Chapter 20Chapter 20Section 3Section 3

Voices of Voices of

DissentDissent

Brown vs. Board of EducationBrown vs. Board of Education

In 1896 the Supreme Court established the legality of In 1896 the Supreme Court established the legality of “separate but equal” schools.“separate but equal” schools.

For a long time the NAACP campaigned against For a long time the NAACP campaigned against segregation in public education by trying to prove the segregation in public education by trying to prove the inferiority of the African American schoolsinferiority of the African American schools

One legal case the NAACP supported was the case of One legal case the NAACP supported was the case of Brown vs. Board of EducationBrown vs. Board of Education which involved Linda Brown, an African American student from Topeka Kansas

The all white school was close to her house, but she had to walk several miles which included crossing a dangerous railroad track to get to her school

{NAACP lawyer, Thurgood Marshall, Thurgood Marshall, argued on Brown’s behalf}

{The Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Brown vs. Brown vs. Board of EducationBoard of Education that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional}

Showdown in Little RockShowdown in Little Rock Unsurprisingly, desegregation in the South moved slowlyUnsurprisingly, desegregation in the South moved slowly The Little Rock school board was the first to announce that it The Little Rock school board was the first to announce that it

was going to comply with the court’s decision and was going to comply with the court’s decision and desegregatedesegregate

{The day that Central High School was supposed to be {The day that Central High School was supposed to be integrated, integrated, Governor Orval Faubus ordered the Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus ordered the Arkansas National Guard to surround the schoolNational Guard to surround the school}}

Faubus claimed that it was to protect the school from Faubus claimed that it was to protect the school from protesters. What he actually ended up doing was exaggerated protesters. What he actually ended up doing was exaggerated the danger and spread panicthe danger and spread panic

One of the nine black students, Elizabeth Eckford did not get One of the nine black students, Elizabeth Eckford did not get the message that the students were advised not to go to the message that the students were advised not to go to school aloneschool alone

When she attempted to enter the school, an angry mob and When she attempted to enter the school, an angry mob and the National Guardsmen stopped her the National Guardsmen stopped her

{For nearly three weeks the {For nearly three weeks the Little Rock NineLittle Rock Nine were were prevented from entering the school}prevented from entering the school}

““When I got in front of When I got in front of the school…I didn’t know the school…I didn’t know what to do…Just then the what to do…Just then the guards let some white guards let some white students through…I students through…I walked up to the guard walked up to the guard who had let them in…who had let them in…When I tried to squeeze When I tried to squeeze past him, he raised hi past him, he raised hi bayonet, and then the bayonet, and then the other guard moved in…other guard moved in…Somebody [in the crowd] Somebody [in the crowd] started yelling, ‘Lynch started yelling, ‘Lynch her! Lynch her!’.” her! Lynch her!’.” --

-Elizabeth Eckford -Elizabeth Eckford

Continued….Continued…. The students continued to be harassed.The students continued to be harassed. Minnie-jean Brown was suspended for dumping a Minnie-jean Brown was suspended for dumping a

food tray on a boy who made a racist comment to her. food tray on a boy who made a racist comment to her. She was later permanently expelled from school for She was later permanently expelled from school for verbally defending herself from racist and vulgar verbally defending herself from racist and vulgar comments comments

Despite such pressures the other students stayed in Despite such pressures the other students stayed in schoolschool

But Governor Faubus was still looking for ways to But Governor Faubus was still looking for ways to avoid integrationavoid integration

He shut down the Little Rock public school system in He shut down the Little Rock public school system in 1958 and 1959 and opened a private school for white 1958 and 1959 and opened a private school for white kids onlykids only

African Americans and poor white kids had no school African Americans and poor white kids had no school to attend anymore to attend anymore

In 1959 the schools were court ordered to reopen. In 1959 the schools were court ordered to reopen.

The Montgomery Bus The Montgomery Bus BoycottBoycott

On December 1, 1955, On December 1, 1955, {{Rosa ParksRosa Parks, an African , an African American seamstress was arrested for not giving up her American seamstress was arrested for not giving up her seat on the bus to a white passenger}seat on the bus to a white passenger}

In protest, 50,000 African Americans organized a boycott In protest, 50,000 African Americans organized a boycott of the bus system in Montgomeryof the bus system in Montgomery

The The Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA)Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) persuaded the community to continue the boycott while persuaded the community to continue the boycott while the NAACP and Ms. Parks made their court appeals the NAACP and Ms. Parks made their court appeals

{The MIA chose 26 year old Baptist minister {The MIA chose 26 year old Baptist minister Martin Martin Luther King Jr.Luther King Jr. as its spokesperson} as its spokesperson}

The boycott went on for months. White protesters tried The boycott went on for months. White protesters tried through intimidation and outright violence to end it.through intimidation and outright violence to end it.

