chapter 2 political background of india...
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CHAPTER 2
POLITICAL BACKGROUND OF INDIA
After the downfall of the Guptā Empire in the middle of sixth century
CE, several independent states rose to power in southern and northern India.
The prominent kingdoms in the north were- the Huṇas in the north-west, the
later Guptas of Magadha, the Maitrakas of Vallabhī, and Maukhris of Kanauj.
Main dynasties of Southern India were-the Pallavas of Kāñchi, the Chālukyas
of Bādāmī and the Pāṇḍayas of Madurai. In such circumstances, Pushyabhūti1
established the Vardhana kingdom in Thanesvara. The most famous and
powerful ruler of this dynasty was Harshavardhana (606-647 CE). After the
decline of Vardhana dynasty, many Rajput kingdoms were established in the
northern India from 647-1192 CE. This period is known as the Rajput Age in
the history of India. Feudalism was a peculiar feature of Early Medieval India.
This feudal system developed to the highest peak during the Rajput Age. From
seventh century to twelfth century CE, three prominent dynasties rose to power
in south India i.e. the Chālukyas of Vatāpi, the Rāsrakūas and the Cholas. The
Pāla dynasty of Bengal also played a very important role in the northern India.
In fact, the political history of India during 7-12th
century CE saw
multiplicity of powers, which were rooted to their respective regions. The
hallmark of politics of this period lies in the emergence and development of
local and regional powers. The conventional narrative of the political history of
this period is replete with exaggerated careers and achievements of numerous
heroes based on the eulogies an account that rarely offers an intelligible
understanding of the political processes and activities. Royal inscriptions
1 Radha Kumud Mookerji, Harsha, p. 10.
26
usually begin with a praśasti-like eulogy of the entire ruling house2. Many
rulers of these dynasties of different kingdom of this period were great patrons
of literature. Some rulers, himself were scholar also, whose name was attached
with the writings.
Harshavardhana became the king of Thaneśwara/Thanesara at the tender
age of 16 year, after the death of his elder brother Rājyavardhana. Harsha made
Kanauj his seat of power3. By the seventh century CE, Pātalipūtra loosing his
supremacy and was not the main centre of power, losing its reputation, other
side Kanauj was taking the main place in the north Indian politics. Harsha is
known for his religious tolerance, able administration and diplomatic relations.
He established an administrative system of a high order, the object of which
was welfare of people. Although he was patron of Buddhism, yet he exhibited
tolerance towards other religions. He was also a scholar and poet and the
historian called him the last great Hindu emperor of India, but he was neither a
staunch Hindu nor the ruler of the whole country4.
Harsha was not only a great conqueror and efficient administrator5 but
also a scholar of high order. He himself was a great scholar and literary figure.
He wrote three plays-Ratnāvalī, Priyadarśikā and Nāgānanda6. His court poet
named Baṇābhaa wrote Harshacharita7 and Kādambarī. These writings
throw valuable light on the political, economic, social and religious conditions
of the seventh century CE, and great importance from the historical point view.
Harsha used to spend one fourth of his income on scholastic activities. This
2 Ranabir Chakravarti, Exploring Early India upto c. AD 1300, p. 293.
3 Radha Kumud Mookerji, op.cit., p. 20.
4 R.S. Sharma, India’s Ancient Past, p. 260.
5 E.I., Vol. VIII, pp. 159-160.
6 A. B. Keith, Sanskrit Drama, p.170.
7 Ed. By P.V. Kane
27
gave impetus to literary activities. Mayūra, Matanga, Divākara, Bhartrīhari etc
were the famous scholars of the Court of Harsha. Nālandā was the most famous
university of the ancient India. It had international fame. During Harsha‟s time,
its glory was at its zenith. According to Hiuen-Tsang, Nālandā was the most
famous and greatest university of India.
After the death of Harshavardhana and the establishment of Muslim rule
in North India, between this periods saw the rise of many regional states. These
developments simultaneously took place in the north as well as in the south
India also. The Pālas in the eastern and some portion of northern-India, the
Pratihāras in the western and northern India and the Rāshrakūtas who ruled in
the Deccan and had territories in the north and south India at different times,
were the significant dynasties. North India witnessed the struggle for political
ascendancy among these three dynasties from eighth century to eleventh
century CE. The aim of political ascendancy was to conquer and hold the city
of Kanauj. Kanauj had become a symbol of status those who will be the ruler of
Kanauj at that time, it was considered that he would be owner of North India.
Kanauj was a symbol of power due to its connection with Harsha and
Yaśovarmana, who maintained this status for the city. Kanauj was a bone of
contention among the three powers i.e. the Pāla, the Pratihāra and Rāshrakua8
and much of the military activities of these powers directed towards its
conquests. In this long drawn struggle, all the three powers grew weaker.
Consequently, the Senas in Bengal and the Chālukyas in south established their
kingdoms and the Pratihāra Empire were divided into several small
principalities.
