Chapter 2: Mechanisms of Genomic Instability

Mechanisms of Genomic Instability: Introduction

Cancer arises from a series of genetic alterations that promote resistance to apoptosis, self-

sufficiency in growth, cellular immortalization and escape from cell-cycle exit. The acquisition

of these properties ultimately facilitates angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis.1 It has been

recognized for more than a century that genetic instability might represent an important

pathway for the development of these disease characteristics. Von Hansemann2 identified

abnormal mitotic figures in cancers, leading Boveri3to propose that genetic instability,

manifest in his experiments as whole-chromosome aneuploidy, could have a causal role in

tumor development. The recognition that mutation of genes involved in monitoring genomic

integrity underlies inherited cancer syndromes such as hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer

(HNPCC) and familial BRCA-mutant breast cancer provides clear evidence that genomic

instability due to a so-called mutator phenotype can be the starting point for tumor

development.4,5

However, many important questions remain. Does genomic instability play a central role in

oncogenesis in common sporadic tumors? When during tumorigenesis does genetic instability

develop, and what are the dominant mechanisms in specific cancer types? Why do inherited

mutations in caretaker genes such as BRCA1 and BRCA2 lead to breast and ovarian cancer

when their repair function is presumed to be ubiquitous? What is the relative contribution of

telomere shortening to the development of genomic instability? Finally, what is the specific

role of aneuploidy in cancer development, and what are the defects that promote

chromosomal instability?

This chapter will outline the basic mechanisms involved in the maintenance of genomic

integrity and will address these questions. One theme that has emerged from recent work in

this area is that the development of genomic instability during cancer progression involves

evolutionary tradeoffs.6–8 Loss of genetic stability is expected to increase the rate of

growth-promoting or survival-promoting mutations that could drive tumor growth. However,

genomic instability will also increase the rate of deleterious mutations that could kill cells

before they develop into tumors. Understanding how these factors balance out will ultimately

be the key to understanding tumor development via genome destabilization. Perhaps most

importantly, understanding this balance may also have implications for cancer therapeutics.

If deleterious, genome-destabilizing mutations are found in the population of developing

cancer cells, these defects may provide an “Achilles heel” for therapeutic attack.

Basic Defenses Against Genomic Instability

The roughly 1014 cells in the human body are continually exposed to sources of genomic

injury, both spontaneous injury accompanying normal cell division and metabolism and

external sources of damage. In addition to the oxidative stresses that are a by-product of

cellular metabolism, cell populations that undergo constant turnover are subject to errors

that may arise during the processes of DNA replication, mitosis, and telomere maintenance.

Cells are also exposed to a variety of exogenous genotoxic insults. Examples include

ultraviolet and gamma irradiation and certain chemicals (as detailed in other chapters). As a

result, mechanisms have evolved at a number of different levels to guard against genomic

instability and prevent the propagation of cancer-promoting and/or deleterious mutations.

At an organismal level, tissues are designed to prevent the accumulation of cells with

sustained disruption of genomic integrity.4 For example, those cell types in constant contact

with the outside world, including the skin, gastrointestinal tract, and bronchial epithelium,

undergo continuous self-renewal, with shedding of those differentiated cells that are exposed

most directly to a potentially deleterious environment. In addition to being shielded from this

stress, the stem cell compartment undergoes cell division fairly infrequently, with the bulk of

exponential growth occurring in transit-amplifying cells that are ultimately discarded at the

surface. Thus, in tissues such as the colon, stem cells are normally protected within the

crypts, and those cells that proliferate and migrate toward the lumen are ultimately

eliminated. Nevertheless, this process is imperfect and subject to persistence of dysplastic

clones if a cell sustains a mutation that affords a proliferative advantage.

Many cells also possess physiologic characteristics that can shield them from genotoxic

injury.4,9 For example, melanin in the skin absorbs ultraviolet radiation, while antioxidants

and enzymes such as catalase and superoxide dismutase reduce concentrations of reactive

oxygen species generated as a result of cell metabolism. In addition, cytochrome P-450

enzymes detoxify a variety of chemicals, and glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs) conjugate

glutathione with electrophilic compounds, neutralizing their mutagenic potential. Defective

GST function has been observed in lung, breast, and prostate cancer and has been shown to

predispose patients to myelodysplastic syndrome. Conversely, drugs that inhibit GST function

are being tested in combination with chemotherapy in an attempt to enhance toxicity to

cancer cells.

Barriers to Genomic Instability

Cell Cycle Checkpoints

Coordinated progression through the cell cycle is crucial for the maintenance of genome

stability.4,10,11This is particularly the case for the main tasks of the cell cycle—DNA

replication and mitosis. Either incomplete DNA replication or overreplication of DNA would

generate lesions that could lead to chromosome breaks and rearrangements. Mitotic errors

produce chromosome mis-segregation and whole-chromosome aneuploidy. These types of

errors do not occur in isolation; a defect in one process can lead to a cascade of downstream

events. Chromosome breaks can lead to translocations, chromosomes with two centromeres

(dicentric chromosomes), anaphase bridges, and chromosome mis-segregation. Likewise,

mitotic errors leading to aneuploidy will generate gene expression imbalances that could, in

principle, compromise DNA replication, telomere maintenance, or DNA repair. Both DNA

replication/repair and mitotic errors can cause cytokinesis to fail, resulting in tetraploid cells

that contain extra centrosomes and are themselves genetically unstable. Although an

extensive review of the cell cycle is beyond the scope of this chapter, selected features of the

normal cell cycle that are crucial for preventing genome instability and cancer are described

here. In particular, the following sections will focus on the restriction point, the DNA damage

checkpoint, and the spindle assembly checkpoint. More extensive summaries of the

eucaryotic cell cycle can be found in other chapters and in recent reviews.

