt that the farmers are eager to adopt Bt technology

and suggested that the Government should take immediate measures to release

Indian varieties of Bt cotton so that farmers can enjoy the fruits of the

technology at low cost.

Sen Bhowani (2002)13 Sen’s study focused on Maharashtra and West Bengal,

the two most industrialized areas. He reported that inspite of various land

reform acts; there existed in these states a preponderance of inferior tenants and

crop sharers, being 30% and 22% of farmers respectively. He suggested that

cooperative movement, with proper government support and aid could act as

the peasants’ primary weapon against the monopolies in rural areas, and would

definitely help in the regeneration of the rural economy.

Nirmala (2003) 14 observed that there were various factors such as socio-

psychological factors, agricultural economic factors, loss of expectations,

absence of proper institutional support and proper policy backup led to the

13 Sen Bhowani (2002) “New Tasks in Agriculture”, Mainstream, Vol. 40, Jul-Dec.14 Nirmal S. Azad, (2003) “Genesis of Economic Crisis in Punjab,” Mainstream, vol. XLI, no. 47, 8

November.

17

distress of the farming community. She suggested that the prevailing market

imperfections in the input and product markets must be eradicated and the state

should ensure provision of cheaper credit through institutional resources and

regularize the activities of private money lenders. The private input-credit tie-

up should be discouraged. Public investment in irrigation should be raised so

that the burden on the farmers in providing private sources of irrigation could

be reduced.

Mohanty (2004) 15 said that established agro-climatic and socio-cultural

features of Maharashtra were different from that of Andhra Pradesh and

Karnataka. In Maharashtra, the focus was more on commercial cultivation,

with the dominant produce being cotton. The available institutional facilities

were however not up to the mark, so farmers are largely dependent on informal

sources of credit. At times, decline in production and sales occur, since new

methods of farming rendered traditional knowledge and skills obsolete.

Marketing methods were also ineffective. Moreover, the dependence of

agriculture on the vagaries of the monsoons and other climatic conditions had a

detrimental effect on the crops. The study further reveals that it cannot be

inferred the existing agricultural situations where the sole reasons for farmer’s

15 Mohanty B.B., Sangeeta. S (2004) “Farmers Suicides in Maharashtra” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol

XXXIX, No. 52,pp. 5599-5606.

18

suicides, but they had contributed immensely to the continued occurrence of

suicides.

Vyas (2004)16 in his article examined as to how to protect vulnerable sections

of the society. He highlighted the major structural changes in recent years,

particularly the reduction of the role of the Government and increase in the role

of the market. Over a period of time, the number of small and marginal farmers

is increased in Indian agriculture. Also there have been significant changes in

the output mix in agriculture (from food grains to non food grains and coarse

cereals to fine cereals. Another far-reaching change is increase in the cost of

inputs (fertilizers, pesticides, seeds and mechanical power). He further added

that the growing opening of the economy and the liberalizing external trade

policies caused price fluctuations in the domestic market.

Rao V.M. and Gopalappa, D.V. (2004) 17 have attempted to explain the

farmers’ distress in the two high profile I.T. States, viz., Karnataka and

Andhra. They argued that the Indian economy loses its momentum if

agriculture stumbles. Farmers’ distress could strike at the very roots of the

chief sources of agricultural growth, viz., farmer initiative and enterprise.

16 Vyas V.S. (2004) “Agrarian Distress: Strategies to Protect Vulnerable Sections”, Economic and Political

Weekly, Vol. XXXIX, No.52, pp 5576-5582.17 Rao V. M. and Gopalappa D.V. (2004) “Agricultural Growth and Farmer’s Distress-Tentative Perspective

from Karnataka”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXXIX, No.52, pp.5591-5598.

19

Karnataka as well as Andhra Farmers respond well to changing markets and

were receptive to new technologies. But the drought prone environment,

combined with a non caring policy regime, turned into victims the very

producers who bring about growth.

The authors suggested that polices to raise farmers’ long term potential

and create social capital to promote the empowerment of disadvantaged

groups. Neglect of these policies impaired long term growth and development

and also allows the conditions causing farmers’ distress to persist and become

chronic.

Singh Joginder and R.S.Sidhu (2004)18 analysed the factors in respect of

declining crop diversification in Punjab. The cropping pattern earlier was

greatly diversified, comprising wheat, cotton, maize, groundnut, rapeseed and

mustard, gram, barley and guar. The present dominance of wheat-paddy system

led to economic and social growth, drop in agricultural employment, over

exploitation of groundwater resources and decline in soil fertility. Due to

growing stock of food grains, Centre was contemplating reduction of public

stocking of wheat and rice and freezing their minimum support prices. If this

happens, the economic returns of farming sector of the state would be further

18 Joginder Singh, and R.S. Sidhu (2004) “Agriculture under Stress” Economic and Political Weekly,

December 25-31, Vol.XXXIX, No.52, P.5607-5610.

20

squeezed because Punjab was the major contributor towards the national food

grains stocks. The policy-makers were seized on the issue of declining crop

diversity and are trying to promote diversification through contract farming of

high-value crops like fruits, vegetables, medicinal plants, oil seeds and pulses

and agro-industries.

Mohanty BB and Sangeeta, S (2004) 19 have examined the reasons for

suicides among the farming communities in states like Andhra Pradesh,

Maharashtra and Karnataka which are hitting the headline for the last couple of

years. They examined that while state governments attribute the deaths to crop

failure due to bad weather, the media emphasizes the rising cost of cultivation,

mounting indebtedness and bottlenecks in agricultural marketing. They

explained that a number of studies have under taken these suicides to explain

these factors in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. One group of studies attributes

the suicides mainly to agro economic problems like crop failure, indebtedness,

etc (Shiva and Jafri 1998; Deshpande 2002). The other group of studies

highlights politico-economic issues blaming the state for the tragedies (Assadi

1998; Revathi 1998; Vasavi 1999; Sara 2004). It is also suggested that the

19 Mohanty B.B., and Sangeeta. S (2004) “Farmers Suicides in Maharashtra” Economic and Political Weekly,

Vol. XXXIX, No. 52,pp. 5599-5606.

21

suicides were the outcome of historical factors associated with cotton

cultivation.

Cariappa Vivek and Juli Cariappa (2004)20 examined in their article that the

beginning of the agricultural season of 2004 coincided with the national

elections, which brought about changes in the domestic political scene. A new

leadership emerged, not only at the centre, but also in Karnataka and Andhra

Pradesh, where the rural voters rammed home the message that the farming

community could command change if it was ignored for too long.

Vidyasagar, R., and Suman Chandra, K (2004)21 in their book explained

that Indian farmers, producing certain crops for the international market were

facing the crisis under the WTO regime. Cotton crop is a case in point. When

global prices were high for cotton, several thousands of small farmers took

loan and they even leased in land when they did not own enough of it. With the

increased demand for seeds and pesticides, dealers of spurious seeds and

pesticides entered the market in the absence of regulated supply of these inputs.

It has led to a complete debacle because of drought conditions and

uncontrollable pests leading to low yields. Moreover, as the institutional credit

20 Vivek Cariappa, and Juli Cariappa (2004) “Crisis in Indian Cotton”, Economic and Political Weekly,

October 23-29, Vol. XXXIX, No43. 21 Vidyasagar.R and Suman Chandra.K (2004) Farmers’ Suicides in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka,

Research Report Series-64,NIRD, Hyderabad, April.

22

had been curtailed under the structural adjustment programme, farmers were to

depend on private sources of credit at the high rate of interest.

The authors observed in their present study the most of the Farmers’

suicides pertained to the earlier spate of suicides that occurred in certain parts

of Telangana region in Andhra Pradesh. One characteristic feature of earlier

spate of suicides was that it happened in spurts. But in Anantapur District of

Andhra Pradesh it had become a persisting feature for the last five years. Thus,

the present study focused on Anantapur to understand the persistence of

farmers’ suicides. Certain districts in Karnataka adjoining Anantapur facing

were also taken up for the study as it was observed that suicides were taking

place or have taken place in this contiguous belt that may be called as suicide

belt.