8 S. C. Raychoudhary, SCEHI(AT), pp. 109-10.
28
Considering the clear interests of both the Gurjara-Pratihāras and the
Rāshrakūtas in capturing and controlling the strategically vital Mālavā region,
it has also been inferred that the cause of disagreement really lay in that area
and not in Kanauj. Therefore, the importance of Kanauj was more symbolic
than real and the period cannot be seen as the “Age of Imperial Kanauj”9.
The Pālas were great patrons of art and literature. Dharampāla was a
great patron of Buddhism. He was the founder10
of the Vikramśilā monastery
that ultimately developed into a great centre of Buddhist learning and culture.
The Pālas ruled Bengal and Bihar for more than four century. The rule of the
Pāla dynasty ended about the middle of the twelfth century CE.
The Pratihāras were probably an offshoot of the Gurjara who ruled after
the Huṇas. Mihirbhoja (836-885 CE) was the most powerful ruler of this
dynasty. A new and glorious chapter began in the history of the Pratihāras with
the accession of King Bhoja. The Arab traveler Sulemāna has praised his rule.
His successor Mahendrapāla (885-910 CE) also became quite famous. He was
not only a conqueror but also a great lover of art and literature. Rājaśekhara
was the most reputed court poet of Mahendrapāla11
. In Rashrakūa,
Amoghvarsa I (814-878 CE) was the important ruler. His reign is known for
peace law and order, development of art and literature. He himself wrote
Rattan Malika, Kavīrajamārga. Indra III (914-922 CE) and Krishṇa III, the
conqueror of the Pallava and Chola country12
were the most powerful rulers of
this dynasty but after them, this dynasty met its downfall.
9 Ranabir Chakravarti, op. cit., p. 300.
10 P. N. Chopra etc. (Ed.), A New Advanced History of India, p. 160.
11 Baij Nath Puri, The History of the Gujara-Pratihāras, p. 72.
12 E1, Vol. VII, p. 135; Vol. V, pp. 189-192.
29
Many Rajput kingdoms were established in Northern India from 647 CE
(Death of Harsha) to 1192 CE (Battle of Terāin between Mohd.Ghori and
Pṛithvī Rāja Chauhāna). This period (647-1192 CE) is called the “Rajput Age”
in the history. During this period, a new kind of traits developed in northern
India that‟s way historians are called it Rajput period. It is called so, because
several Rajput kingdoms came into existence in different parts of India. The
major states were –Gahadavālas of Kanauj, the Paramāras of Mālavā,
Chauhāna of Ajmer, Kalachuris of Chedi, Chandellas of Bundelakhanḍa, the
Chālukya of Gujarat and the Tomaras of Delhi etc. The Rajputs dominated
political development of northern India after the death of Harshavardhana. The
origin of the Rajput is a matter of great controversy. There are many theories
regarding the origin of the Rajput. Feudalism developed to the highest peak
during the Rajput Age. In this system, the king acquired the services of the
feudal lords in the exchange of land.
The Paramāra dynasty established its kingdom in Mālavā in ninth
century CE. Muñja (974-995 CE) was a great ruler and was considered as one
of the important king of this dynasty. He played an important role in the
expansion of the Paramāra kingdom. He was not only a great patron13
of poets
but also himself a great poet. Dhanañjaya belonged to the court of Muñja
(Vakpatirāja II), who is mentioned in the last stanza of Daśarupaka14
. The
most important king of this dynasty was Rājā Bhoja (1018-1060 CE)15
. His
capital was at Dhārā, which became a great centre of learning. During his
period, Mālavā kingdom was very famous in India. Rājā Bhoja was an
13 J. Allan etc., The Cambridge Shorter History of India, p. 97
14 Vishnoṁ sutenāpi dhananjameya vidhnmanorāganibandahutuṁ I
Āvishkrita munjamahīsagoshthivaidagdyabhājā daśarupametat II Daśarupaka, 4.85
15 Banswara Plates of Bhojadeva V.S. 1076.
30
important political figure in the early medieval age. He was not only a learned
man but also patronized the learned people. He constructed the Bhojapur Lake.
He was also responsible for the construction of a Sanskrit school at Dhārā. He
sent an army to help the Śāhī Anandapāla of Punjab against Mahmūd of
Ghazanī. Bhoja was the most enlightened king in history and fable16
.
The Chandellas rose into prominence in the ninth century CE and
established a kingdom, later known as Jaijakabhūkati in the Bundelakhanḍa
region. Nānaka Chandel17
was the founder of this dynasty. Khajurāho was their
capital. The first great ruler of this dynasty was Yaśovarmana who defeated the
Chedis and the Pratihāra ruler Devapāla18
. His capital was Mahobā. Under the
patronage of Kirtivarmana, Krishṇa Miśra wrote Prabodha-Chandrodaya, a
drama based on the Vedānta philosophy. The Chandelas kings built memorable
monuments in Khajurāho, which are the living examples of their exceptional
skill of architecture.
