chapter 2 second language teaching & learning wright, w. e. (2010). foundations for teaching...

Chapter 2Second Language

Teaching & Learning

Wright, W. E. (2010). Foundations for Teaching English Language Learners: Research, Theory,

Policy, and Practice. Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing.

Guiding Questions

1. What do teachers need to know about language, and why do they need to know it?

2. What does it mean to “know a language”?

3. How do people acquire language? 4. What do different theories of second

language acquisition tell us?5. How would you describe your

approach to second language teaching?

ELL Student Language Challenges

• 1. Vihn has difficulty pronouncing th words. Does he have a speech impediment?

• 2. Chanyoung always leaves off the final s when she reads. I’ve told her a million times that plural words end with an s. Why is she refusing to read the words correctly?


• 3. Rosa always switches words around in the sentence, saying and writing things like “car red” instead of “red car.” Is she dyslexic?

• 4. Suling always mixes up the gender-specific pronouns, calling girls he or him and boys she or her. I keep correcting her, but she just doesn’t get it. And if she calls me Mrs. Wright one more time I’m going to scream! Can’t she tell the difference between boys and girls? Should I refer her to special education?


• 5. Reading time was over and students were supposed to put their books away and start working on their math worksheets. But Thanawan just kept right on reading. I said to her, “Why are you still reading instead of doing your math?” She smiled and said, “Oh, because I not finish yet,” and she just kept on reading. Why did she disobey me so rudely?

• 6. Our school puts most of the ELLs in a bilingual program. Everyone knows young children learn new languages quickly. So shouldn’t the students be placed in an English-only classroom before it’s too late for them to learn English?


• 7. My principal just bought us a software program that drills the ELL students in English. It’s really neat. If they get 30 drills in a row right they get rewarded with a little animation where a bunny pops out of the tree and does a little dance. The box the software came in says the students will be speaking English in 3 or 4 weeks. Does this mean our ELLs will be ready for the poetry analysis unit we’re starting next month?

• 8. Roberto keeps saying, “I have 6 years old” when people ask him how old he is. We’ve done grammar worksheets and drills on am. And I keep correcting him. Why isn’t he learning it? Is he a slow learner?


• 9. During student oral presentations on sea mammals, William, one of my African American students, begins: “I gonna aks you a question. Why whales have blow holes? Whales gotta have blowholes because dey be breathin’ oxygen just like all da udder mammals. …” I just don’t understand why William speaks such poor English.

• 10. RoDay quickly finished her math and spelling worksheets. And she seemed to do just fine reading along with the other students as we did a choral reading of a story from our reading basal. But unlike the other students, she has hardly done any work writing an alternative ending to the story. Why is she refusing to do what should be a fun and creative assignment?

What is Language?

• David Crystal’s (2001) Definition of Language– “The systematic, conventional use of

sounds, signs, or written symbols in a human society for communication and self-expression”

• Ability to use language separate humans from other animals

Why Teachers Need to Know About Language

• Filmore & Snow (2000) identify 5 functions teachers perform that require knowledge of language– Teacher as communicator– Teacher as educator– Teacher as evaluator– Teacher as an educated human being– Teacher as an agent of socialization

• All classrooms are language learning environments

• Language is at the heart of teaching and learning• Teachers need to “think linguistically”

What Teachers Need to KnowAbout Language

• Subsystems of Language– Phonology–Morphology– Syntax– Semantics– Pragmatics

• Vocabulary (Lexicon)• Spelling• Language Variation

Phonology• The study of the sound systems of a language• Phoneme

– Smallest units of sound in a language– Change in phoneme causes a change in meaning

• Ex: bit/bet

• Addresses the syllable structure and sequence of sounds in a word

• Knowledge of phonology helps teachers– Understand issues of pronunciation, accents, and

regional varieties– Differences in the phonology of a student’s first

language (L1) and English that may lead to difficulties

Morphology• The study of the structure of words• Morpheme

– The smallest units that carry meaning or have a grammatical function• Ex: Books books (free morpheme) +-s (bound morpheme)

• Inflectional changes– ex: fast/faster/fastest

• Derivational changes (words derived from other words)– Ex: teach/teacher

• Creation of new vocabulary words– Ex: compounding – sun + roof = sunroof

• Knowledge of morphology helps teachers– Explain prefixes, suffixes, infixes, verb tense changes, plurals,

compound words, possessives, comparatives, superlatives, contractions

– Teach word study lessons such as how to use morphemes to create (derive) new words from known words

– Understand challenges caused by differences in morphology rules in students L1

Syntax• The study of the rules governing the way words

are combined to form sentences and the rules governing the arrangement of sentences in sequences– Grammar

• Syntax is about the relationship between words, and conveying intended meanings– Who did what to whom, when, where, and how.