Sainath, P. (2004)22 opined that besides thousands of farmers’ suicides in A.P.

a number of women farmers also have taken their lives along with husband

farmers, but they were not covered due to lack of patta on their names and they

were seen as farmers’ wives. Though close to a fifth of all rural households in

India were female headed and do most of the work of the farmers, but were not

recognized as farmers. Some of the farmers used to migrate to urban areas and

22 Sainath, P. (2004) ‘Series on Farmers’ Suicides in Andhra Pradesh’, The Hindu (jun-Aug).

23

this left more women running farms, families and finance against huge odds.

And also it had a linkage of girls’ suicides in the districts of Warangal,

Anantapur and Guntur due to lack of money (dowry problems and deaths) for

their weddings. Further women were also hit in other ways such as

drunkenness and irresponsibilities of their husbands, and some of the women

committed suicides.

Sarma E.A.S (2004)23 in his article on “Is Rural Economy Breaking Down

(REBD)? Farmers suicides in Andhra Pradesh” stated that the crisis in Andhra

Pradesh could easily arise in many other states as the agrarian conditions in

those states were no better. Farmers’ suicides represented only the tip of the

iceberg and the need of the hour is that the central and states Governments

should chalk-out a comprehensive strategy to contain the crisis without any

further delay. He further noted that the newspapers continued to report more

and more suicide deaths in the villages of Andhra Pradesh. To attribute the

rural crisis entirely to poverty and drought would be an over-simplification of

the situation. The village economy was under stress. Hastily announced relief

packages did not address this complex situation.

23

Sarma.E.A.S (2004) “Is Rural Economy Breaking Down? Farmers suicides in Andhra Pradesh” Economic and Political Weekly” July 10th.

24

Mohanty.B B and Sangeeta Shroff (2004)24 in their paper on “Farmers’

Suicides in Maharashtra” revealed that though crop losses, indebtedness and

market imperfections caused economic hardship to farmers, social factors were

also at work, which led in some cases to their suicides. The main findings of

both the macro and micro level analyses indicated that through the loss of

agriculture income due to adverse weather and market imperfections and

consequent indebtedness pushed the farmers to distress. Social factors were

also were responsible to their suicides.

Sagar Vidya .R, and Suman Chandra.K (2004)25 This study has identified a

suicide belt (which is mainly in the arid and semi arid zones) of Anantapur

district of Rayalaseeema region of A.P and certain other districts of Northern

karnataka . The reason identified is inadequate development of infrastructure

(credit, power, extension, input supplies, marketing, irrigation etc). This study

identified that economical factors are the major causes for farmers’ suicide.

This study also tried to explain that mental depression (psychological factor ) is

triggered by economic crisis. Debt trap is the main cause for suicide.

24 Mohanty B.B., and Sangeeta. S (2004) “Farmers Suicides in Maharashtra” Economic and Political Weekly,

Vol XXXIX, No. 52,pp. 5599-5606.25 Vidyasagar.R and Suman Chandra.K (2004), Report on Farmers’ Suicides in Andhra Pradesh and

Karnataka, Research Report Series-64, NIRD, Hyderabad, April 2004.

25

Ghosh Jayati (2005)26 reported that fiscal policies, reduced spending of central

and states governments were the most significant feature. Due to tax reforms,

the tax/GDP ratio declined at central level. Central transfers to state

governments also declined. State governments were forced to borrow in the

market and other (often international) sources at high interest rates. As a result,

the levels of debt and debt servicing increased in most of the states. In recent

years, most state governments were in fiscal crisis and did not have funds for

capital expenditures. This has been especially important since state

governments are responsible for areas critical for farmers such as rural

infrastructure, power, water supply, health and education. Therefore, a

comprehensive strategy for the regeneration of agriculture would require more

than simply addressing trade policies, and would necessarily involve a wide

range of public interventions, which in turn means a substantially increased

role for public investment and regulation in rural India.

Gyanamudra (2005)27 observed that depression and anxiety have been found

to be the most significant causes in those who committed suicides. Comparison

26 Jayati Ghosh(2005) The Political Economy of Farmers’ Suicides in India, “Freedom from Hunger” Lecture Series, India International Centre, Lodi Estate, New Delhi, December 9.27 Gynamudra (2005) Farmers’ Suicide: Dynamics and Strategies of Prevention, Paper Presented in National

Workshop on Farmers’ Suicide: Dynamics and Strategies of Prevention November 28-29,2005,at NIRD, Hyderabad.

26

of behaviroral profiles revealed that all behaviroral / emotional problems were

elevated among suicide attempts versus controls.

Internationally, higher suicide rates have been noted in rural areas

compared to urban areas in many countries. Higher rural male suicide has been

attributed variously to the isolation and rigors of rural life, fluctuating

economic hardship from climate and community, greater access to poison

(mono-crotophos), lack of employment opportunities, prevailing rural

masculine culture and lack of mental health facilities.

Mahendra Dev (2005)28 in his article stated that in recent years, farmers’

suicides have increased in many states. The budget was silent on the problem.

Many farmers were shifting to commercial crops. In commercial crops, input

intensity was higher than in subsistence crops. Allocation to research and

extension in this budget was also low. It was still only around 0.5 percent of

GDP. There is a need to focus research and extension on dry land, hilly and

marginal areas, diversification of the crop pattern and allied activities, post-

harvest technology, biotechnology. The role of the private sectors increasing

particularly with the advent of biotechnology.

28 Mahendra Dev (2005) “Agriculture and Rural Employment in the Budget”, Economic and Political Weekly,

Vol. XL, No. 14, pp. 1410-1413.

27

Aidas Jainath (2005)29 analysed the factors causing the farmers’ suicides.

India’s achievement in green revolution during 1960 was appreciated all over

the globe and termed it as a model for other Asian Countries. But Indian

farmers are facing many challenges because of recent droughts. Rural sector

seemed to be under stress in the era of globalization and privatization. Suicides

of farmers have become a trend for the last one year. Indebtedness is the main

cause for suicides.

The agriculture credit from various sources is increased but it accounts

for only half the cost of agricultural inputs. Thus farmers will have to depend

on other sources of credit. And 82% of Andhra farmers are in debts.

Kumar Mohan (2005)30 in his article described about agrarian crisis in Kerala.

Agrarian crisis claimed many lives of farmers in Kerala since global recession.

The impact was different in different districts in the state. It depended on

cropping pattern and number of farmers doing export oriented farming. In

Kerala 66% of the farmers who adopted expose oriented families committed

suicide in Wayanad and Iddukki districts. In that about 50% committed

29 Jainath Aidas (2005) Rural Distress and Farmers Suicides: Cumulative Effect of Multi Factors, National Workshop on Farmers Suicides November 28-29, at NIRD, Hyderabad.30 Mohankumar (2005) Agrarian Crisis and Farmers’ Distress Under Neo-liberal Regime: An Analysis of

Farmers’ Suicides in Kerala” Paper Presented in National Workshop on Farmers’ Suicide: Dynamics and Strategies of Prevention November 28-29, 2005,at NIRD, Hyderabad.

28

suicides in Wayanad district alone who cultivated Coffee crop. Coffee crop is

an exportable crop. As a result of fall in prices and crop loss, farmers’ debts

increased. The stress forced them to take extreme steps. It is further observed

that more causality was expected with the integration of Indian agriculture with

the world market.

Kumar Vijay (2005)31 and ICS Bhatt identified macro level causes, namely,

the new economic policy encompassing liberalization and globalization,

withdrawal of the state from economic sphere. It has led to the rising cost of

production and falling price of farm commodities. In the absence of formal

institutional support, the small farmers borrowed alone from private money

lenders. Failure of monsoons, poor yields and failure of agricultural markets

resulted in the high rate of indebtedness. Agricultural policies adopted could

not rescue farmers from the crisis.