Guvaka at Sambhar founded the Chauhāna dynasty. Ajaydeva, a ruler
belonging to this dynasty, founded a new city, named Ajaymeru, modern
Ajmer. The next important king was Viśaladeva (1153-64) who captured Delhi
and extended this empire. He was great lover of art and literature and an
outstanding writer also. His play Harikeli is very famous. He patronized and
honoured the scholars. He was a great warrior, builder, poet and patron of art
and literature.19
Pṛithvirāja Chauhāna (Rai Pithorā) was another important king
of this dynasty. He was the greatest ruler of the Chauhāna dynasty, and played
an important role at the time of Muslim aggressions. He defeated Muhammad
16 P. V. Kane, HSP, pp. 257-63.
17 P. N. Chopra etc.(Ed.), op.cit., p. 164.
18 D. C. Ganguly, “Central and Western India”, in R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial
Kanauj, pp. 83-84.
19 B.N. Luniya, Life and Culture in Medieval India, pp 107-08.
31
Ghauri in the first battle of Tarāin in 1191 CE. Unfortunately, in the second
battle of Tarāin (1192 CE) Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithvirāja Chouhāna.
There was going a rivalry between Pṛithvirāja and Raja Jayachanda of Kanauj.
Sanyogītā, daughter of Jayachanda, fell in love with Pṛithvirāja because of his
bravery. But Jayachanda was against this marriage. Pṛithvirāja abducted
Sanyogītā and married her. This resulted in enmity between the two dynasties,
which ultimately led to the destruction of both20
at the hand of Mohammad
Gauri. His achievements have been described by Chandbardai and Jayānaka in
their books named Pṛithvīrāja Rāso21
and Pṛithvirāja Vijaya22
respectively.
Guhilas dynasty was one of the most famous and oldest dynasties of the
Rajputs. Bappā Rāwal was the reputed ruler of this dynasty who ruled in the
eighth century CE. He made his capital at Chittor. The Tomara of Delhi, the
Chālukya of Gujarat, the Gahadavals of Kanauj, the Śāhi kingdom of Punjab,
the Kalchuris of Chedi and the Sena of Bengal etc. were political powers of
early medieval India who played important role in the history of India.
In the seventh century CE, Durlabh Vardhan founded the Korkot
dynasty in Kashmir23
. Lalitaditya (725-760 CE) was the most powerful ruler of
this dynasty. He was a great warrior who defeated king Yaśovarmana of
Kanauj24
. Avantivarmana laid the foundation of Utpala dynasty in Kashmir in
855 CE25
. His reign was remarkable for his literary activities and for beneficial
schemes of drainages and irrigation26
. He ruled successfully till 883 CE.
Kshemgupta was married to Didā, the princess of „Hindu Śāhī‟ kingdom. After
20 James Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajast’han, p. 208.
21 Ed. By S.S. Das.
22 Ed. With comm.. of Jonarāja by G.H. ojha and C.S. Gulrei.
23 The Mugals called it (Kashmir) the earthly paradise of India.
24 Rt. By Ranjit Sita Ram Pandit appendix A, p. 691.
25 op. cit., IV, 716
26 V. A. Smith, The Early History of India, pp. 387-88.
32
the death of Kshemgupta, his widow Didā ruled over Kashmir from 980 CE to
1003 CE. Sangrāmrāja was the founder27
of the Lohara dynasty in Kashmir. He
repulsed several attacks of Mahmud of Ghazanī. The history of Kashmir from
the seventh century CE, has been recorded in the detail in the Rājatraṅgiṇī28
(River of kings) written by a learned Brāhmaṇa named Kalhaṇa in the twelfth
century CE. Kalhaṇa is really the best historian of early medieval India and his
work Rājatraṅgiṇī is regarded as superior to the genealogies of the rest of
India. Sanskrit literature found an original home in Kashmir at all times. There
was a galaxy of poets under Avantivarmana29
.
The feudal system was the remarkable feature of the political
organization of the Rajput Age. Feudal system means that political, social and
economic system which is based on land and its income and expenditure of
local administration is under the control of Jagirdārs. The most significant
consequence of land grants was the emergence of a class of landlords living on
the produce of the peasants. By fifth-sixth centuries, this paved the way for a
new type of social formation, which can be termed feudal30
. The king was the
master of the whole land, he granted a piece of land to some feudal lords. They
helped their king in times of war and piece. During the reign of Kaṇishka, the
word feudal lord was used for the subordinates of the kings and later in the
reign of Harshavardhana, there was a custom of giving revenue free lands to
high official in lieu of their royal services. The emergence of many defeated
and subordinate rulers slowly added to the stock of the group. But feudal
system was established as a political organization during the Rajput Age.