Restriction Point

The decision to commit to cell division is controlled by a complex signaling system, the

retinoblastoma protein (RB) pathway, that is the major target of human cancer-causing

mutations.11,12 RB represses the transcription of genes involved in cell cycle progression by

binding to the E2F family of transcription factors and altering the expression of E2F target

genes, blocking E2F-mediated transactivation and recruiting active repressor complexes to

promoters.13,14 E2F target genes include components of the nucleotide synthesis and DNA

replication machinery that are essential for S phase entry and transit. In response to

mitogenic signals during G1 phase of the cell cycle, RB is phosphorylated and inactivated by

cyclin D/CDK (cyclin-dependent kinase) 4/6 complexes, followed by cyclin E/CDK2 and

cyclinA/CDK2 complexes, resulting in E2F-target gene expression and S phase transit. Cyclin

E/CDK2 regulates a number of other processes involved in the duplication of chromosomes,

including the activation of histone gene transcription, as well as promoting the initiation of

DNA replication and centrosome duplication.15,16 Deletion of cyclin E in mice results in

defective endoreduplication, while constitutive overexpression of cyclin E has been linked to

the generation of polyploidy and chromosomal instability. Thus, the RB pathway integrates

intrinsic and external growth signals and is a key mediator of cyclin/CDK complexes that

drive cell cycle progression.

CDK inhibitors and phosphatases provide other important mechanisms for counteracting the

activity of CDKs and restricting cell cycle progression.4,11,16 CDK inhibitors fall into two

general categories, including specific inhibitors of CDK4 such as p16INK4A, and those that target

CDK activity more broadly such as p21 or p27. CDK2 is also targeted by inhibitory

phosphorylation at its active site by the Wee1 family of protein kinases. Activation of cyclin

E(A)/CDK2 during the normal G1/S phase transition thus requires the activity of the CDC25A

phosphatase. Phosphorylation of CDC25A itself leads to its subsequent ubiquitin-mediated

proteasomal degradation and inhibition of S phase progression. Thus, expression of CDK

inhibitors and down-regulation of CDC25A phosphatase activity are means by which

checkpoint signals are able to mediate downstream cell cycle arrest. Furthermore, PP2A, a

protein phosphatase that is also critical to the process of oncogenic transformation, has been

shown to regulate an S phase checkpoint by dephosphorylating pRB and licensing

recruitment of pRB to chromatin to suppress DNA replication.17

Heralded as the guardian of the genome, p53 integrates the response to DNA damage,

replication stress, hypoxia, telomere dysfunction, and activated oncogenes and mediates

downstream checkpoint activation.4,18–20 Inherited mutations in p53 or its direct upstream

activator CHK2 result in the Li Fraumeni cancer predisposition syndrome, and sporadic

inactivation of p53 is one of the most frequent events observed in tumor development.

Tumors lacking p53 exhibit widespread genomic instability resulting from an inability to

arrest the cell cycle or trigger apoptosis in the setting of DNA damage and the cellular

stresses previously described. In normal cells, p53 is maintained at low levels in the

cytoplasm because of ubiquitination by MDM2 and proteasomal degradation. In response to

checkpoint activation and phosphorylation, p53 increases in abundance and translocates to

the nucleus, where it activates a transcriptional program that promotes cell cycle arrest,

senescence, or apoptosis, depending on the cell type and conditions. The CDK inhibitor p21 is

a key transcriptional target of p53 that mediates checkpoint arrest while repair is attempted.

In response to a variety of signals p53 can trigger an apoptotic program, in part via

transcriptional activation of proapoptotic targets such as NOXA and BAX.21

DNA Damage Checkpoints

Activation of cell cycle checkpoints occurs as part of a larger DNA damage response

pathway.22,23There are three major DNA damage checkpoints, with two of the checkpoints

occurring at the boundaries between G1/S and G2/M. The third checkpoint, however, occurs

intra-S phase. In addition to promoting cell cycle arrest through the mechanisms described

earlier, these pathways coordinate recruitment of repair proteins to the sites of DNA damage,

modulation of transcription, activation of subsequent repair, and apoptosis. The signaling

network that controls this response is initiated by the key DNA damage sensors, the ataxia-

telangiectasia mutated (ATM) and AT and Rad3-related (ATR) protein

kinases.10,11,24,25 ATM is principally activated in response to double-strand breaks, while

ATR is activated by replication fork collapse and by bulky DNA lesions. As will be described in

more detail later, both proteins phosphorylate multiple targets in coordinating the

subsequent DNA damage response. Key signal transducers in this process include CHK2

(activated by ATM) and CHK1 (activated by ATR). p53 is a major substrate for ATM/CHK2 and

ATR/CHK1 phosphorylation, and subsequent activation of p53 represents a principal

mechanism by which cell cycle checkpoints are activated in response to DNA damage.

Replication stress and hypoxia also appear to activate p53 through ATR signaling, while

telomere dysfunction contributes to p53 activation through ATM (Fig. 2.1).18 In addition, a

variety of stress responses have been shown to activate p38MAPK, which can promote

checkpoint activation through both p53-dependent and -independent pathways.26,27 CHK2

activation also leads to phosphorylation and degradation of the phosphatase CDC25A,

resulting in activation of an S phase checkpoint.28

Figure 2.1. G1 pathways that can trigger cell cycle arrest, senescence, or

apoptosis.

A variety of threats to genomic integrity lead to activation of pathways that result in cell

cycle arrest. Signaling via ATM/CHK2 and ATR/CHK1 leads to p53 activation, among other

effects. One of the principle downstream effects of p53 is activation of p21 expression, with

resultant cyclin E(A)/CDK2 inhibition and cell cycle arrest. Senescence, which results in a

more sustained cell cycle exit, also involves the up-regulation of p14ARF and p16INK4A. Both

proteins ultimately lead to retinoblastoma protein (RB) activation and G1 arrest via

cyclin/CDK inhibition. In response to DNA damage during S phase, activation of PP2A can lead

to dephosphorylation of RB and inhibition of DNA synthesis.