Narayanamurthy .A (2006) 32 stated that unremunerative prices for crops,

indebtedness and crop failures due to frequent droughts were, by and large

identified as the core reasons of farmers’ suicides and distress. The relief

package for Vidarbhas farmers, announced in early July, could not end distress

31 Kumar Vijay (2005) Farmers’ Suicides’ Causes and Cures A study in Andhra Pradesh” Paper Presented in

National Workshop on Farmers’ Suicide: Dynamics and Strategies of Prevention November 28-29,2005,at NIRD, Hyderabad.32 Narayanamurthy .A (2006) Relief Package for Farmers: Can It Stop Suicides? Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XLI, No.31

29

in the region because it does not address the root causes. He felt that the

package would not stop farmers’ suicides, and suggested short and long-term

measures to solve farmers’ distress.

Assadi Muzaffar (2006)33 analysed agrarian crisis in Karnataka. Global capital

brought in new methods to link the autonomous farmers with the larger market.

Firstly path of development increased the disparity between the urban and rural

areas. It is true that poverty has declined over the past two decades. However

the disparity has increased. Secondly, it has not made farmers free from debt

rather it has trapped them in debt. In fact the failure of co-operative institutions

made large number of farmers to fall back on private money lenders who

charge higher level of interest. Thirdly, production cost increased rather than

the price of agricultural produce. The increase in the cost of inputs has been

against the terms of trade of agriculture. Incidentally the growth of agriculture

decreased. Similar trend was observed in Karnataka also.

Revathi E (2006)34 in their paper on “Suicides of Farmers in Andhra Pradesh:

Issues and Policy Concerns” observed that the unprecedented and large scale

33

Muzaffar Assadi (2006) “Agrarian Crises and the Suicides of Farmers in Karnataka: Nature, Dimension and State Policy” Edited by K.Dasratharamiah, Jayaraj.M Title of the book,”Sustainable Agriculture in Drought Prone Regions- Serials Publications, New Delhi.34 Revathi.E (2006) Suicide of farmer’s in A.P:- causes and concerns, paper presented at National seminar on `Sustainable Development of Dry land in A.P‘help by Economic S.k University Anantapur 30-31 July.

30

incidence of suicides of farmers have drawn the attention of policy makers,

academics, and social activists. There are a number of studies that focused on

identification of causes for the suicides of farmers in India and in the state of

Andhra Pradesh. The objective of the study was to analyse the incidence of

suicides of farmers in Andhra Pradesh and the issues concerned for policy

implications to contain the crisis in agriculture. The main finding of the study

was that indebtedness and heavy dependence on ground water were responsible

for farmers’ suicides.

Rao B.M. et al (2006)35 conducted a study on “Crisis in Agriculture and

Farmers’ Distress with particular reference to farmers’ suicides in Anantapur

District of Andhra Pradesh”. The study concentrated on the drought situation in

Anantapur District which was responsible for misery and plight of the farmers.

The farmers have always been worst sufferers in the consecutive short fall of

the rains and recurring droughts. Their agony was not ended as there was no

serious effort in tackling the problem permanently. In the absence of measures

to make them sustainable, they suffered most and unable to sustain their living

in drought situation as their debts increased. In such a helpless situation, many

35

Rao Muralidhar .B and G. Venkata Siva Reddy (2006) “Crisis in Agriculture and Farmers Distress: with particular reference to farmers suicides in Anantapur District of Andhra Pradesh”Edited by K .Dasratharamiah, M. Jayaraj,” Sustainable Agriculture in Drought Prone Regions” Serials Publications, New Delhi.

31

of them were ending their lives and leaving their families is still more

miserable situation.

Nazeeruddin, M. (2006) 36 in their study on “Farmers’ Suicides in

Rayalaseema Region of Andhra Pradesh’”, gave importance to the problems of

agriculture in the geographical location of the Rayalaseema region. They

suggested that Government should think of permanent solutions by way of

providing irrigation facilities and strengthening rural infrastructure for

canvassing droughts. This goes a long way not only in sustaining agriculture as

well as ensuring minimum income to the farmers.

Keshava S.R (2006)37 in their paper on “Farmers’ Suicides in India: Reasons

and Possible Solutions” concentrated on the problem of social fabrication

which had been badly damaged systematically. They felt that this should be

strengthened. Land reforms, as part of Agricultural reforms should be

implemented rigorously, which would help to develop overall infrastructure of

agriculture and probably many existing problems would be solved. Crop

Insurance system should treat village as a unit and this should cover all crops.

36

Nazeeruddin.M (2006) “Farmers’ Suicides In Rayalaseema Region Of Andhra Pradesh , Edited by K.Dasratharamiah,M.Jayaraj, Title Sustainable Agriculture in Drought Prone Regions”, Serials Publications, New Delhi.37

Keshava.S.R (2006) Farmers suicides in India: Reasons and Possible solutions”, Edited by K.Dasratharamiah, M.Jayarai, title Sustainable Agriculture in Drought prone Regions” Serials Publications, New Delhi.

32

There should be parity of prices between what the farmers sell and what they

buy from non-agriculture producers.

Satyanarayana .G et al (2006)38 enquired in to Causes for Farmer’s Suicides

in Anantapur District of Andhra Pradesh”. The study was based on field

survey. They identified the following chief reasons for farmers’ suicides: Crop

failure, Failure of irrigations sources, such as wells and bore wells, Lack of

remunerative prices for agricultural products, Crop losses due to fake seeds,

Mounting domestic expenses, ill-health of wife and farmer himself, Marriage

expenses of son or daughter, Loss from leased-in land; Gambling and addicted

to alcohol, and Involvement in politics.

Suryanarayana, D. (2006) 39 in their study on “Farmer’s Suicides and

Rehabilitation” analyzed various causes for the suicides of the farmers in

general and dry land farmers in particular. In the first part, a brief history of the

suicides is given. The second part deals with the causes for the suicides and the

third part explains the remedies or rehabilitation. The final part deals with the

recommendations which can help the farmer and agricultural revival. The study

suffers from some limitations as it relied on the secondary sources of

38

Satyanarayana.G, Raghavulu.M.V and Ramamohan.A(2006) ,“Causes for Farmer’s Suicides - A Study of Anantapur District of Andhra Pradesh” Edited by Dasratharamiah.K, Jayaraj.M, Title of the book”

Sustainable Agriculture in Drought Prone Regions” ,Serials Publications, New Delhi.39

Suryanarayana.D (2006) “Farmer’s Suicides and Rehabilitation” Edited by K.Dasratharamiah, M.Jayaraj, Title of the book “Sustainable Agriculture in Drought Prone Regions- Serials Publications, New Delhi.

33

information including newspaper reports. However efforts were made to

overcome this by the field experience of the authors.

Sreedhar.G and Dasaratha Ramaiah, K. (2006) 40 conducted a study on

“Rehabilitation of the Families of Farmers Committing Suicide: A study in

Anantapur District of Andhra Pradesh”. The study was based on field survey.

The main objective of the present study was to examine the implementation of

the relief and rehabilitation measures for the families of the deceased farmers

and to determine how far these measures have been successful in providing

succor and relief to the families caught in distress. It also identified the

problems/bottlenecks in the implementation of these measures and the authors

made suggestions to overcome them.

Mishra Srijit, (2006) 41 in his paper on “Suicides in India: Some

Observations” pointed out that in recent years, a larger agrarian crisis,

particularly in cotton growing regions of India has precipitated a spate of

suicide deaths among farmers. In the western world (Europe and America)

farmers lead a secluded life and have greater possibility of stress and

depression that perhaps explains the relatively greater suicide mortality rate

40

Sreedhar.G and Dasaratha Ramaiah.K (2006) “Rehabilitation of the Families of Farmers Committing Suicide: A study in Anantapur District of Andhra Pradesh Edited by K.Dasratharamiah, M.Jayaraj Title of the book,”Sustainable Agriculture in Drought Prone Regions- Serials Publications, New Delhi.41 Srijit Mishra (2006) “Suicides in India: Some Observations, Title of the book, “Undeserved Death” -Allied Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi.