27 U. N. Ghoshal, Studies in Indian History and Culture, p. 187
28 Ed. and Tr. By Sir M.A. Stein, Ranjit Sita Ram Pandit, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi.
29 Rt., V, 34
30 R.S. Sharma, op. cit. p. 305.
33
Most of the high official was granted land in lieu of salaries and these
offices became hereditary. They were independent to rule the area under them,
were competent to impose taxes as per their will, and could collect them. They
had the administrative and judicial powers in their areas. From the
administrative point of view, the feudal system had the advantage of obviating
the need for a centrally administered bureaucracy31
Merits and demerits both
were present in the feudal system. Generally, the feudal lords were selfishly
busy in fulfilling their own needs. As soon as they were provided an
opportunity, they rebelled against the king.
Feudal system had a far-reaching impact on India. The king did not
maintain a permanent army. The feudal lords kept the army and helped the king
at the time of war. Due to this, the central power became weak and ruler was
made dependent on the feudal lords, who maintained armed forces that could
be used to fight against the king. The internal weakness of the Indian rulers
came to forefront, due to this internal weakness, Turks and other invaders were
inspired to attack on India. The small feudal states discouraged trade and
commerce and encouraged a few villages to become self-sufficient. The feudal
lords acted as an intermediary between the king and the peasantry. They
(feudal) exploited the peasantry class. This system laid more emphasis on
agriculture than on trade and industry. As a result, the growth of towns and
cities come to a halt32
. For so many reasons, the feudal system proved harmful
for the Rajput.
The emergence of the regional states took place in south India from end
of the sixth century or beginning of seventh century CE to twelfth century CE.
31 Romila Thapar, A History of India, Vol. I, p. 245.
32 R. S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism, p. 326.
34
Four prominent royal dynasties rose to power in south India i.e. the western
Chālukyas of Vātāpi or Bādāmī, the Pallavas of Kāñchī, the Rāsrakua, and
the Cholas. South India under these dynasties witnessed unprecedented
progress in the field of administration, economy, religion, culture literature and
art. Others dynasties of south India were the Chālukyas of Kalyāṇi, the Eastern
Chālukyas of Veṅgi, the Pānḍayas of Madurai, the Yādavas of Devagiri, the
Kakatiyas of Wārangal and the Hoyasalas of Dvarasamudra. The Pallavas and
the Pāṇḍays were the prominent powers in the south from 600 to 700 CE. The
Rāsrakūa rose to power after the fall of the Chālukyas of Bādāmī. Rāsrakūa
powerful kingdom of south, ruled from eight century to tenth century CE.
Between tenth to twelfth century CE, the Cholas played a very important role
in the history of south. The south India was divided into many small regional
kingdom from 900 CE to 1300 CE. The Cholas had continuous fights with
these kingdoms from time to time. A special feature of the south Indian polity
was that these kingdoms always kept fighting with one another.
The Chālukyas were one of the dominant kingdoms that played a
significant role in the rise of regional states in the Deccan. They were the
dominant power in the south from 6th
to 8th
century CE33
and then again in the
10th
- 12th
century CE. Three branches of the Chālukyas ruled in three different
regions. The Chālukyas of Vātāpi or Bādāmī (early Western Chālukyas) who
ruled for about two centuries from the middle of the sixth century to the middle
of the eight-century CE and they were ousted by the Rāsrakūas. The later
Western Chālukyas of Kalyāṇi overthrew the Rāsrakuas and they ruled from
the second half of the tenth century CE to the end of twelfth century CE. The
33 Saroj Gulati, “ Guptotara Kāla: Rājanītika Sthiti,” in D. N. Jha and K. M. Shrimali (Ed.),
Prāchīna Bhārata Kā Itihāsa, pp. 337-42
35
Eastern Chālukyas or Chalūkyas of Veṅgi, ruled from the seventh to twelfth
century CE.
Pulkeśina II (610-642 CE)34
was the greatest ruler of the Chālukyas of
Vātāpi. He was not only a great conqueror but also a patron of art and
literature. His court poet Ravikīrtī, a Jaina poet, mentions his achievements in
the Aihole inscription. He defeated the Kadambs, the Gaṇgas of south Mysore
and the Alapas of Mālābāra on the banks of river Narmada. Pulakeśina II
defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarmana I of Kāñchī. He had not fully
established his control over Kāñchī, so he invaded Kāñchī for the second time.
But Pulakeśina II was killed in this battle. The Pallavas established their hold
over Vātāpi, but soon they lost it to the Chālukyas. Pulkeśina II was
undoubtedly one of the greatest kings of ancient India. He had friendly
relations with Khuśru II, the ruler of Persia. Hiuen-Tsang, the Chinese traveler
during his visit to the south, met Pulkeśina II at Nasik and was very much
impressed by the rule of Pulkeśina II.