Spindle Assembly Checkpoint

Errors that occur during mitosis are similarly monitored by a spindle checkpoint, which

prevents progression into anaphase when chromosomes are improperly attached to the

mitotic spindle.29 Key sensors of this response include the spindle checkpoint proteins, which

assemble onto unattached kinetochores and generate a “wait anaphase” signal that prevents

activation of anaphase effector proteins. This pathway is outlined in further detail later.

Cellular Senescence and Crisis

Cellular senescence is another mechanism that limits the progressive accumulation of cells

with impaired genomic integrity and oncogenic potential.4,30–32 Originally described as an

irreversible state of cell cycle exit in response to exhausted replicative potential of cultured

cells, cellular senescence also occurs as a response to oncogene activation, oxidative stress,

suboptimal culture conditions, and chemotherapy. The RB and p53 pathways have been

shown to mediate the arrest by replicative senescence, whereby progressive telomere

attrition elicits a DNA damage response similar to that induced by other genotoxic stresses

(Fig. 2.1). In the setting of RB and p53 pathway inactivation, cells can bypass replicative

senescence, but progressive telomere shortening results in the accumulation of massive

genetic instability and a state of “crisis.” Most cells in crisis will die, but rare malignant clones

can emerge. In humans, activation of the enzyme telomerase and subsequent maintenance

of telomere length allows such cells to bypass crisis, resulting in cellular immortalization. By

contrast, in mice, in which telomeres start out long and seldom shorten to a critical length, a

similar but less well understood crisis event occurs that is, at least in part, related to

differential sensitivity of mouse cells to oxidative damage in culture.

Senescence induced by oncogene activation, also known as oncogene-induced senescence,

results from expression of p16INK4A and p14ARF (note that p14ARF in humans is p19ARF in the

mouse), which exists in an alternative reading frame within

the p16INK4A locus.33,34 p14ARF inhibits MDM2 function, in part by sequestering it in the

nucleolus, resulting in the accumulation and activation of p53. p16INK4Aexpression is

associated with both oncogene activation and genotoxic stress, promoting activation of RB

and, in conjunction with HMGA chromatin proteins, the formation of stable heterochromatic

foci that envelop and silence E2F target genes.35 Cellular senescence induced by this latter

program is refractory to RB and p53 inactivation, although it can be bypassed by inactivation

of p16INK4A and HMGA proteins. Oncogene-induced senescence is also triggered by DNA

replication stress, including prematurely terminated DNA replication forks, DNA double-strand

breaks, and DNA hyperreplication.36,37 In a mouse model, inhibiting the DNA double-strand

break response kinase ATM suppressed the induction of senescence and led to increased

tumor size and invasiveness.

Oncogene-induced senescence has been shown to occur in vivo, limiting tumor progression in

models of lung and prostate cancer, melanoma, and lymphoma.33 Whereas inactivation of

the PTEN tumor suppressor and resultant activation of the AKT signaling pathway in prostate

epithelial cells appears to promote senescence through p14ARF, inappropriate activation of

RAS signaling in other tissues results in p16INK4A-mediated senescence. Nonetheless, targeted

activation of oncogenic K-RAS alleles in somatic tissues in mice predisposes to a wide variety

of tumor types, including early-onset lung cancer, suggesting that this barrier may be readily

overcome or that the consequence of RAS expression may vary depending on the

context.38,39 Moreover, expression of endogenous levels of oncogenic K-RAS can promote

proliferation, and it has been demonstrated that oncogene-induced senescence due to RAS

activation can be dose-dependent.40–42

RAS-induced senescence in lymphocytes depends on heterochromatin formation via the

Suv39h1 histone methyltransferase, the disruption of which facilitates lymphoma

development in response to RAS activation.33 Furthermore, disruption of Suv39h1 by itself

has been shown to disrupt heterochromatin formation and to promote genetic instability,

contributing to lymphomagenesis.43 This may occur at least in part through cell division

failure and the generation of unstable tetraploid cells (see later discussion). These findings

confirm the in vitro observations that changes in chromatin structure contribute to cell cycle

exit by senescence. In addition, they suggest that emerging epigenetic therapies such as

histone deacetylase inhibitors and DNA methyltransferase inhibitors that interfere with

chromatin silencing may disrupt this senescence barrier, a potential caveat to their use.

Mutations in Cancer

Despite multiple levels of protection against the development of genomic instability, with

age, cells can develop genetic alterations that escape detection.4 One path to genetic

instability is inactivation of checkpoint proteins such as those previously described. The

subsequent deregulation of the cell cycle and impairment of the response to genomic injury

allows the progressive accumulation of lesions that can drive oncogenesis. Additionally,

mutations can also occur in genes encoding the proteins that repair DNA damage and protect

against the development of chromosome abnormalities. In this setting, accelerated mutation

rates and chromosomal instability destabilize the genome and facilitate progression through

the steps of oncogenic transformation. The basic types of genetic alterations observed in

tumors, and the mechanisms by which genome destabilization can occur, are outlined in the

next sections. Cancer predisposition syndromes that result from inherited defects in genome

maintenance are highlighted in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Inherited Genome Maintenance Defects with Cancer Predisposition

Point Mutations

Changes in the nucleotide sequence can arise from spontaneous mutation, exposure to

endogenous or exogenous mutagens, or defects in the ability to detect and/or repair simple

sequence errors.4,21 The spontaneous mutation rate per nucleotide per cell division has

been estimated to be on the order of 10−9 in somatic cells and 10−11 in stem cells.44 Despite

the remarkable fidelity of DNA polymerase and its inherent proofreading capacity, a variety

of endogenous and exogenous chemical and radiation exposures can introduce additional