34

(suicide deaths per 100000 population) among farmers when compared with

the general population in their respective countries.

Sridhar. V (2006)42 in his article on “Farmer Suicides: The Case of Andhra

Pradesh” analysed that the act of suicide, or the phenomenon of suicides on a

widespread basis was usually provoked by a churn in socio-economic

conditions. Individuals and communities were under pressure to cope with the

changes in the conditions of their lives, when society was in a state of flux.

This was important in the case of Andhra Pradesh because it had the rather

dubious distinction of accounting for three out of four suicides by farmers in

India. Once it was accepted that the growing number of suicides within a

community is provoked by sudden or dramatic changes in the terms on which

their lives were lived. It was necessary to explore what these changes were and

how they had impacted the lives of the community, in this case, the peasantry.

Revathi, E (2006)43 in their study on “Farmer Suicides in Andhra Pradesh:

Intra District and Inter District Pattern and Policy Options’’ stated that the

ongoing spate of farmers’ suicides indicated the deep malaise the agrarian

economy was facing. This was also a sufficient indication to term it as agrarian

42

Sridhar.V (2006) “Farmer Suicides: The Case of Andhra Pradesh” Title of the book “Undeserved Death”, Allied Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi.43

Revathi.E (2006) “Farmer Suicides in Andhra Pradesh: Intra District and Inter District Pattern and Policy Options” “Undeserved Death” - Allied Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi.

35

crisis. For the past six and half years, around 3000 farmers were fallen into the

debt trap which signified the magnitude of the crisis.

Assadi Muzaffar, (2006)44 in the study on “Agrarian Crisis and the Suicides of

Farmers in Karnataka: Nature, Dimension and State Policy” analyzed that

suicide was not an Indian phenomenon alone. During the decade when peasants

were committing suicide in India, the same was enacted in different parts of the

world. Many of them however were not reported. In 2002 seven farmers in

Hubei province in China Committed suicide under Tax pressure, as they could

not pay agricultural tax. Humiliation that the farmers underwent made them to

commit suicide.

Deshpande R.S. (2006) 45 in his paper on “Suicide of Farmers: Is it a

Reflection of Policy Failure?” quoted Durkheim’s monograph on suicide. He

indicated growing alienation of individuals from the family, society and

religion as the factors responsible for suicides. The situation of a homogeneous

religious community unified and integrated by uniform belief and standardized

ritual was less likely to result in suicides.

44

Muzaffar Assadi (2006) “Agrarian Crises and the Suicides of Farmers in Karnataka: Nature, Dimension and State Policy” Edited by K.Dasratharamiah, Jayaraj.M Title of the book, “Sustainable Agriculture in Drought Prone Regions- Serials Publications, New Delhi.45 Deshpande, R. S (2006): ‘Farmers’ Distress and Suicides’. In ‘The Oxford Companion to Economics in

India’ edited by Kaushik Basu, New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

36

Revathi. E (2006)46 stated that the Agriculture policies which are adopted for

food security concerns of country had been achieved through Green revolution

technology. These policies are adopted in rich irrigated areas during mid

sixties. These policies had widened the growth disparities between the irrigated

and rain- fed dry land areas of the country.

Kapoor Mudit and Shamika Ravi, (2007)47 conducted a study on “Farmer

Suicide Contagion” They maintained that Evolutionary psychology literature

argues that a sense of burdensomeness towards kin/ family may encourage

suicide by eroding the motive of self- preservation. It suggests that perceived

liability towards one’s family is a precursor of suicide. Renowned

psychologist, Cialdini points out that people by committing suicide believe that

they are helping others to counteract their own negative affective state. In the

Indian farmers’ context, policy makers are arguing that this negative state is

that of indebtedness. Loan waivers and cash supports failed to solve the

problem. Perhaps these short sighted measures had the exact opposite effect.

46 Revathi.E (2006) Suicide of farmer’s in A.P:- causes and concerns, paper presented at National seminar on

`Sustainable Development of Dry land in A.P‘help by Economic S.k University Anantapur 30-31 July.47

Mudit kapoor and Shamika Ravi (2007) “Farmer Suicide Contagion” Indian School of Business, Hyderabad, October 25th.

37

Mishra Srijit (2007)48 Identified factors, such as poor returns to cultivation,

crop failures, fall in economic position, risk factor personal ill-health problems,

as the major causes are farmer suicides. He has suggested certain measures for

risk management.

Namrata Chindarkar (2007)49 finds some people to be more vulnerable than

others to suicide. The study shows that male farmers commit suicide more

because of indebtedness (across caste groups) as compared to female farmers

for whom family distress is the primary cause (with the burden of indebtedness

falling heavily on female household members). The conditions of both men and

women was made more vulnerable by some global and regional process of

liberalization— the privatization of seeds, ineffectiveness of agricultural credit

institutions, mono-cropping limited to cash crops, followed by an increased use

of pesticides, fertilizers and subsequently low land productivity. These new

agricultural practices were beneficial to only a small category of better off

farmers, leading to the downfall of others.

48 Mishra Srijit (2007) Risks, Farmers’ Suicides and Agrarian Crisis in India: Is There A Way Out? Working paper -2007-014, Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai, September, pp No.1to20.49 Namrata Chindarkar,(2007) A Comparative Analysis of Farmers' Suicides in Andhra Pradesh, India, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai ,Methodological Innovations Online (2007) 2(2) 6-19.

38

Srijit Mishra (2007)50 pointed out that poor returns from cultivation and

absence of nonfarm opportunities are indicative of the larger socio-economic

malaise in rural India. Along with that, farmer faces multiple risks that are-

yield, price, input, technology and credit. Increasing incidence of farmers’

suicides is due to above crisis. Risk management in agriculture should address

yield, price credit, and income or weather problems. Organizing farmers into a

federation of self-help groups (SHGs) and greater involvement from the civil

society.

Reddy.D.N and Srijit Mishra (2008)51 stated that the agricultural distress, as

anticipated, had a larger impact on the small holders with limited resources and

the farming community inhabiting the rain-fed regions and tribal areas. They

have tried to assess whether small and marginal farming is sustainable without

public infrastructure support and comprehensive social security covering

health, education, employment and old age support. According to their study,

the public funding for research and education is low in dry land states with

harsh environments. The increasing capital intensity of new technology and

institutional bias in the delivery of technology restricts to access to technology

50 Mishra Srijit (2007) Risks, Farmers’ Suicides and Agrarian Crisis in India: Is There A Way Out?, Working

paper -2007-014,Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai, September, pp No.1to20.51

Reddy, D.Narasimha and Srijit Mishra (2008) Crisis in Agriculture and Rural Distress in Post-Reform India’, in R. Radhakrishna (ed), India Development Report 2008, pp.40-53. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

39

for small and marginal farmers. In the post-reform period, high gross domestic

product (GDP) growth accompanied by low agricultural growth has brought

about a rapid shift in the sectoral distribution of GDP which is skewed against

agriculture. The declining share of agriculture is a tendency driven by forces

inherent in the development process. However, the paradox is that there is no

appreciable decline in the share of agriculture in the country’s labour force.

Further they observed low growth of farm productivity, low agricultural prices,

slowdown of demand for agricultural products due to the stagnation of per

capita food consumption during 1993-2005, and inadequate employment

opportunities outside agriculture are the proximate causes that underlie the

current slow pace of agricultural transformation.