The founder of the later Western Chālukya or the Chālukya of Kalyāṇi
was Taila or Tailapa II35
. He ruled for 24 years from 973 to 997 CE. Someśvara
I (1042-1068 CE) and Someśvara II (1068-1076 CE) were the able and
powerful rulers of this dynasty. Someśvara I made Kalyaṇī as the capital of
Chālukya. But Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126 CE), the younger brother of
Someśwara II was the ablest and the greatest ruler of this dynasty. He was
doubtless the most striking personality in the dynasty36
. He founded a new era
known as Chālukya Vikrama era in 1076 when he sat on the throne as a king.
He defeated the Cholas, Hoyasalas, and the rulers of Vanavāsi. Two great
34 E I, Vol. VI, pp. 1-12.
35 V. A. Smith, op.cit, p. 446
36 R.S. Tripathi, History of Ancient India, p. 423.
36
writers, named Bilhaṇa author of the Vikramānkadeva-charita and
Vijñaneśvara author of Mitāksharā, flourished at the court of Vikramaditya VI.
His court poet Bilhaṇa presented an exaggerated account of his achievements.
After Vikramaditya VI, rulers of this dynasty were not able and started the
downfall of this dynasty. This came to an end in c. 1190 CE. King Someśvara,
surnamed Bhulokamalla and Satyaśrayakulatilaka, was the author of
Manasolāsa, the date of composition of this work seems to be 1052 śaka (1131
CE)37
.
Pulkeśina II's brother Vishṇu Vardhana founded an independent state in
Veṅgi in 615 CE. Actually, Pulkśina II appointed his brother Vishṇuvardhana
as a viceroy of Pishtapur in 615 CE. But Vishṇuvardhana declared himself as
an independent king ruled from 615 to 633 CE and made Veṅgi, as a capital.
His successors came to be known as eastern Chālukyas of Veṅgi. Many rulers
of this dynasty ruled till twelfth century CE.
The Chālukyas rulers were great patron of art and literature. This period
witnessed a rapid progress in the field of architecture, sculpture, painting etc.
Aihole, Bādāmi, Paadakal, Kalyāṇi and Veṅgī were the main centre of
architecture. About 70 temples are found at Aihole alone; therefore, it is called
the city of temple. Many paintings at Ajānta and Ellorā were created during the
Chālukya period. We found development of literature during the period of
Chālukyas, Sanskrit was the language of court. Regional languages also
flourished during this period. The rulers of Chālukyas dynasties were great,
patron of scholars. Prominent scholars of that time were Ravīkīrti, Bilhaṇa,
Vijñaneśvara, Bhāravi, Durvinīta, and Pujyapadd etc.
37 Manasolāsa, Vol. I, preface, p. vi.
37
The Rashrakūas rose to power after the downfall of Chālukyas of
Bādāmī. Dantidurga (753-758 CE) was the founder38
of this dynasty.
Amoghvarsha I (814-878 CE), the son of Govinda III was important king of
this dynasty. He was follower of Jainism and believed in non-violence.
Amoghavarsha was a patron of learning and literature39
. He was a poet and
patronized Jinasena, Mahāvīrachārya, and Śakaāyana. He himself wrote
Kavirājamārga in Kannaḍa40
. Jinasena wrote the Ādi-purāṇa. Mahāvirachārya
was the author of Gaṇitasāra-saṁgraha, and Śakaāyana wrote Amoghvṛiti.
Amoghavarsha built his capital at Manyakheta or Mālakeda, which was famous
for his prosperity. Krishṇa III (940-968 CE) was the most powerful king of this
dynasty. The Rashrakūas re-established their supremacy in the south India
under Krishṇa III but he could not gain any success in the north. He captured
the important cities of Kāñchī and Tanjor in 943 CE. He defeated the Chola
army in the battle of Tokkolam in 949 CE. He was the last ablest king of this
dynasty. His successors were weak and imbecile rulers. Taking advantage of
their weakness, Taila, a feudal lord, revolted and became the independent king
of Deccan and founded the Chālukya dynasty of Kalyāṇi. The Rashrakūas
rulers were great patron of education and literature. They made a splendid
contribution to Indian art. The rock-cut shrines at Ellorā and Elephantā belong
to this period. The Kailāśa temple at Ellorā is worth mentioning. The temple is
a wonderful specimen of ancient technique of architecture.
The Pallavas came into prominence as a political power in south from
6th
to 8th
century CE41
. Siṁhavishṇu was the real founder of the Pallavas
38 A. S. Altekar, “ The Rāshrakūa Empire” in R. C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Age of Imperial
Kanauj, p. i.
39 Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, p.557
40 R. S. Mugali, History of Kannada Literature, p. 12
41 S. C. Raychoudhary, op. cit., p. 119
38
dynasty. He ruled in the last quarter of sixth century CE. The Pallavas started
on their career of political and cultural achievements during his reign. He is
credited to conquer Cholamaṇḍalam. He also defeated a number of enemies.