• Knowledge of syntax helps teachers– Model and explain word order and other grammatical

rules to ensure students communicate effectively– Understand challenges caused by differences in

students’ L1 syntax

Semantics• The study of the meaning of words, phrases, and

sentences• Individual words have semantic features that

indicate various properties or meanings inherent in the word– Ex: Woman animate, human, female, adult

• The relationships between words• Knowledge of semantics helps teachers

– Explain synonyms, antonyms, homophones, homonyms, etc.

– Develop vocabulary and word study lessons on semantically related words

– Explain cognates and false cognates– Understand challenges caused by differences in

semantics in students’ L1

Pragmatics• The study of language in use• The study of “invisible” meaning

– How we recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said

• Knowledge of pragmatics helps teachers– Guide students how to produce and to recognize and

respond appropriately to direct and indirect speech acts• Requests, commands, statements, questions

– Explain to student appropriate ways to• start, maintain, take turns in, and end conversations • Express opinions, agree, disagree• Negotiate social status, save face, make excuses

– Identify misunderstandings that may arise due to pragmatic differences in students’ L1

Vocabulary (Lexicon)• The vocabulary of a language is its lexicon• Finegan (2004) notes to use a word from a lexicon, a

speaker needs four kinds of information: – Its sounds and their sequencing (phonology)– Its meanings (semantics)– Its category (e.g., noun or verb) and how to use it in a

sentence (syntax)– How related words such as the plural (for nouns) and past

tense (for verbs) are formed (morphology)• Children from English-speaking homes pick up about 13

new words a day, and know about 80,000 words by the time they are 17

• Teachers can help ELLs develop vocabulary in a similar manner by creating language rich classrooms which provide opportunities for natural vocabulary acquisition

Spelling

• The English spelling system can be very confusing

• Our modern American spelling system is not based simply on spelling words the way they sound.

• Words may be spelled similarly because they are related in meaning rather than sound

• Ex: know/acknowledge

• Words borrowed from other languages may be spelled to reflect their origin

• Ex: croissant

Language Variation• Standard English

– The variety spoken by members of the dominant society – The variety taught and assessed in school

• Regional and Non-Standard Varieties of English– Some differences in phonology, morphology, syntax,

semantics, pragmatics, and/or vocabulary• Teachers need to understand, and help students

understand, that non-standard varieties are not “bad English”

• Are equally rule-governed and legitimate• Teachers need to learn pedagogically sound and

culturally sensitive methods for helping students learn Standard English without delegitimizing the variety of their homes and communities

What Does it Mean to “Know” a Language

Old view – mastering a set of discrete skills in listening, speaking, reading, and writing– But language proficiency much greater than a sum of its

partsCommon view – When you reach the level of a native speaker– But what is a “native speaker”?

Different native speakers have different ranges of linguistic ability

“Conservational” vs. “Academic Language Proficiency”A dichotomized view that conversational fluency can be developed in a couple of years but that academic language proficiency takes five years or longerCritics charge that this is a false dichotomyCritics note the construct of “academic language” is too simplistic to be generalized to the wide variety of language demands across tasks in different content areas

What Does it Mean to “Know” a Language

• TESOL Standards– Attempt to delineate what “academic language”

proficiency means for ELLs• Being able to communicate for social, intercultural, and

instructional purposes within the school setting• Being able to communicate information, ideas, and

concepts necessary for academic success in language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies

– Represent a more current view of language• Delineates the different kinds of language demands

associated with the different academic content areas– Language Arts– Mathematics– Science– Social Studies

TESOL’s English Language Proficiency (ELP) Standards

Standard 1: English language learners communicate for social, intercultural, and instructional purposes within the school setting.

Standard 2: English language learners communicate information, ideas, and concepts necessary for academic success in the area of language arts.

Standard 3: English language learners communicate information, ideas, and concepts necessary for academic success in the area of mathematics.

Standard 4: English language learners communicate information, ideas, and concepts necessary for academic success in the area of science.

Standard 5: English language learners communicate information, ideas, and concepts necessary for academic success in the area of social studies.

What does it mean to know a language?

Communicative Competence• Knowing a language means being able to use it to

communicate effectively and appropriately with other speakers of the language

Grammatical competence.• The ability to recognize the lexical, morphological, syntactic, and

phonological features of a language and use them to interpret and form words and sentences.

Discourse competence.• The ability to connect a series of utterances, written words, or phrases

to form a meaningful whole.

Sociolinguistic competence.• The ability to understand the social context in which language is used,

including the roles of the participants.