Reddy.D.N. and Mishra Srijit (2009)52 discussed the nature and causes of

agrarian crisis and rural distress. They discussed the structural changes in

employment across the sectors and within the rural areas. They observed that

the marginalization of holdings and emergence of small holdings increased as a

numerically dominant to Indian agriculture. The resource stress in agriculture

and the deceleration of agricultural growth are experienced in the post reform

period.

52 Reddy D.N &Mishra Srijit,(2009) Agrarian Crisis in India, Published, Edited Book by OXFORD University Press.

40

Ranjana Padhi (2009)53 explains that both research and ground reality show

how it is the green revolution and the measures undertaken then that led to the

rapid deterioration of soil conditions, increased demand for high-cost pesticides

and fertilisers, and a network of institutional funding that extended to non-

institutional sources too; the latter subsequently brought almost the entire

farming community into the vicious grip of indebtedness. Punjab State

Farmers’ Commission (2007) stated that the number of marginal and small

farmers that was 5 lakh in Punjab in 1991 declined to 3 lakh in 2001. Finding it

hard to live on farming alone, they leave farming. He also pointed out that the

breakdown of the agrarian system has led to acute distress among them,

dependent as they are on wage labour in the agricultural economy. Farmers are

cornered from many sides by the high price of fertilisers and seeds, cheap

imports, withdrawal of state support, the vagaries of rainfall due to climatic

changes caused by global warming, and a host of other conditions.

Explained the conditions of women in the society after their husbands

committed suicides. He says “dependent on the hetero-patriarchal structures of

marriage and family, women are left fending for themselves, their children, the

53 Ranjana Padhi (2009) On Women Surviving Farmer Suicides in Punjab, Economic & Political Weekly

EPW may 9, 2009 vol xliv no 19.

41

elderly, as well as dealing with the wrath and harassment of bank and

commission agents”.

Mallika Kaur (2010)54 opined that the rising number of farmer suicides in the

Punjab region of India exposes the problem of extreme rural insecurity,

Punjab’s agricultural output increased manifold when the Central Government

chose Punjab as the site for the “Green Revolution” in the 1960s. Three

decades later, without any alternate source of employment, small and marginal

farmers of Punjab continued to pursue the environmentally and economically

unsustainable agricultural practices of the Green Revolution, while

accumulating high agrarian debt. Reports of a significant number of farmer

suicides are emerging from the region known as India’s “bread basket.”

Siddharth N. Madare (2012)55 said that, the existing agrarian crisis in India,

which was caused largely by the relative marginalization of agrarian interests

in the national policy agenda, is a direct outcome of the economic reforms in

India since the 1991. Due to these economic reforms state intervention in

agrarian sector is withdrawn and public expenditure is decreased. He also

pointed out that withdrawal of state was an integral part of neo-liberal or free-

54 Mallika Kaur (2010) The Paradox of India’s Bread Basket: Farmer Suicides in Punjab, PRAXIS the

Fletcher Journal of Human Security, VOLUME XXV –pp No39-6055 Siddharth N. Madare, (2012) Global perspective on Farmer Suicides in India, Indian Streams Research

Journal, Vol.2,Issue.II/March,2012pp.1-4.

42

market policy framework that India adopted to become a partner in the

increasingly supra-national regime facilitated by globalization discourse. His

stated that WTO backed-trade regime pressed for removal of protection and

subsidies vis-à-vis agriculture in the third world countries, while the first world

countries are allowed to continue with subsidies in the garb of some artificial

technicalities’.

Dealluck Irengbam (2012)56 described agriculture in India as gambling in

monsoon in Punjab approximately one suicide is happening every day, about

87 per cent of them were small farmers and agricultural labourers. Suicides in

Punjab are the result of mental stress and this mental stress is most often

caused by poverty and indebtedness’.

Gaurav Sarthak and Srijit Mishra (2012)57 reported that the acreage under

the transgenic Bt cotton seeds in India has risen significantly since its

legalization in the year 2002. Discussions on the advantages from the

technology have focused on increments in productivity and income, without

much analysis on risk. Claims on productivity gains seem to be misplaced, as

appropriate counterfactuals do not exist for the same hybrids. On empirical

56 Dealluck Irengbam (2012) Study of Suicide Victims of Agriculture in Punjab, International Journal of

Management & Business studies, Vol. 2, Issue 1, Jan. - March 2012.57 Sarthak Gaurav and Srijit Mishra(2012), To Bt or Not to Bt? Risk and Uncertainty Considerations in

Technology Assessment, India Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai, January, pp No1-36.

43

evidence, though limited, brings out the problem of how a high cost technology

could be associated with higher risks and may be dominated by traditional

alternatives under certain conditions. Ethnographic accounts from the field

provide qualitative support to our understanding. A formidable test of

sustainability of an agricultural technology and its ability to protect farmers

against downside risks is how it fares in the eventuality of crop loss in worse

seasons.

Charyulu .Y (2013)58 identified high incidence of indebtedness among the

farmers as the major causative factor for agrarian distress and it’s resulted in

farmers’ suicides in India.

The forgone review of literature helped in understanding the research

problem in its various dimensions including the severity of farmers’ suicides,

the contributory factors, both at micro-level and macro-levels, relief measures,

policy issues, etc. This has aided in formulating methodology for the study.

The socio-economic profile of the study area is presented in the ensuing

chapter.

58

Yadgira Charyulu (2013) Agrarian Distress and Farmers Suicides in India, Book Published by Serials Publications, New Delhi.

CHAPTER - 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Chowdry, K.R., (1998)[footnoteRef:2] conducted a study covering a sample of 92 households of farmers who committed suicide. The major cause reported by most of the victims’ households is accumulated debts for digging or deepening of wells. The bore wells many a time failed and consequently the crops are also failed. The resulting inability to repay the loans and the feeling of threatened self-respect acted as the triggers for farmers suicides. [2: Chowdry.K.R (1998) Farmers Suicides in Andhra Pradesh, AWARE Development Research Advisory Group, Hyderabad.]

Assadi Muzaffar (1998)[footnoteRef:3] analysed the distress of farmers growing Dal, Chilies and Tomatoes in Northern Karnataka and the State Government’s desperate attempts to pass them off as isolated incidents with individual histories raising serious questions about the state of the economy in the country side. Most of the time, farmers borrowed money in advance before the harvesting, thus grapping the reasons further in the vicious circle of exploitation. He pointed out that it was a paradise where the capitalist was system integrates the peasants with the larger market. This trapped the peasants in the larger framework of exploitation. [3: Assadi Muzaffar (1998) Farmers’ Suicides: Signs of Distress in Rural Economy, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol.3, No.13.]

Chowdry K.R. (1998)[footnoteRef:4] strongly argued that structural adjustment programme as implemented by the Government of Andhra Pradesh is proved to be anti-farmer. Agriculture is grossly neglected and the agrarian crisis is deepening and this is responsible for preponderance of farmers’ distress. He concluded that the economic reforms as prescribed that World Bank are surely a misnomer for development. The development pattern which does not take people as the central concern which is premised essentially upon market and private profit and this needs to be rejected. For the rulers, the farmers who killed themselves are not of any concern. Whose life was that any way? [4: Chowdhary, K.R. (1998), “Who’s Life Was That Anyway…Farmers”, “Suicides in Andhra Pradesh”, Forum against Globalization.]

Revati (1998)[footnoteRef:5] felt that there were some missing issues farmers’ suicides. Firstly, she pointed out that irrigation was an implicit cause for the soaring debts on the farmers. The cotton farmers of Warangal almost entirely depended on private irrigation. She observed that in the creation of private irrigation, farmers made heavy investment that led to accumulation of debts. Secondly, she ascribed the sources of credit as another reason for the farmers’ suicides. She pointed out that most of the studies conducted in the district revealed that it was the commission agents and the pesticide dealers meet the credit needs of the farmers. They charged 15 to 20 percent higher price over the normal price. [5: Revathi, E (1998), “Farmers’ Suicides: Missing Issues”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXXIII (20) May 16.]