He was a patron of art, literature and culture. He was a patron of Bhāravī, the
author of Kirātārjunia. Mahābalipuram42
became the centre of art during his
reign. Siṁhavishṇu was succeeded by his son Mahendravarmana I who ruled
from 600 CE to 630 CE. Mahendervarman I was an able and versatile monarch,
great in war and peace. He was a builder and poet. The musical exercise
engraved on a rock in Kudimiyāmalai (Pudukkoai) testifies to his great
interest in Music43
. He was a poet, musician and a critic. He wrote the
Mattavilasa-prahasana in Sanskrit.
Narsimhavarman I (630-668 CE) was probably the greatest ruler of
Pallava dynasty. He defeated the famous Chālukyas king Pulakeśina II, killed
him in the battle and occupied the Chālukya capital Bādāmī in 642 CE. He sent
two naval expeditions to Śrilankā to help of his ally Manavarmana. He built
several monolithic temples at Mahābalipuram. Hiuen Tsang visited in the south
during Narsiṁhavarman I reign. The Chinese pilgrim has given an interesting
account of Pallava territory, the city of Kāñchī. The next important king of
Pallava dynasty was Narsiṁhavarman II Rājasiṁha (695-722 CE). His reign
was marked by peace and prosperity. He is known for his temple construction
activities. He built the Kailaśanātha temple at Kāñchī and Śore temple at
Mahābali-puram. He was a great patron of literature. The rhetorician Daṇḍin,
the great Sanskrit scholar, was his court poet, who wrote Kāvyadarśa and
Daśa-kumāracharita. Narsiṁhavarman II sent an embassy to the court of
42 Romila Thapar, , op. cit., p. 170
43 K. A. N. Shastri and G. Shrinivasachari, Advance History of India, p. 284.
39
Chinese emperor for the development of trade. Many rulers of Pallava dynasty
ruled many years. The later Pallava kings sank into the position of mere nobles
and officials in the service of others. The Pallava chiefs can be traced down to
the 13th
century CE. This dynasty has produced several powerful and able
rulers under whose patronage education, art, literature and administrative
system developed a lot.
The Chola was the most prominent kingdom in the south India. The
Cholas were ancient mighty power. After the downfall of the Pallavas, the
Cholas once again came into power. Vijayālaya, a feudatory of the Pallavas
became the founder of the Chola dynasty, in the middle of the ninth century
CE. Rājarāja the Great (became the king in 985 CE)44
and Rajendra I (Sat on
throne in 1012 CE)45
were the most powerful rulers of the Chola dynasty.
The accession of Rājarāja I is a turning point in the history of the
Cholas. He defeated the Cheras, the Chālukyas of Veṅgī, the Pānḍays of
Mudrai, the Gaṇgas of south Mysore, Kalinga, north Śrīlankā and Māldives
Islands46
. He was a great administrator and encouraged the local self-
government. He built a Śiva temple named Rājarajeśwara at Tanjore47
.
His son, Rājendra I, succeeded Rājarāja. Like his father, Rājendra I was
a great expansionist, a successful ruler and a conqueror. He forwards the Chola
armies to the distant lands of Bangāl and Orissa. He conquered Ceylon
(Śrīlankā) and imprisoned its king Mahendra V. Almost whole of the Ceylon,
became a part of the Chola Empire. His navy attacked the Śrivijaya Empire48
44 E I, Vol. VII, p. 6.
45 ibid., pp. 7, 137.
46 R. Sathianthaier, “The Cholas” in R. C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Struggle for Empire, pp. 234-35.
47 M. Arunachalam, “Literary Heritage- Medieval Period”, in S. V. Subramanian and V.
Veerasami,(Ed.), Cultural Heritage of The Tamils, pp. 9-10.
48 Upinder Singh, op. cit., p. 559.
40
that was a great naval power in South East Asia at that time, and forced it to
accept his suzerainty. He was the first Indian ruler who established the
supremacy of Indian navy in the sea. After Rajendra I, many rulers of this
dynasty came to power, but they were not as abler as Rājarāja and Rājendra I.
Malika Kāfūra a general of Alu-ud-din-Khilji plundered the Chola kingdom
and the Cholas authority ended in 1310 CE.
The arrangements of local self-government have been regarded as the
basic feature of administration of the Cholas. Rājendra I encouraged art and
architecture. He founded the city Gangai-konḍa-cholapurama and made it his
capital49
. The Cholas rulers were a great patron of art and literature. They
patronized scholars and literary personalities. Tamil literature made a lot of
progress during the Chola period. Kamban wrote the Rāmāyaṇa in Tamil.
Nāyanāra (Saiva Saints) and Ālvāra (Vaishṇava Saints) poets and saints were
flourished during this period. They composed several beautiful devotional
songs because of the revival of Bhakti. A very rich type of literature based on
the Vedas, the Purāṇas, the epics, astrology, grammar etc., developed. The
Cholas rulers took keen interest in literature and patronized the authors.
The Pānḍayas dynasty was one of the oldest dynasties of south India.