The houses of King and other MIA leaders were bombedThe houses of King and other MIA leaders were bombed King, having studied the nonviolent tactics on Mohandas King, having studied the nonviolent tactics on Mohandas

Gandhi, urged the African American community not to Gandhi, urged the African American community not to respond to violence with violencerespond to violence with violence

Dr. Kings house after it was bombed

The Boycott SucceedsThe Boycott Succeeds Finally the nonviolent protests and boycotts worked Finally the nonviolent protests and boycotts worked

and in November 1956 the Supreme Court declared and in November 1956 the Supreme Court declared Alabama segregation laws unconstitutional Alabama segregation laws unconstitutional

By the end of that year Montgomery had a new By the end of that year Montgomery had a new desegregated bus system and the civil rights desegregated bus system and the civil rights movement had a new leader, Martin Luther Kingmovement had a new leader, Martin Luther King

{Congress then passed the {Congress then passed the Civil Rights Act of Civil Rights Act of 1957.1957. This act made it a federal crime to prevent This act made it a federal crime to prevent qualified persons from voting}qualified persons from voting}

The act also established the Civil Rights Commission The act also established the Civil Rights Commission to investigate violations of the law to investigate violations of the law

A follow-up law in 1960 increased the court’s power A follow-up law in 1960 increased the court’s power to protect the voting rights of African Americans to protect the voting rights of African Americans

Just because Just because segregation was segregation was deemed deemed unconstitutional does unconstitutional does not mean things got not mean things got any better right away. any better right away. When these three When these three college students sat college students sat down at a recently down at a recently desegregated café desegregated café they were accosted they were accosted “A huge mob “A huge mob gathered, with open gathered, with open police support while police support while the three of us sat the three of us sat there for three hours. there for three hours. I was attacked with I was attacked with fists, brass knuckles fists, brass knuckles and the broken and the broken portions of glass portions of glass sugar containers, and sugar containers, and was burned with was burned with cigarettes. I'm cigarettes. I'm covered with blood covered with blood and we were all and we were all covered by salt, covered by salt, sugar, mustard, and sugar, mustard, and various other things” various other things”

But most of the time, But most of the time, rather than have to rather than have to serve African Americans, serve African Americans, business owners would business owners would just shut down their just shut down their establishments establishments

This café went so far as This café went so far as to remove all of their to remove all of their seats from the front seats from the front counter so that African counter so that African Americans could not sit Americans could not sit at the counter.at the counter.

The Hispanic Experience The Hispanic Experience Felix LongoriaFelix Longoria was a Mexican American soldier that gave his was a Mexican American soldier that gave his

life for his country in WWIIlife for his country in WWII In 1948 his body was returned to the U.S. to be laid to rest in In 1948 his body was returned to the U.S. to be laid to rest in

Three Rivers, Texas Three Rivers, Texas {The towns only funeral home refused to allow Longoria’s {The towns only funeral home refused to allow Longoria’s

family to use the chapel because the soldier was a family to use the chapel because the soldier was a Mexican Mexican AmericanAmerican}}

When the media publicized this many were outraged at such When the media publicized this many were outraged at such treatment of a veterantreatment of a veteran

Texas Senator Lyndon B. Johnson arranged for Longoria to be Texas Senator Lyndon B. Johnson arranged for Longoria to be buried with full military honors at Arlington National buried with full military honors at Arlington National CemeteryCemetery

This incident led to the formation of the American GI Forum, a This incident led to the formation of the American GI Forum, a group dedicated to protecting the rights of Hispanic veteransgroup dedicated to protecting the rights of Hispanic veterans

The GI Forum received aid from the The GI Forum received aid from the League of United Latin League of United Latin American Citizens, American Citizens, which was much like the NAACP for which was much like the NAACP for Hispanics Hispanics

Relocation of American Relocation of American Indians Indians

In 1953 the U.S. government adopted a policy of In 1953 the U.S. government adopted a policy of termination termination

Termination was a plan to eradicate the Native Termination was a plan to eradicate the Native American reservation system tribe-by-tribe, and to cut American reservation system tribe-by-tribe, and to cut the federal funding for American Indiansthe federal funding for American Indians