Pardhasarathy G and Shameem (1998)[footnoteRef:6] conducted a study on “Suicides of Cotton Farmers in Andhra Pradesh an Exploratory Study”. The paper concludes that the main reason for the strain on the cotton peasant was the growing indebtedness to the agriculturist cum-moneylender cum trader. But this does not entirely explain the suicides. One has to understand the social milieu in which an individual gets alienated from the family and the society. [6: Parhasarathy.G, and Shameem (1998) “Suicides of Cotton Farmers in Andhra Pradesh an Exploratory Study” Economic and Political Weekly March 28, vol. 33 pp720-726.]

Venkateswarlu Davuluri (1998)[footnoteRef:7] reported that large number of farmers’ suicide deaths due to extreme distress. This study specifically focused attention on a number of factors, which are held as responsible for farmers' suicides. Those are: a)adverse seasonal conditions; b) massive pest attack; c) wrong farm practices by the farmers; d) failure of formal credit institutions; e) excessive dependence on private money-lenders/traders for credit and technical advice; f) consecutive failure of crops; g) adverse prices; h) farmers shifting to cash crops; i) government's liberalization policy; j) increasing prices of inputs; k) mass hysteria and government incentives etc. He opined that institutional credit is available to the farmers but failure of repaying the previous debts blocked their accessibility to the institutional credit. So the farmers depended fully on private credit where the interest rates are very high. The main reason for the suicides of many of the farmers in the study area is the growing indebtedness to the private moneylenders. [7: Venkateswarlu Davuluri (1998) Cotton Farmers’ Suicides in Andhra Pradesh, November, Commissioned by BASIX Equity for Equity, Hyderabad.]

Shambu Prasad, C (1999)[footnoteRef:8] in his paper on “Suicide Deaths and Quality of Indian Cotton – Perspective from History of Technology and Khadi Movement”, pointed out that the suicide death of farmers is a failure of agricultural science. Historical nature of the crisis needs to be appreciated. This paper seeks to retrace the route by which the present connections between Indian cotton and the mechanized textile industry were first established and also a direction that has led to the present crisis on the fields of the cotton farmers. It also explores the alternatives in the khadi movement which, with the aim of reintroducing spinning to the masses, had to look at varieties of cotton suited for home-based production and evolve tools for use in the movement. [8: Shambu Prasad .C (1999) “Suicide Deaths and Quality of Indian Cotton – Perspective from History of Technology and Khadi Movement”. Economic and Political Weekly January 30th.]

Vasavi. A. R (1999)[footnoteRef:9] in her paper on “Agrarian Distress in Bidar – Market, State and Suicides” reported that spate of suicides by agriculturists in Karnataka was largely the result of ecological, economic and social crises in the region. This situation calls for attention to the problems of commercial agriculture in the region and the role of the state in solving such problems. Internal social complexities such as the growth of local usury and the increasing individualization of agriculture also compounded distress of farmers. [9: Vasavi .A.R (1999) “Agrarian Distress in Bidar – Market, State and Suicides” Economic and Political Weekly, August 7.]

Assadi Muzaffar (2000)[footnoteRef:10] stated that the “seed tribunal “was recently held in Karnataka where farmers from various parts of India testified to their problems in agriculture. In the face of large –scale suicides by farmers in India, such a meeting assumes enormous significance. The testimonies of the farmers revealed their frustrations, while the jury’s ‘verdict’ ignored important issues. [10: Muzaffar Assadi, (2000) “Karnataka Seed Tribunal: Interrogating Farmers’ Suicides”, Economic and Political Weekly, October 28.]

Damodaran A (2001)[footnoteRef:11] in his study on “WTO Agriculture Agreement, Common Property Resources and Income Diversification Strategy”, analyzed different aspects of WTO and specially Agreement on Agriculture (AOA). India and other like-minded developing countries have been raising fundamental concerns on the likely adverse impact of the AoA on their food and livelihood security systems. Simultaneously, the government of India has also initiated measures for carefully monitoring and regulating the import liberalization process ushered in by the Exim policy 2001-02. Based on these developments, the paper advocates rigorous negotiation positions and proactive programmes of development in order to address the pressing problems arising from the AOA in developing countries, whose agrarian economies are characterized by “ecosystem multi-functionality”. These programmes have the scope for providing income diversification opportunities for the weaker sections of the farming communities through development of common property resources. This could form the best safety net to contain the fallout of the Agreement on Agriculture of W.T.O [11: Damodaran, A (2001) WTO Agriculture Agreement, Common Property Resources and Income Diversification Strategy, Economic and Political Weekly, September 22nd.]

Despond. R.S (2002)[footnoteRef:12] conducted a study on “Suicide by Farmers in Karnataka, Agrarian Distress and Possible Alleviatory Steps” The study revealed that Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Punjab have been rocked by the suicides of a large number of farmers, posing a serious challenge to policy-makers. This paper attempts to identify different agro-economic situations faced by the farming community and other factors, as reflected by the case studies of the suicide victims, and also to suggest remedial measures to avert such tragedies in future. [12: Despond.R.S (2002) “Suicide by Farmers in Karnataka Agrarian Distress and Possible Alleviatory Steps” Economic and Political Weekly, June 29th.]

Shourie David.G and Y V S T Sai, (2002)[footnoteRef:13] conducted a field survey on “Bt Cotton: Farmers’ Reactions in Andhra Pradesh”. They elicited the views of farmers in two districts in the state on the efficacy of Bt cotton in withstanding pest attacks, use of pesticides, compliance with government norms, and farmers’ willingness to continue with cultivation of Bt cotton in the coming seasons. The researchers felt that the farmers are eager to adopt Bt technology and suggested that the Government should take immediate measures to release Indian varieties of Bt cotton so that farmers can enjoy the fruits of the technology at low cost. [13: Shourie David.G, and Sai.Y.V.S.T (2002) “Bt Cotton: Farmers’ Reactions” Economic and Political Weekly, November 16.]

Sen Bhowani (2002)[footnoteRef:14] Sen’s study focused on Maharashtra and West Bengal, the two most industrialized areas. He reported that inspite of various land reform acts; there existed in these states a preponderance of inferior tenants and crop sharers, being 30% and 22% of farmers respectively. He suggested that cooperative movement, with proper government support and aid could act as the peasants’ primary weapon against the monopolies in rural areas, and would definitely help in the regeneration of the rural economy. [14: Sen Bhowani (2002) “New Tasks in Agriculture”, Mainstream, Vol. 40, Jul-Dec.]

Nirmala (2003)[footnoteRef:15] observed that there were various factors such as socio-psychological factors, agricultural economic factors, loss of expectations, absence of proper institutional support and proper policy backup led to the distress of the farming community. She suggested that the prevailing market imperfections in the input and product markets must be eradicated and the state should ensure provision of cheaper credit through institutional resources and regularize the activities of private money lenders. The private input-credit tie-up should be discouraged. Public investment in irrigation should be raised so that the burden on the farmers in providing private sources of irrigation could be reduced. [15: Nirmal S. Azad, (2003) “Genesis of Economic Crisis in Punjab,” Mainstream, vol. XLI, no. 47, 8 November. ]

Mohanty (2004)[footnoteRef:16] said that established agro-climatic and socio-cultural features of Maharashtra were different from that of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. In Maharashtra, the focus was more on commercial cultivation, with the dominant produce being cotton. The available institutional facilities were however not up to the mark, so farmers are largely dependent on informal sources of credit. At times, decline in production and sales occur, since new methods of farming rendered traditional knowledge and skills obsolete. Marketing methods were also ineffective. Moreover, the dependence of agriculture on the vagaries of the monsoons and other climatic conditions had a detrimental effect on the crops. The study further reveals that it cannot be inferred the existing agricultural situations where the sole reasons for farmer’s suicides, but they had contributed immensely to the continued occurrence of suicides. [16: Mohanty B.B., Sangeeta. S (2004) “Farmers Suicides in Maharashtra” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol XXXIX, No. 52,pp. 5599-5606.]