They occupied the reign comprising the modern district of Madurā and
Tinnevelly, part of Trichinopoly and some times of Travancore. Pliny,
Megasthenese, the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy
were well informed about the names and positions of the Pānḍayas country. In
the Sangam literature, which was written in Tamil language, Pānḍayas kings
played a very important role. In the early medieval India, we found the up and
downs in the Pānḍayas State. Arikeśri Parānkuśa (670-710 CE) was a great
49 V. A. Smith, op. cit., p. 487
41
general and won victory over the Cheras and Pallavas. Srimar Śrivallabha (815-
862 CE) was also an able king of this dynasty who defeated the king of Ceylon
(Śrīlankā). He also defeated a confederacy consisting of the Gaṇgas, Pallavas
Kalingas etc. When Cholas captured the power in the south, Pānḍayas seemed
some weak. In the last quarter of tenth century and beginning of the eleventh
century CE, another attempt was made by the Pānḍayas to revive their past
glory but they failed. During the twelfth century CE, the Pānḍays continued to
grow under the leadership of Jaavarmana Kula- Śekhara who got throne in
1190 CE, the Pānḍayas made a recovery. He was a great ruler and harbinger of
his country‟s independence. His inscriptions are found in the Madurā, Rāmnād
and Tinnevelly districts and Travancore was subordinate to him. He seems to
have assumed the title of Rājagambhīra50
.
The Yādavas of Devagiri, the Hoyasalas of Dvarasamundra, the
Kakatiyas of Wārangal, were among the most powerful and important
feudatories who were anxious to throw off the imperial claims of the
Chālukyan monarch. In the heart of the Chālukyan kingdom, political
rebellions were going on with lightning speed51
. In the twelfth century CE,
small state of Kalachūri also played a very important role in the polity of south.
Bijjala Kalachūri tenure of rule was marked by the rise of the Liṅgāyata or
Vīraśaivas sect, which is still powerful in the Kanarese country.
On the orders of Al-Hizāz, an Arabian youth Mohd-Bin-Kāsim attacked
on Sindh in 711-712 CE. The cause of Arab invasion was the object of
spreading Islam and enriching themselves with plunder. The main cause of this
invasion on Sindh was that precious gifts sent from Ceylon to the Khalifā were
50 R. Sathianathaier, “The Later Pandyas” in RC Majumdar (Ed.), The Struggle for Empire,
p. 256.
51 KAN Shastri, G Shrinivasachari, op. cit., p. 297.
42
way laid by sea-pirates at Debal near Karāchī. The Khalifā asked the ruler of
Sindh to pay compensation and handed over the robbers. At his refusal to do
so, he ordered to Mohd-Bin-Kāsim to attack Sindh. Kāsim with a large army
conquered Sindh52
in 712 CE. He defeated and killed the king Dāhir in the
battle of Rāwar in 712 CE. He conquered Nerun, Sehwan and Multāna also.
But Kāsim was killed at the orders of the Khalifā. The morale of the Arabs in
the Muslim world for a short time boosted due to conquest of Sindh and
Multāna. The Arab invasion of Sindh is generally perceived as an advent of
political troubles for Indian powers, this hardly had an impact in the overall
political fabric of the subcontinent.
The year 1000 CE was a fateful year for India when Mahmūd of
Ghazanī first invaded it53
. Mahmūd (998-1030 CE) was the greatest of the
Ghazanavids and made seventeen raids on India in thirty years. The main
object of his Indian operations was not the conquest but the capturing of gold,
jewels and slaves, refreshing the Ghazanī treasury with the riches of India.
First, he defeated the Jayapāla of Punjab in 1001 CE. Jayapāla ended his life
upon the funeral pyre54
. In CE 1008-09, at Waihind near Peśāwara, the capital
of the Hindu Kingdom, Mahmūd defeated the Anandapāla, the son of Jayapāla.
The fall of Narāyaṇapūra (1009 CE) in Rajasthan indicated Mahmūd‟s
aspirations to advance into western India. He attacked and plundered the
Thaneśwara, Mathurā etc. the subsequent raids of Mahmūd were aimed to
plundering the rich temples and cities of northern India. He raided Kanauj in
1018 CE and Somanātha in Gujarat in 1025 CE. He had twofold objectives in
52 J. Allan etc., , op. cit., p. 161
53 Elliot and Dowson‟s, History of India As Told By Its Own Historians, Vol. II, p. 437.
54 D. C. Ganguly, “Ghaznavid Invasion” in R. C. Majumdar (Ed.), The Struggle for Empire,
pp. 6-7
43
plundering the temples i.e. acquisition of fabulous wealth of the temples and to
become famous as an iconoclast. He made last raid on Multāna in 1027 CE. He
died at Ghazanī in the age 59 years in 1030 CE55
. But no attempt was made by
Mahmūd to annex any part of India except Punjab. The inclusion of the Punjab
and Afghanistan in the kingdom of Ghazanī made the Islamic conquest of India
a comparatively easy process56
. Mahmūd was a great patron of learning. Abū-
Rihān Alberūni, who wrote Traikh-e-Hind in Arabī language, came to India
during the raids of Mahmūd with him. Alberūni produced valuable information
of political, economical, social-cultural and religious of eleventh century CE of
India. Firdousi, a famous Persian poet, wrote the Śāhanāmā, was also in the
court of Mahmūd. His patronage of art and literature in his own kingdom also
distinguishes him as a great king.