DNA lesions, requiring the presence of multiple repair pathways for further protection of

genomic integrity. Mutations arise when such errors are not detected and repaired by this

machinery, which can occur when repair pathways are overwhelmed or defective. As a result,

point mutations are frequently detected via sequencing of both oncogenes and tumor

suppressor genes in multiple cancers. Notable examples include activating mutations in

oncogenic kinases such as K-RAS in colorectal, pancreatic, and lung cancer, B-RAF in

melanoma, and JAK2 in myeloproliferative disorders. In some instances, specific mutations

have been linked to epidemiologic features such as tobacco exposure, with oncogenic K-RAS

mutations in non–small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) occurring more frequently in smokers and

epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations in nonsmokers.45

Next-generation sequencing technology has ushered in a new era in cancer

genomics.46,47 Massively parallel DNA sequencing platforms now allow for the routine

sequencing of billions of bases of DNA per week and the identification of point mutations,

insertions and deletions, copy number changes, and genomic rearrangements on a genome-

wide basis. Large-scale sequencing of coding sequences from a panel of colorectal and breast

tumors, for example, revealed that these cancers harbor approximately 100 mutant genes,

with computational methods predicting that 14 to 20 of these mutations will be bona fide

tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes.48 In this unbiased effort, both known and unknown

mutations were identified, with each tumor possessing a relatively unique cancer gene

mutational signature. In another study, sequencing of coding regions of protein kinases in a

large number of cancers identified “driver” mutations in approximately 120 genes across all

samples.49 Although these studies identified a greater number of mutational events

associated with oncogenesis than previously thought (the “state” of genome integrity), they

do not necessarily imply a high “rate” of mutation, which remains low in most mature

tumors.21

In two early studies, targeted gene resequencing was also applied to lung adenocarcinoma

and glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) tumor samples.50,51 Both studies integrated the somatic

mutation data with other genome-wide characterizations and clinical data. In the lung

adenocarcinoma samples, for example, the sequencing data were used to identify multiple

pathways, including MAPK signaling, p53 signaling, and the mTOR pathway, that are targeted

by a combination of point mutations, copy number amplifications and deletions, and loss of

heterozygosity (LOH). In a different study of GBM tumor samples, the sequencing of

approximately 20,000 protein coding genes led to the discovery of a variety of genes that

were not known to be altered in GBM, including the enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase

(IDH1).52 The cancer-associated IDH1 mutations result in the novel ability of the enzyme to

catalyze the NADPH-dependent reduction of alpha-ketoglutarate to R(-)-2-hydroxyglutarate

(2HG), which has been shown to lead to an elevated risk of malignant brain

tumors.53 Subsequently, mutations in IDH1 have also been identified in acute myeloid

leukemia (AML) genomes.54,55

More recently, there has been a rapid progression from targeted gene sequencing to

targeted whole-genome and whole-transcriptome sequencing. The first sequencing of a

whole cancer genome was reported for AML.56 Acquired mutations in coding sequences of

annotated genes were identified in ten genes in the AML genome by comparing the genomic

DNA of leukemia cells with normal skin cells obtained from a patient with FAB M1 AML. Two of

the identified mutations were in genes previously described to have a role in

leukemogenesis, FLT3 and NPM1. The other eight mutations, however, were in genes that

were not previously implicated in the pathogenesis of AML. Four of the affected genes

(PTPRT, CDH24, PCLKC, and SLC15A1), though, are in gene families that are strongly

implicated in cancer pathogenesis. Intriguingly, the remaining genes (KNDC1, GPR123, EBI2,

and GRINL1B) are involved in metabolic pathways.

The genomes of a small cell lung cancer, melanoma, and breast tumor have also been

described.57–59Interestingly, the mutations in both the lung cancer and melanoma genomes

were not distributed evenly throughout the genome—many were present outside the gene-

coding regions, suggesting that cells had repaired damaged DNA in those key regions.

Sequencing of the melanoma genome, for example, revealed multiple levels of selective DNA

repair, including the preferential targeting of repair to transcribed regions compared with

nontranscribed regions, to exons compared with introns, to transcribed DNA strands

compared with nontranscribed strands, and to the 5′ end of genes compared with the 3′ end.

Next-generation sequencing has also been applied to RNA (“RNA-Seq”) extracted from tumor

cells for complete transcriptome characterization.60,61 This approach is more sensitive than

microarrays and also provides data that can be used to evaluate for allele-specific

expression, structural and copy-number alterations, alternative splice isoforms, fusion

transcripts, and single nucleotide mutations.60RNA-Seq, for example, was applied to four

granulosa-cell tumors and identified missense point mutations in the FOXL2 gene, which

encodes a transcription factor known to be crucial in granulosa cell development.62 In a

different study, RNA-Seq was used to identify both known and novel fusion transcripts in

prostate cancer samples.63 RNA-Seq has also been used to study the role of microRNAs in

the regulation of gene expression in both normal and cancerous cells.

The number of sequenced cancer genomes is likely to expand substantially in coming years.

The Cancer Genome Atlas Program of the U.S. National Cancer Institute, for example, initially

focused its large-scale genomic analysis on only three tumor types, GBM, ovarian serous

cystadenocarcinoma, and lung squamous carcinoma. The scope of the Cancer Genome Atlas

Research Network, however, has now expanded to include more than 20 tumor types and

thousands of samples. The clinical and translational implications of routine cancer genome

sequencing are profound and include the identification of new drug targets, as well as the

generation of new insights into the genetic patterns of disease phenotype, prognosis, and

therapeutic response. One shortcoming of direct sequencing, though, is its failure to detect

epigenetic changes, such as DNA methylation, which may alter gene expression indirectly.

Although the role of 2HG in cancer development remains unclear, the identification of this

unexpected class of mutations validates the high-throughput cancer genome sequencing

approach. Also, because the mutations in IDH1 result in a gain of function, there is much

excitement about developing small molecule inhibitors of mutant IDH1. Although major

clinical impact of large-scale sequencing projects is yet to be realized, the discovery

of IDH1 illustrates the potential of this approach.