In backing of the termination policy the Eisenhower In backing of the termination policy the Eisenhower administration came up with the administration came up with the {{Relocation ActRelocation Act to to encourage American Indians to relocate to urban encourage American Indians to relocate to urban areas and abandon their reservations}areas and abandon their reservations}

Considering this policy an attempt to wipe out Considering this policy an attempt to wipe out American Indian communities, many Native American American Indian communities, many Native American groups led protests and presses lawsuits against the groups led protests and presses lawsuits against the termination policytermination policy

By 1958, the Eisenhower administration had By 1958, the Eisenhower administration had abandoned the termination policy and stated that it abandoned the termination policy and stated that it would no longer support legislation “to terminate would no longer support legislation “to terminate tribes without their consent.”tribes without their consent.”

Questioning Conformity Questioning Conformity Many scholars argued that underneath its façade of Many scholars argued that underneath its façade of

conformity, prosperity and peace, there were some huge conformity, prosperity and peace, there were some huge underlying problems that the U.S. needed to face.underlying problems that the U.S. needed to face.

{African American writer, {African American writer, Ralph EllisonRalph Ellison published Invisible published Invisible Man in 1952. In the novel a black man searches for his place Man in 1952. In the novel a black man searches for his place in a world that is both hostile and indifferent toward him}in a world that is both hostile and indifferent toward him}

Economist John Kenneth Galbraith wrote to warn the Economist John Kenneth Galbraith wrote to warn the privileged in society that they were ignoring “pressing social privileged in society that they were ignoring “pressing social issues in their pursuit of material possessions” issues in their pursuit of material possessions”

{The {The beatsbeats were a small group of writers that the lifestyles were a small group of writers that the lifestyles of the middle class as well.}of the middle class as well.} Beats wrote as they lived, on Beats wrote as they lived, on the spur of the moment.the spur of the moment.

On of the best known beat works was On of the best known beat works was On the Road On the Road written written by by Jack KerouacJack Kerouac The novel rejoices the search for ones The novel rejoices the search for ones OWN identity and at the refutation of precaution and OWN identity and at the refutation of precaution and consistency consistency (Mrs. Epley recommends this novel) (Mrs. Epley recommends this novel)

Ralph EllisonRalph Ellison

““And my problem was And my problem was that I always tried to go that I always tried to go in everyone’s way but in everyone’s way but my own. I have also been my own. I have also been called one thing and called one thing and then another while no then another while no one really wished to hear one really wished to hear what I called myself. So what I called myself. So after years of trying to after years of trying to adopt the opinions of adopt the opinions of others I finally rebelled. others I finally rebelled. I am an invisible man.”I am an invisible man.”

Jack KerouacJack Kerouac

Urban CommunitiesUrban Communities By 1960 more than 20 million city dwellers were living in By 1960 more than 20 million city dwellers were living in

poverty poverty As more and more middle class white people were moving As more and more middle class white people were moving

into the suburbs, poor inner city communities became into the suburbs, poor inner city communities became comprised mostly of minorities comprised mostly of minorities

Partly due to discriminatory real estate practices Partly due to discriminatory real estate practices preventing minorities from getting decent housingpreventing minorities from getting decent housing

Minorities were usually confined to crowded tenements Minorities were usually confined to crowded tenements and old housing in the poorest neighborhoodsand old housing in the poorest neighborhoods

{To improve the tenement housing the federal {To improve the tenement housing the federal government proposed government proposed Urban Renewal Urban Renewal programs to programs to replace old run down tenements with new ones}replace old run down tenements with new ones}

The new high rise buildings had a cold and impersonal The new high rise buildings had a cold and impersonal aura and unfortunately most became run down aura and unfortunately most became run down themselves and were plagued by the same problems as themselves and were plagued by the same problems as before before

The following letters are from a “freedom The following letters are from a “freedom school” in Seattle Washington. After the school” in Seattle Washington. After the Supreme Court ruled that segregated Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools were unconstitutional some schools were unconstitutional some schools still refused to integrate. In schools still refused to integrate. In response the school’s faculty, parents and response the school’s faculty, parents and students boycotted the schools. These are students boycotted the schools. These are a few copies of the ACTUAL letters that a few copies of the ACTUAL letters that were sent to the Board of Education by were sent to the Board of Education by students that participated in the boycottsstudents that participated in the boycotts