The last quarter of the twelfth century CE, was very crucial for Indians.
The Turks entered in India under the leadership of Muhammad Ghaurī. The
Muhammad Ghauri laid the foundations of Islamic rule in India. Muhammad
Ghauri ascended the throne at Ghazanī in 1173 CE while his elder brother was
ruling at Ghor. In 1175 CE, he Conquered Multana57
. Next, he took the fortress
of Uchcha. In 1178 CE, he attacked on Gujarat, but he was defeated and
compelled to retreat. Then he realized the importance of having a base in
Punjab before invading India. He conquered Peśāwara, Lahore and the forts of
Debal and Sialkot. In the first battle of Tarāin (1191 CE), he was defeated by
Pṛithvīrāja Chauhāna58
but the brave Pṛithvīrāja lost the second battle of Tarāin
(1192 CE), the turning point of history of India came. Muhammad Ghauri
55 ibid- p. 22.
56 D. C. Ganguly, op. cit., p. 22.
57 J. Allan, , op. cit., p. 164.
58 E. B. Havell, The History of Aryan Rule in India, p. 291.
44
defeated the Jayāchanda of Kanauj in the battle of Chandwar in 1194 CE. He
captured the Kanauj, Banaras etc. and extended it his frontiers to the borders of
Bihar. Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalazi and Qutub-din- Aibak, who were the
efficient military general of Muhammad Ghauri, played a very important role it
conquer the remaining part of north India. The conquest of Muhmmad Ghauri
had far-reaching results. After the death of Muhammad Ghauri, Qutub-din-
Aibak firmly grasped the power in India and established the Turkish sultanate
of India at Lahore in 1206 CE.
It is true that Indians suffered defeat several times in the field of battle
and lost extensive territories. But this did not mean the end of their well-
developed culture. Conquest of Sindh by the Arab under leadership of Kāsim in
712 CE was considered as a mere episode in the history, a victory without
result by many historians. But the Arab conquest of Sindh was of great
significance from the cultural point view. They were greatly influenced by
Indian culture and civilization. Many things were learnt by Arabs from India
and transmitted to Europe. Indian books were translated into Arabi language.
Due to raids of Mahmūd Ghazanī on North India, shocked Indian sense of
ancient superiority. Rajputs did not hesitate to sacrifice their lives in the
battlefield; still they failed to face the Turks invasions of 11th
and 12th
century
CE. The Turks destroyed their kingdoms and laid the foundation of Muslim
empire on their reins.
Early medieval period (7-12th
century CE) witnessed unsurpassed
progress in the field of literature. The reason behind this was that many Rajput
rulers were quite learned persons. They gave special respect and honour to the
scholars and patronized them. Secondly, this time saw the growth of many
45
great poets, dramatists and writers, which names were attached with many
outstanding works in Sanskrit and other regional languages. During this period
regional languages developed and regional literature came into being.
Feudalism became more powerful and pervasive. This changed the social,
political and economic structure of India, and contributed the regional
languages and literature.
This period was not only remarkable for political integration in south
India but also for cultural development. In south India, politically it was a
glorious age of history. The Chālukyas of Bādāmī, the Pallavas of Kāñchī, the
Pāṇḍaya of Madurai were the main three powers of South59
. Rāshrakūas were
also played a very important role in the polity of north and south India. When
Cholas flourished once again in the tenth century CE, they not only united the
south India but also defeated the many kingdoms outside the India. Besides the
political conflicts, this period witnessed great cultural growth. This was the
time of the revival of Hinduism in the south. Bhakti movement started in the
south in this time. Devotional literature and advanced philosophical speculation
of Hinduism and Jainism were composed during this period. Great literary
contribution took place in Sanskrit and regional language such as Tamil,
Telugu, Kannaḍa and Malayālama.
The period marks the spread of Sanskrit throughout the subcontinent
along with the emergence of a number of regional vernaculars. Prākrit could
also be the Vehicle of writings. This is an important fact that Modern Indian
languages took the shape in this period from the different Prākrits. The first
phase of the contact of Muslim with India began towards the end of the 7th
59 Romila Thapar, op. cit., p. 168.
46
century CE. The second phase of this contact beginning in the 11th
century CE
in Northern India is much more significant for the culture history of India than
the first one. This period proved to be a blooming one in the history of
historical writings in the early medieval India, because a number of historical
biographies were produced in different parts of India.