Strategic competence.• The ability to use coping strategies in unfamiliar contexts when

imperfect knowledge of rules (or factors that limit their application), may lead to a breakdown in communication.

What does it mean to know a language?

Register, Genre, and Discourse• Register

– Variations in language, including the choice of words and grammar, that reflect the social setting or context in which it is used

• Genre– In M.A.K. Halliday’s (1994) theory Systemic Functional Linguistics,

refers to goal-directed activities, such as the creation of a particular kind of text, that functions to achieve a particular cultural purpose

• Discourse– James Paul Gee (1996)

• discourse (small d) – language used in a particular context to enact activities and identities

• Discourse (big D) - different ways in which we humans integrate language with non-language “stuff,” such as different ways of thinking, acting, interacting, valuing, feeling, believing, and using symbols, tools, and objects in the right places and at the right times so as to enact and recognize different identities and activities

• Schools need to help ELLs learn the registers and Discourses needed for academic and social success

What does it mean to know a language?Second Language Instructional Competence

• Jeff MacSwan and Kellie Rolstad (2003) introduced the concept of Second Language Instructional Competence (SLIC)– An alternative to the problematic construct of “academic

language proficiency”• SLIC refers to the stage of second language (L2)

development at which the learner is able to understand instruction and perform grade-level school activities in the L2 alone, in the local educational context.

• Teachers can focus on a specific academic task and ask themselves:– What is the amount and type of linguistic proficiency that is

required for that student to engage the subject matter at hand?

– What level of oral and written language is required for students to understand the language of instruction sufficiently well at that moment, in that context, to participate in that lesson and learn from it?

Theories of Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

Behaviorism– Skinner– Habit formation (stimulus and response; positive reinforcement)

Innatist perspective– Chomsky

Universal Grammar; Language Acquisition Device

– Krashen’s Hypotheses

Cognitive/Developmental Perspective (Psychological Theories)– Interaction– Input processing

Sociocultural Perspective– Vygotsky– Zone of Proximal Development (ZDP)

Innatist Theories of Second Language Acquisition

Stephen Krashen (1982) proposed 5 interrelated hypotheses:– The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis– The Natural Order Hypothesis– The Monitor Hypothesis– The Input Hypothesis– The Affective Filter Hypothesis

Theories of L2 AcquisitionKrashen

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis– Language Acquisition

Subconscious process (not aware it is happening)Once we acquire something, not aware we possess new knowledgeSubconsciously stored in our brains

– Language LearningWhat we did in schoolConscious process – we know we are learningRules, grammar

Because of the complexity of language, the vast majority is acquired, rather than consciously learned


Natural Order Hypothesis– We acquire the parts of language in a

predictable order– Order for L1 and L2 is similar, but not identical– Some grammatical items tend to come earlier

and others tend to come laterexample: third person singular –s (“Bob looks at his watch) comes late

– Natural order appears to be immune to deliberate teaching

Cannot change natural order through drills, explanations, exercisesWon’t be acquired until its time has come


The Monitor Hypothesis– Language use mostly depends on

acquired linguistic competence– Conscious learning has one function

only – as a “Monitor” or editor– After producing some language (when

speaking or writing), our monitor can kick in to correct it if necessary

Like a little language teacher in our heads reminding us of the rules


Input (Comprehension) Hypothesis– Answers the most important question – How does

language acquisition occur?– We acquire language in one way – when we

understand messages or obtain comprehensible input• We acquire language when we understand what we hear or what

we read, when we understand the message

– i + 1• i = a student’s current level of proficiency

• +1 = input that is just slightly above that level• A student can move from i to i +1 by understanding input

containing i + 1.• Do with the help of previously acquired linguistic

competence and context


Affective Filter Hypothesis– Affective variables do not impact language

acquisition directly, but may prevent comprehensible input.

– Examples, anxiety, low self-esteem, see self as outsider of language group, shyness, etc.

– If affective filter is high, it blocks comprehensible input

– If affective filter is low, it allows more comprehensible input in.

Teachers need to create a supportive classroom environment to lower the affective filter and thus allow more i+1


Critiques of Krashen’s theories– Oversimplification of complex processes in

second language acquisition (SLA)– Can’t be proven– Can’t operationalize things like i or +1 or

specify the exact sequence in the natural order– De-emphasizes language output (speaking,

writing) and the importance of interaction– Some misinterpret Krashen’s theories as

opposing all direct teaching• Nonetheless, Krashen’s theories have

inspired research and has led to new theories which build on his ideas

The Cognitive/Development Perspective (Psychological Theories)

Interaction Hypothesis (Long)Interaction is essential for SLA to occurInput and interactions can be modified to maximize comprehension

Comprehensible Output (Swain)Speaking forces learners to confront the limits of their language ability and push them to find better ways to get their message across

Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt)Nothing is learned unless students’ notice it in the input

Processability Theory (Pienemann)– Sequence in which learners acquire certain language features

depends on how easy they are to process

The Cognitive/Development Perspective (Psychological Theories)

Input Processing Model (VanPatten)– “Language acquisition happens in only one way

and all learners must undergo it. Learners must have exposure to communicative input and they must process it; the brain must organize data. Learners must acquire output procedures, and they need to interact with other speakers. There is no way around these fundamental aspects of acquisition; they are the basics.”