Translocations

Unlike point mutations, small insertions, or deletions of nucleotides, larger chromosomal

changes such as translocations, amplifications, and deletions may be observed using

cytogenetic analysis4,21 (Fig.2.2). Chromosome translocation involves juxtaposition of two

different chromosome segments, resulting in fusion of two different genes or placement of a

gene next to an inappropriate regulatory element. Examples include t(9;22) in chronic

myelogenous leukemia, resulting in expression of the growth promoting BCR-ABL gene

product, and t(14;18) in follicular lymphoma, resulting in overexpression of the antiapoptotic

protein BCL2 as a result of its fusion with the immunoglobulin heavy chain promoter. Recent

work has also identified a translocation between the immunoglobulin heavy chain and the

cytokine receptor CRLF2 in a subset of precursor B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia

associated with a poor outcome and activating JAK mutations.64,65

Figure 2.2. Common cytogenetic abnormalities.

Metaphase spread derived from a mouse tumor model (combined telomerase and p53

deficiency). Individual chromosomes are highlighted by spectral karyotyping (SKY) using

fluorescent chromosome probes (right panel). Normal mouse cells contain a diploid

complement of 40 chromosomes. In this sample, more than 260 chromosomes are observed,

with multiple dicentric chromosomes and nonreciprocal translocations.

One exciting recent development is that translocations not only create chimeric genes or

alter promoter sequences, but can also affect the expression of microRNAs.66,67 MicroRNAs

are short regulatory RNAs that control mRNA stability and/or translation, and changes in

microRNA expression have been linked to prognostic factors and progression in diseases such

as chronic lymphocytic leukemia.68

Although translocations and gene fusions are a hallmark of cancer, the mechanisms

underlying their genesis are unclear. Recent work, however, has begun to elucidate the

mechanisms of some tissue-specific translocations, such as TMPRSS2 to ERG and ETV1 in

prostate cancer.69,70 A clever bioinformatics approach, termed cancer outlier profile

analysis, was used to first identify this recurrent translocation in prostate cancer.71 This

approach was used to successfully identify recurrent gene fusions

of TMPRSS2 to ERG or ETV1 in prostate cancer. Further mechanistic work has shown that this

translocation requires two roles of the androgen receptor.69 First, ligand-dependent binding

of the androgen receptor to intronic binding sites near the tumor translocation sites creates

specific intra- and interchromosomal interactions that result in the spatial proximity of tumor

translocation partners. Second, the intron-bound androgen receptor alters local chromatin

architecture and recruits the ligand and genotoxic stress-induced enzymes, including the

activation-induced cytidine deaminase and LINE-1 repeat-encoded ORF2 endonuclease, to

these regions, which results in the generation of DNA double-stranded breaks (DSB). The DSB

are subsequently ligated by the nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) machinery to create

translocations. Further elucidation of the mechanisms leading to gene- and tissue-specific

translocations will advance the understanding of basic mechanisms of cancer, as well as

possibly facilitating the development of new therapeutic strategies.

Amplifications and Deletions

Amplifications can be detected cytogenetically as double-minute chromosomes or regions of

excess signal intensity using fluorescence in situ hybridization. Such “amplicons” may range

in size from 0.5 to 10 megabases of DNA, resulting in multiple copies of both oncogenes and

their neighboring sequences. Conversely, deletions result in loss of chromosomal regions,

and can involve small interstitial segments or entire chromosome arms. Genetic alteration of

tumor suppressor genes frequently involves mutation in one allele and deletion of the second

allele as part of a larger chromosomal segment, resulting in regions of uniform sequence with

LOH.

A recent study reported the high-resolution analysis of somatic copy-number alterations

(SCNAs) from 3,131 cancer specimens belonging to 26 histologic types.72 The most

prevalent SCNAs were either very short (focal) or almost the length of a chromosome arm or

whole chromosome (arm level). The focal SCNAs occurred at a frequency inversely related to

their lengths, with a median length of 1.8 megabases. Arm-level SCNAs occurred

approximately 30 times more frequently than expected by the inverse-length distribution

associated with focal SCNAs. This observation was seen across all cancer types and applied

to both copy gains and losses. The study also identified 158 regions of focal SCNAs that were

altered at significant frequency across several cancer types, of which 122 could not be

explained by the presence of an oncogene located within the region. Several gene families

were enriched among the regions of focal SCNA, including the BCL2 family of apoptosis

regulators and the NF-kB pathway. Interestingly, the finding that most of the SCNAs were

found in multiple cancer types suggests that the diversity across cancer genomes may reflect

the combinations of a limited number of functionally relevant events.

Whole-Chromosome Loss/Gain

Nearly all solid tumor types exhibit whole-chromosome loss or gain, resulting in alterations in

chromosome number or aneuploidy.21,73 As will be described later, such defects are

generally the result of chromosomal mis-segregation during mitosis. Glioblastomas, for

example, frequently exhibit loss of chromosome 10, inactivating the tumor suppressor PTEN,

while melanomas often show gain of chromosome 7, from which B-RAF is expressed.

Monosomy 7 and trisomy 8 are associated with myelodysplasia and AML. Whole-chromosome

loss may be underestimated by karyotypic analysis, as loss of one parental chromosome may

be accompanied by duplication of the other parental chromosome, resulting in an abnormal

“allelotype” with accompanying LOH, or copy neutral loss of heterozygosity (CN-LOH).74

CN-LOH, also referred to as uniparental disomy, is common in cancer and has been described

in AML, breast cancer, multiple myeloma, basal cell carcinoma, childhood acute

lymphoblastic leukemia, chronic lymphocytic lymphoma, myelodysplastic syndrome, and

glioblastoma.75 Furthermore, CN-LOH has been shown to have prognostic significance in a

number of these cancer types, including primary and secondary AML.76 The specific role of

CN-LOH in tumorigenesis remains undefined, but possible mechanisms include the

duplication of oncogenes, loss of tumor suppressors, or acquisition of improper epigenetic

patterns.77 In mice, it has been demonstrated that Bub1 insufficiency can drive tumor

formation through tumor suppressor gene LOH.78 Specifically, Bub1 insufficiency

predisposed p53+/−mice to thymic lymphomas and ApcMin/+ mice to colonic tumors. These

tumors demonstrated CN-LOH and lacked the nonmutated tumor suppressor allele, but had

gained a copy of the mutant allele.