Vyas (2004)[footnoteRef:17] in his article examined as to how to protect vulnerable sections of the society. He highlighted the major structural changes in recent years, particularly the reduction of the role of the Government and increase in the role of the market. Over a period of time, the number of small and marginal farmers is increased in Indian agriculture. Also there have been significant changes in the output mix in agriculture (from food grains to non food grains and coarse cereals to fine cereals. Another far-reaching change is increase in the cost of inputs (fertilizers, pesticides, seeds and mechanical power). He further added that the growing opening of the economy and the liberalizing external trade policies caused price fluctuations in the domestic market. [17: Vyas V.S. (2004) “Agrarian Distress: Strategies to Protect Vulnerable Sections”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXXIX, No.52, pp 5576-5582.]

Rao V.M. and Gopalappa, D.V. (2004)[footnoteRef:18] have attempted to explain the farmers’ distress in the two high profile I.T. States, viz., Karnataka and Andhra. They argued that the Indian economy loses its momentum if agriculture stumbles. Farmers’ distress could strike at the very roots of the chief sources of agricultural growth, viz., farmer initiative and enterprise. Karnataka as well as Andhra Farmers respond well to changing markets and were receptive to new technologies. But the drought prone environment, combined with a non caring policy regime, turned into victims the very producers who bring about growth. [18: Rao V. M. and Gopalappa D.V. (2004) “Agricultural Growth and Farmer’s Distress-Tentative Perspective from Karnataka”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXXIX, No.52, pp.5591-5598.]

The authors suggested that polices to raise farmers’ long term potential and create social capital to promote the empowerment of disadvantaged groups. Neglect of these policies impaired long term growth and development and also allows the conditions causing farmers’ distress to persist and become chronic.

Singh Joginder and R.S.Sidhu (2004)[footnoteRef:19] analysed the factors in respect of declining crop diversification in Punjab. The cropping pattern earlier was greatly diversified, comprising wheat, cotton, maize, groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, gram, barley and guar. The present dominance of wheat-paddy system led to economic and social growth, drop in agricultural employment, over exploitation of groundwater resources and decline in soil fertility. Due to growing stock of food grains, Centre was contemplating reduction of public stocking of wheat and rice and freezing their minimum support prices. If this happens, the economic returns of farming sector of the state would be further squeezed because Punjab was the major contributor towards the national food grains stocks. The policy-makers were seized on the issue of declining crop diversity and are trying to promote diversification through contract farming of high-value crops like fruits, vegetables, medicinal plants, oil seeds and pulses and agro-industries. [19: Joginder Singh, and R.S. Sidhu (2004) “Agriculture under Stress” Economic and Political Weekly, December 25-31, Vol.XXXIX, No.52, P.5607-5610.]

Mohanty BB and Sangeeta, S (2004)[footnoteRef:20] have examined the reasons for suicides among the farming communities in states like Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka which are hitting the headline for the last couple of years. They examined that while state governments attribute the deaths to crop failure due to bad weather, the media emphasizes the rising cost of cultivation, mounting indebtedness and bottlenecks in agricultural marketing. They explained that a number of studies have under taken these suicides to explain these factors in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. One group of studies attributes the suicides mainly to agro economic problems like crop failure, indebtedness, etc (Shiva and Jafri 1998; Deshpande 2002). The other group of studies highlights politico-economic issues blaming the state for the tragedies (Assadi 1998; Revathi 1998; Vasavi 1999; Sara 2004). It is also suggested that the suicides were the outcome of historical factors associated with cotton cultivation. [20: Mohanty B.B., and Sangeeta. S (2004) “Farmers Suicides in Maharashtra” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXXIX, No. 52,pp. 5599-5606.]

Cariappa Vivek and Juli Cariappa (2004)[footnoteRef:21] examined in their article that the beginning of the agricultural season of 2004 coincided with the national elections, which brought about changes in the domestic political scene. A new leadership emerged, not only at the centre, but also in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, where the rural voters rammed home the message that the farming community could command change if it was ignored for too long. [21: Vivek Cariappa, and Juli Cariappa (2004) “Crisis in Indian Cotton”, Economic and Political Weekly, October 23-29, Vol. XXXIX, No43. ]

Vidyasagar, R., and Suman Chandra, K (2004)[footnoteRef:22] in their book explained that Indian farmers, producing certain crops for the international market were facing the crisis under the WTO regime. Cotton crop is a case in point. When global prices were high for cotton, several thousands of small farmers took loan and they even leased in land when they did not own enough of it. With the increased demand for seeds and pesticides, dealers of spurious seeds and pesticides entered the market in the absence of regulated supply of these inputs. It has led to a complete debacle because of drought conditions and uncontrollable pests leading to low yields. Moreover, as the institutional credit had been curtailed under the structural adjustment programme, farmers were to depend on private sources of credit at the high rate of interest. [22: Vidyasagar.R and Suman Chandra.K (2004) Farmers’ Suicides in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, Research Report Series-64,NIRD, Hyderabad, April.]

The authors observed in their present study the most of the Farmers’ suicides pertained to the earlier spate of suicides that occurred in certain parts of Telangana region in Andhra Pradesh. One characteristic feature of earlier spate of suicides was that it happened in spurts. But in Anantapur District of Andhra Pradesh it had become a persisting feature for the last five years. Thus, the present study focused on Anantapur to understand the persistence of farmers’ suicides. Certain districts in Karnataka adjoining Anantapur facing were also taken up for the study as it was observed that suicides were taking place or have taken place in this contiguous belt that may be called as suicide belt.

Sainath, P. (2004)[footnoteRef:23] opined that besides thousands of farmers’ suicides in A.P. a number of women farmers also have taken their lives along with husband farmers, but they were not covered due to lack of patta on their names and they were seen as farmers’ wives. Though close to a fifth of all rural households in India were female headed and do most of the work of the farmers, but were not recognized as farmers. Some of the farmers used to migrate to urban areas and this left more women running farms, families and finance against huge odds. And also it had a linkage of girls’ suicides in the districts of Warangal, Anantapur and Guntur due to lack of money (dowry problems and deaths) for their weddings. Further women were also hit in other ways such as drunkenness and irresponsibilities of their husbands, and some of the women committed suicides. [23: Sainath, P. (2004) ‘Series on Farmers’ Suicides in Andhra Pradesh’, The Hindu (jun-Aug).]

Sarma E.A.S (2004)[footnoteRef:24] in his article on “Is Rural Economy Breaking Down (REBD)? Farmers suicides in Andhra Pradesh” stated that the crisis in Andhra Pradesh could easily arise in many other states as the agrarian conditions in those states were no better. Farmers’ suicides represented only the tip of the iceberg and the need of the hour is that the central and states Governments should chalk-out a comprehensive strategy to contain the crisis without any further delay. He further noted that the newspapers continued to report more and more suicide deaths in the villages of Andhra Pradesh. To attribute the rural crisis entirely to poverty and drought would be an over-simplification of the situation. The village economy was under stress. Hastily announced relief packages did not address this complex situation. [24: Sarma.E.A.S (2004) “Is Rural Economy Breaking Down? Farmers suicides in Andhra Pradesh” Economic and Political Weekly” July 10th.]

Mohanty.B B and Sangeeta Shroff (2004)[footnoteRef:25] in their paper on “Farmers’ Suicides in Maharashtra” revealed that though crop losses, indebtedness and market imperfections caused economic hardship to farmers, social factors were also at work, which led in some cases to their suicides. The main findings of both the macro and micro level analyses indicated that through the loss of agriculture income due to adverse weather and market imperfections and consequent indebtedness pushed the farmers to distress. Social factors were also were responsible to their suicides. [25: Mohanty B.B., and Sangeeta. S (2004) “Farmers Suicides in Maharashtra” Economic and Political Weekly, Vol XXXIX, No. 52,pp. 5599-5606.]