Sociocultural TheoriesVygotsky– Learning is a social activity– Knowledge is constructed through interaction and collaboration

with others– Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

a domain or metaphoric space where children can reach a higher level of knowledge and performance with the support of an adult or other more knowledgeable person

– ScaffoldingThe assistance given in the ZPD

Language socializationLanguage learning is a process in which students are socialized into the knowledge and practices of the target speech community

Language ecologyEmphasis on studying language as within it sociocultural contexts

Transfer from L1 to L2• Positive transfer

– Students are able to take much of the content-area knowledge and literacy skills they gained in their first language (L1) and transfer it to their second language (L2).

– Students with L1 literacy skills will likely make rapid progress in developing English literacy skills

– Students who have substantial content-area knowledge in their L1 do not need to re-learn the concepts in English• They simply need the language skills to demonstrate what they

already know and can do• Negative transfer

– Ex: applying L1 syntax rules to English• More research needed to understand what does and

does not transfer• Teachers can still be assured that students’ L1 literacy

and content knowledge skills are great strengths to build upon

Second Language Teaching Methods and Approaches

Grammar-Translation Method (1840s)Analysis and memorization of grammar rulesTranslation of sentences between the two languagesOpposition to this outdated and ineffective method inspired new methods

Audiolingual method (1930s)Influenced by behaviorismMemorization of dialogues and grammar drills

The Natural Approach (late 1970s/1980s)Application of Krashen’s theories to the language learning classroomEmphasis on providing comprehensible input in an enjoyable classroom context so students can naturally acquire the language


Communicative Language Teaching (1980s)Current favored approach in the fieldBased on communicative competenceLearn the language to be able to actually communicate with other speakersClassroom activities focus on authentic and meaningful communicationIncludes some focus on form (grammar) which is necessary to comprehend and produce comprehensible outputThere are a wide range of communicative language teaching approaches, methods, and strategies


Content-based instruction is a type of communicative language teaching– A selected content area becomes a meaningful

context for authentic communication as learners collaborate to complete carefully designed academic tasks

– ESL teachers used math, social studies, or science as vehicles for language instruction• But ESL teachers were not experts in these area• Focus was more on learning the language than

learning the content-area concepts


• Sheltered Instruction– Also called specially designed academic

instruction in English (SDAIE)– Content-area teachers learn to shelter

(specially design) their instruction to make it comprehensible for ELLs while supporting their English language development

– Popular models• Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach

(CALLA) • Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP)

Model

Critical Pedagogy• Developed by Paulo Freire in the 1960s• Focus on liberating oppressed students through

transformative education• Many teachers recognize the importance of helping ELLs

understand and confront unequal power relations in order to improve their lives and society as they learn English and academic content.

• Rejects the “banking” model of education where teachers simply make deposits of essential knowledge and skills into the heads of students

• Involves problem posing, reflective thinking, knowledge gathering, and collaborative decision making

• Help students find and express their voice• Central to levels 3 (transformative) and 4 (social action)

of Banks’ levels of multicultural education– (see Chapter 1)

Beyond Approaches and Methods

• No single method or approach is applicable to or appropriate for every classroom

• Teachers can draw on the variety of methods and approaches and develop their own personal approach informed by observation, experimentation, and refection on the following guiding questions:1. What are the students’ strengths and needs?2. What are the instructional goals?3. What is likely to be challenging about these goals for

these students?4. What strategies can help address these challenges?5. How will you know whether these strategies are

effective?

Conclusion• Knowledge of language is relevant to the many

roles teachers play as communicators, educators, evaluators, educated human beings, and agents of socialization

• When teachers know their students well, they can provide the type of learning environment that builds on their students’ strengths and addresses their unique needs. They can provide appropriate instruction, activities, and opportunities for meaningful interaction to help their students continue to make progress in developing proficiency in English

Activitiy(Activity sheet available on Companion Website)

• Work with a partner or in a group of three students

• Read, discuss and complete the matching activity sheet– Second language acquisition perspectives– Linguistic subsystems– Approaches and methods

• Check and share your answers with the whole group

chapter 2 second language teaching & learning wright, w. e. (2010). foundations for teaching...

Documents