Epigenetics

Significant evidence now indicates that epigenetic modifications, or heritable changes in

gene expression that are not caused by changes in DNA sequence, are critical factors in the

pathogenesis of cancer.79 Although beyond the scope of this chapter, epigenetic

mechanisms controlling the transcription of genes involved in cell differentiation,

proliferation, and survival are often targets for deregulation in the development of cancer.

These epigenetic alterations include DNA methylation, covalent modifications of histones,

and noncovalent changes in nucleosome position. The role of epigenetic modifications in

cancer pathogenesis is illustrated by the tumor suppressor SNF5, which regulates the

epigenome as a member of the SWI/SNF chromatin remodeling complex.80 Biallelic

inactivation of SNF5 is found in the majority of malignant rhabdoid tumors. Most

human SNF5-deficient cancers are diploid, lack genomic amplifications/deletions, and are

genomically stable.81 Furthermore, the epigenetically based changes in transcription that

occur following loss of SNF5 correlate with the tumor phenotype.

Recent work with an NSCLC cell line, PC9, has also identified a novel role for epigenetics in

acquired drug resistance.82 Treatment of PC9 cells, which have an activating mutation in the

EGFR, with the drug erlotinib results in the death of nearly all of the parental cells. A small

percentage of the PC9 cells, however, demonstrate significantly reduced drug sensitivity and

remain viable through activation of IGF-1 receptor signaling and an altered chromatin state

that requires the histone demethylase RBP2. This drug-tolerant phenotype is transiently

acquired at low frequency by individual cells within the population. The drug-tolerant

subpopulation can be selectively ablated by treatment with IGF-1 receptor inhibitors or

chromatin-modifying agents, such as HDAC inhibitors. There has been much discussion and

controversy about the existence of drug-resistant cancer stem cells; the epigenetic effects

described in this work provide a potential mechanism for the generation of some “cancer

stem cells.” Furthermore, this research suggests that the potentially reversible nature of

epigenetic changes, unlike genetic mutations, may provide a unique therapeutic avenue in

the treatment of cancer.

Mechanisms of Genome Destabilization in Human Tumors

Microsatellite Instability

One of the earliest insights into the contribution of genome destabilization to carcinogenesis

came from the study of the familial cancer syndrome HNPCC.4,11,83 It had been recognized

that a subset of sporadic colon cancers and a majority of cancers derived from patients with

HNPCC exhibited frequent mutations, particularly in regions of simple repeat sequences

known as microsatellites. This type of genetic instability, termed microsatellite

instability (MIN), had been described in bacteria and yeast mutants defective in mismatch

repair. Linkage analysis in kindreds with HNPCC revealed germ line mutations

in hMSH2 and hMLH1, which are human homologues of the mutL and mutS mismatch repair

genes in Escherichia coli. It is now known that mutations in other components of the human

mismatch repair process, hPMS2, and hMSH6, are also observed in families with HNPCC.

Mismatch repair corrects mispaired bases that can result from errors during DNA replication,

as well as mismatched bases occurring in recombination intermediates or occurring as a

result of some types of chemical damage to DNA.84 Mismatched bases are recognized by a

complex of MSH2 and MSH6, recruiting MLH1 and PMS2 to the site to initiate the subsequent

steps of repair, including excision, DNA synthesis, and ligation (Fig. 2.3). Larger

insertion/deletion mispairs due to slippage of the replication machinery in repetitive

sequences or recombination errors form a loop structure that is alternatively recognized by a

complex of MSH2 and MSH3, with recruitment of an MLH1/MLH3 complex promoting

subsequent repair. Cancer cells that exhibit MIN from defects in these components have a

nucleotide mutation rate that has been estimated at two to three orders greater than that of

normal cells. MLH1 and MSH2 have also been shown to have functions outside mismatch

repair, as defects in these proteins have been associated with an impaired G2/M cell cycle

checkpoint in response to alkylating agents as well as abnormalities in meiotic recombination

in mouse knockout models.9

Figure 2.3. Mismatch repair pathways.

Mispaired bases due to errors in DNA replication or other causes are recognized by the

mismatch repair machinery. The initial step involves recognition of simple mismatches by

MSH2 and MSH6 (upper panel), or recognition of insertion/deletion loops by MSH2 and

MSH3 (lower panel). Subsequent steps involve recruitment of MLH1 and PMS2 to mismatch

sites, or MLH1 and MLH3 to insertion/deletion loop sites. This is followed by excision of the

respective lesions, DNA synthesis, and ligation to complete the repair.

HNPCC is associated with a 60% to 80% lifetime risk of developing colorectal cancer and is

responsible for 2% to 5% of all cases of colorectal cancer.85 Nearly 85% of HNPCC patients

have mutations in MLH1or MSH2, with median age at colon cancer diagnosis being

significantly lower in MLH1 mutation carriers and in males, and with more frequent

extracolonic tumors observed in MSH2 carriers. The MIN phenotype is also observed in 15%

of sporadic colon cancers, often due to epigenetic silencing of mismatch repair genes such

as MLH1. Colorectal cancers exhibiting MIN are typically diploid, in contrast to the remaining

85% of cases, which are associated with chromosomal instability (CIN).86 Experimental

evidence supports the idea that MIN occurs very early in sporadic colorectal cancer

formation, prior to anaphase-promoting complex (APC) inactivation, increasing genomic

instability and thus obviating the selection pressure to develop another mechanism of

genomic instability, CIN. In both sporadic cases and HNPCC, MIN has been associated with

more favorable prognosis, lack of p53 mutation, and a potential resistance to 5-fluorouracil

chemotherapy. These observations are in accordance with the hypothesis that the

accelerated mutation rate facilitates cancer evolution, but at the same time compromises

fitness of cells, presumably by the accumulation of deleterious mutations.