Sagar Vidya .R, and Suman Chandra.K (2004)[footnoteRef:26] This study has identified a suicide belt (which is mainly in the arid and semi arid zones) of Anantapur district of Rayalaseeema region of A.P and certain other districts of Northern karnataka . The reason identified is inadequate development of infrastructure (credit, power, extension, input supplies, marketing, irrigation etc). This study identified that economical factors are the major causes for farmers’ suicide. This study also tried to explain that mental depression (psychological factor ) is triggered by economic crisis. Debt trap is the main cause for suicide. [26: Vidyasagar.R and Suman Chandra.K (2004), Report on Farmers’ Suicides in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, Research Report Series-64, NIRD, Hyderabad, April 2004.]

Ghosh Jayati (2005)[footnoteRef:27] reported that fiscal policies, reduced spending of central and states governments were the most significant feature. Due to tax reforms, the tax/GDP ratio declined at central level. Central transfers to state governments also declined. State governments were forced to borrow in the market and other (often international) sources at high interest rates. As a result, the levels of debt and debt servicing increased in most of the states. In recent years, most state governments were in fiscal crisis and did not have funds for capital expenditures. This has been especially important since state governments are responsible for areas critical for farmers such as rural infrastructure, power, water supply, health and education. Therefore, a comprehensive strategy for the regeneration of agriculture would require more than simply addressing trade policies, and would necessarily involve a wide range of public interventions, which in turn means a substantially increased role for public investment and regulation in rural India. [27: Jayati Ghosh(2005) The Political Economy of Farmers’ Suicides in India, “Freedom from Hunger” Lecture Series, India International Centre, Lodi Estate, New Delhi, December 9.]

Gyanamudra (2005)[footnoteRef:28] observed that depression and anxiety have been found to be the most significant causes in those who committed suicides. Comparison of behaviroral profiles revealed that all behaviroral / emotional problems were elevated among suicide attempts versus controls. [28: Gynamudra (2005) Farmers’ Suicide: Dynamics and Strategies of Prevention, Paper Presented in National Workshop on Farmers’ Suicide: Dynamics and Strategies of Prevention November 28-29,2005,at NIRD, Hyderabad.]

Internationally, higher suicide rates have been noted in rural areas compared to urban areas in many countries. Higher rural male suicide has been attributed variously to the isolation and rigors of rural life, fluctuating economic hardship from climate and community, greater access to poison (mono-crotophos), lack of employment opportunities, prevailing rural masculine culture and lack of mental health facilities.

Mahendra Dev (2005)[footnoteRef:29] in his article stated that in recent years, farmers’ suicides have increased in many states. The budget was silent on the problem. Many farmers were shifting to commercial crops. In commercial crops, input intensity was higher than in subsistence crops. Allocation to research and extension in this budget was also low. It was still only around 0.5 percent of GDP. There is a need to focus research and extension on dry land, hilly and marginal areas, diversification of the crop pattern and allied activities, post-harvest technology, biotechnology. The role of the private sectors increasing particularly with the advent of biotechnology. [29: Mahendra Dev (2005) “Agriculture and Rural Employment in the Budget”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XL, No. 14, pp. 1410-1413.]

Aidas Jainath (2005)[footnoteRef:30] analysed the factors causing the farmers’ suicides. India’s achievement in green revolution during 1960 was appreciated all over the globe and termed it as a model for other Asian Countries. But Indian farmers are facing many challenges because of recent droughts. Rural sector seemed to be under stress in the era of globalization and privatization. Suicides of farmers have become a trend for the last one year. Indebtedness is the main cause for suicides. [30: Jainath Aidas (2005) Rural Distress and Farmers Suicides: Cumulative Effect of Multi Factors, National Workshop on Farmers Suicides November 28-29, at NIRD, Hyderabad.]

The agriculture credit from various sources is increased but it accounts for only half the cost of agricultural inputs. Thus farmers will have to depend on other sources of credit. And 82% of Andhra farmers are in debts.

Kumar Mohan (2005)[footnoteRef:31] in his article described about agrarian crisis in Kerala. Agrarian crisis claimed many lives of farmers in Kerala since global recession. The impact was different in different districts in the state. It depended on cropping pattern and number of farmers doing export oriented farming. In Kerala 66% of the farmers who adopted expose oriented families committed suicide in Wayanad and Iddukki districts. In that about 50% committed suicides in Wayanad district alone who cultivated Coffee crop. Coffee crop is an exportable crop. As a result of fall in prices and crop loss, farmers’ debts increased. The stress forced them to take extreme steps. It is further observed that more causality was expected with the integration of Indian agriculture with the world market. [31: Mohankumar (2005) Agrarian Crisis and Farmers’ Distress Under Neo-liberal Regime: An Analysis of Farmers’ Suicides in Kerala” Paper Presented in National Workshop on Farmers’ Suicide: Dynamics and Strategies of Prevention November 28-29, 2005,at NIRD, Hyderabad.]

Kumar Vijay (2005)[footnoteRef:32] and ICS Bhatt identified macro level causes, namely, the new economic policy encompassing liberalization and globalization, withdrawal of the state from economic sphere. It has led to the rising cost of production and falling price of farm commodities. In the absence of formal institutional support, the small farmers borrowed alone from private money lenders. Failure of monsoons, poor yields and failure of agricultural markets resulted in the high rate of indebtedness. Agricultural policies adopted could not rescue farmers from the crisis. [32: Kumar Vijay (2005) Farmers’ Suicides’ Causes and Cures A study in Andhra Pradesh” Paper Presented in National Workshop on Farmers’ Suicide: Dynamics and Strategies of Prevention November 28-29,2005,at NIRD, Hyderabad.]

Narayanamurthy .A (2006)[footnoteRef:33] stated that unremunerative prices for crops, indebtedness and crop failures due to frequent droughts were, by and large identified as the core reasons of farmers’ suicides and distress. The relief package for Vidarbhas farmers, announced in early July, could not end distress in the region because it does not address the root causes. He felt that the package would not stop farmers’ suicides, and suggested short and long-term measures to solve farmers’ distress. [33: Narayanamurthy .A (2006) Relief Package for Farmers: Can It Stop Suicides? Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XLI, No.31]

Assadi Muzaffar (2006)[footnoteRef:34] analysed agrarian crisis in Karnataka. Global capital brought in new methods to link the autonomous farmers with the larger market. Firstly path of development increased the disparity between the urban and rural areas. It is true that poverty has declined over the past two decades. However the disparity has increased. Secondly, it has not made farmers free from debt rather it has trapped them in debt. In fact the failure of co-operative institutions made large number of farmers to fall back on private money lenders who charge higher level of interest. Thirdly, production cost increased rather than the price of agricultural produce. The increase in the cost of inputs has been against the terms of trade of agriculture. Incidentally the growth of agriculture decreased. Similar trend was observed in Karnataka also. [34: Muzaffar Assadi (2006) “Agrarian Crises and the Suicides of Farmers in Karnataka: Nature, Dimension and State Policy” Edited by K.Dasratharamiah, Jayaraj.M Title of the book,”Sustainable Agriculture in Drought Prone Regions- Serials Publications, New Delhi.]

Revathi E (2006)[footnoteRef:35] in their paper on “Suicides of Farmers in Andhra Pradesh: Issues and Policy Concerns” observed that the unprecedented and large scale incidence of suicides of farmers have drawn the attention of policy makers, academics, and social activists. There are a number of studies that focused on identification of causes for the suicides of farmers in India and in the state of Andhra Pradesh. The objective of the study was to analyse the incidence of suicides of farmers in Andhra Pradesh and the issues concerned for policy implications to contain the crisis in agriculture. The main finding of the study was