Nucleotide Excision Repair/Base Excision Repair Defects

Whereas the mismatch repair pathway functions primarily in the recognition of and repair of

replication errors, the nucleotide excision repair (NER) and base excision repair (BER)

pathways respond principally to lesions created by exogenous or endogenous DNA damaging

agents.4,9,84,87 It is becoming apparent that defects in components of these repair

pathways have impacts on both cancer pathogenesis and the efficacy of cancer

therapy.88 Ultraviolet radiation or exogenous chemicals such as polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons and platinum chemotherapeutic drugs can result in bulky, helix-distorting

lesions that are recognized by the NER machinery. Components of the NER pathway were in

part discovered by mutation in the genetic syndromes xeroderma pigmentosa (XPA-XPG) and

Cockayne syndrome (CSA and CSB).89 Mutation of XP genes can also be seen in the related

disorder trichothiodystrophy. Whereas all three disorders exhibit dramatic sun sensitivity,

only xeroderma pigmentosa is associated with a marked incidence of sun-induced skin

cancer.90 Deletion of CSB has been shown to impair tumor formation in cancer-prone mice,

and it has been hypothesized that the lack of cancer in Cockayne syndrome may be related

to a particular sensitivity of cells to apoptosis or impairment of transcription.91

Two separate NER pathways have been identified, one that involves scanning the entire

genome for lesions (global genome NER) and another that detects lesions that interfere with

elongating RNA polymerases (transcription coupled repair or TCR)9,87 (Fig. 2.4). XP genes

are involved in the recognition and repair of lesions in global genome NER, while CS genes

play a specific role in transcription coupled repair. Subsequent stages of NER are similar and

involve ERCC1, an endonuclease involved in excision of the lesion, followed by DNA

replication to complete the repair process. Notably, mutant mice defective in NER also

accumulate DNA damage, with a more pronounced cancer phenotype and evidence of

premature aging. Furthermore, reduced expression of ERCC1 in NSCLC has been associated

with response to cisplatin-based adjuvant chemotherapy.92 A subgroup analysis of the

International Adjuvant Lung Cancer Trial (IALT) demonstrated that ERCC1 deficiency was

observed in tumor samples from 56% of patients and correlated with a significant

improvement in survival following cisplatin-based chemotherapy, whereas no benefit was

seen in tumors in which normal ERCC1expression was maintained. Thus, while

reduced ERCC1 expression may promote genetic instability and facilitate NSCLC

development in a significant fraction of patients, the resulting cancers are “stuck” with the

deleterious effects of ERCC1 deficiency and become sensitive to certain therapies.

Potentially, this provides a general model for targeted therapy based on fixation of mutations

that compromise genomic integrity during tumorigenesis.

Figure 2.4. Nucleotide excision repair and base excision repair.

Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is activated in response to bulky lesions that are generated,

for example, by UV irradiation (upper panels). Global genome (GG) repair involves proteins

identified by complementation groups in patients with xeroderma pigmentosa (XP proteins).

Initial recognition of lesions occurs by a complex containing xeroderma pigmentosa C (XPC).

Transcription coupled repair (TCR) also involves proteins identified by mutation in Cockayne

syndrome (CS proteins), and occurs when RNA polymerase II stalls at the site of lesions.

Stalled RNA polymerase II recruits Cockayne syndrome B (CSB) to the site of damage.

Subsequently, DNA is locally unwound around the injured site by a TFIIH complex containing

XPB and XPD. This process also involves XPG, CSA, and other proteins for TCR. Once

unwound, XPA and replication protein A (RPA) contribute to stabilization of an open

intermediate and recruitment of the ERCC1 and XPF endonucleases that excise the lesion.

Subsequent steps involve DNA synthesis and ligation to complete the repair. In base excision

repair (BER) (lower panels), abasic sites generated by spontaneous hydrolysis, action of

DNA glycosylases, or x-ray–induced single-strand breaks are recognized by the APE1

endonuclease, as well as PARP and XRCC1. Subsequent repair is influenced by PARP-

mediated ADP ribosylation of histones and other proteins, while XRCC1 serves as a scaffold

for recruitment of DNA polymerase β and DNA ligase 3. These latter enzymes catalyze

nucleotide reinsertion and ligation into the injured strand as part of the short patch repair

pathway (major BER pathway).

BER is primarily involved in the response to damage caused by small chemical alterations

and x-rays, as well as spontaneous reactions such as base loss from hydrolysis of glycosyl

DNA bonds, which has been estimated to occur on the order of 104 times per day per

cell.9,24 Damaged bases are removed by DNA glycosylases, and abasic sites are recognized

by a complex that includes the APEX1 endonuclease, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP),

DNA polymerase and ligase, and XRCC1, a scaffolding protein that interacts with most of the

core components (Fig. 2.4). Disruption of any of these genes in the BER pathway results in

the cellular accumulation of oxidative DNA damage.

Despite being integrally important to the maintenance of genome stability, human disorders

or inherited cancer susceptibility syndromes due to mutation of components of the BER

machinery have yet to be described. This may be because of partial redundancy of DNA

glycosylases, the fact that mutation of core BER components (in mice) results in embryonic

lethality, or simply to the need for additional investigation. As described later, pharmacologic

inhibition of PARP may selectively sensitize cancer cells with a pre-existing defect in another

repair pathway to death by DNA damage.93,94

DNA Damage Response to Double-Strand Breaks

DNA DSBs represent a significant threat to genomic integrity.4,9 They can occur during DNA

replication at sites of stalled replication forks, or after ionizing radiation or oxidative

damage.24 In addition, single-strand nicks can be converted into DSBs by DNA replication.

Even a single DSB in budding yeast can trigger a DNA damage response checkpoint, a finding

that is not surprising as DSBs can promote major cytogenetic abnormalities such as

chromosome translocations, amplifications, and deletions. DSBs are detected and repaired by

an intricate cascade of proteins, ultimately involving the processes of homologous

recombination (HR) or NHEJ. Defects in multiple components of this process have been linked

to genomic instability and cancer predisposition.

The initial detection and activation of signal transduction pathways mediating repair of DNA

DSBs involves the PI(3)K-like kinases, ATM and ATR.10,11,24,95 DSBs induced by DNA

damage activate ATM, while regions of single-stranded DNA at stalled replication forks recruit

and activate ATR. Once activated, ATM and ATR kinase activity results in phosphorylation of

multiple targets, including histone H2AX, resulting in the local alteration of chromatin

structure. Key downstream targets of ATM and ATR include the checkpoint mediator proteins

(CHK), with ATM principally activating CHK2 and ATR activating CHK1. As previously

described, ATM/CHK2 as well as ATR/CHK1 can phosphorylate and activate p53, mediating

downstream checkpoint activation. ATM/CHK2 and ATR/CHK1 have also been shown to slow

progression through S phase by down-regulating CDC25A.28

ATM was identified by virtue of its association with the neurodegenerative disorder ataxia

telangiectasia, in which patients are also predisposed to malignancies such as acute

lymphoblastic leukemia and lymphoma.9,10 Inactivating mutations in ATR (AT and Rad3-

related) result in embryonic lethality in mice and are not observed in familial human cancer

syndromes, presumably reflecting the key role of this kinase in normal DNA replication.

However, hypomorphic alleles of ATR that result in low levels of expression have been

associated with the Seckel syndrome, which results in dwarfism, microcephaly, and

chromosome instability in cells treated with mitomycin C.96 Patients with Seckel syndrome

are not significantly predisposed to cancer development, perhaps reflecting the general

balancing of fitness effects and oncogenic potential; in Seckel syndrome the disadvantages of

compromised ATR for cell viability may outweigh the potential for an increase in cancer-

causing mutations. As previously described, the important caretaker function of CHK2 is

evidenced by its mutation in a subset of patients with Li Fraumeni syndrome. CHK2 mutation

has also been observed in familial breast cancer, and in multiple sporadic tumor

types.97 Mutation of CHK1 is observed less frequently in tumors, which, similar to ATR, could

reflect strongly disadvantageous effects of CHK1 loss on viability.

The initiation of the repair process itself involves recruitment of multiple other proteins to

sites of DSBs in conjunction with ATM and ATR.4,9 DSBs are recognized by the MRN complex,

consisting of MRE11 (meiotic recombination 11)/RAD50/NBS1 (Nimjen breakage syndrome

1).98 Mutations in MRE11 result in an ataxia telangiectasia-like disorder, while NBS1 is

mutated in the Nijmegen breakage syndrome, and both diseases are characterized by

immunodeficiency, cellular sensitivity to ionizing radiation, chromosomal instability, and a

high frequency of malignancies. In addition to their role in DSB repair by HR, the MRN

proteins have important roles in telomere maintenance, and, at least in yeast, in NHEJ.

ATR/CHK1 signaling is linked with activation of the Fanconi anemia pathway and BRCA2.

DNA Repair of Insterstrand DNA Crosslinks

Fanconi anemia is another autosomal recessive human disease characterized by bone

marrow failure, congenital abnormalities, cellular hypersensitivity to DNA cross-linking agents

such as mitomycin C and cisplatin, and predisposition to malignancies such as acute

leukemia and squamous cell carcinomas.99,100 There are 13 known FA genes, and the

encoded FA proteins cooperate in a common DNA repair pathway. Eight of the FA proteins

are assembled in a multisubunit ubiquitin ligase complex. In response to DNA damage, or

during normal S phase progression, this ligase monoubiquitinates two additional FA proteins,

FANCD2 and FANCI. Monoubiquitination is activated by the ATR/CHK1

pathway.101 Monoubiquitinated FANCD2 and FANCI are required for normal homologous

recombination repair, and these proteins further interact with the downstream FA proteins,

FANCD1, FANCJ, and FANCN/PALB2.102,103 Interestingly, FANCD1 is identical to

the BRCA2 gene.104

The three downstream FA genes are breast/ovarian cancer susceptibility genes, and

heterozygote carriers, with mutations in a single copy of FANCJ, FANCD1, or FANCN have an

increased cancer risk. Biochemical functions of monoubiquitinated FANCD2/FANCI were

recently elucidated. In a cell-free system, this complex was required for nucleolytic incisions

near an interstrand cross-link and for translesion DNA synthesis past the cross-link. Thus, the

FA pathway was shown to be required for the generation of a new, partially processed DNA

substrate that can be further repaired by the downstream homologous recombination

machinery.105

Homologous Recombination

In repair by HR, sequences from a homologous DNA duplex are used to provide a template

for reconstruction of the damaged DNA segment.4,9 The template for repair can either be the

identical sister chromatid (the preferred substrate in mitotic cells) or the homologous

chromosome (the preferred substrate during meiosis). The classic HR pathway involves the

following basic steps (Fig. 2.5). DSBs are recognized by the MRN complex and by checkpoint

proteins as previously described. A 5′-3 exonuclease generates 3′ overhangs, which are then

coated with replication protein A (RPA). “Mediator” proteins such as BRCA2 or Rad52 then

facilitate the recruitment of Rad51-related proteins, which form filaments on the single-

stranded DNA, replacing RPA. A homology search ensues, followed by strand invasion and

DNA synthesis. The links between DNA strands (double Holliday junctions) can be resolved to

produce exchange between chromosomes (crossovers) or no exchange (non-crossovers).

Enzymes such as the RecQ helicase BLM, in conjunction with topoisomerase IIIα can resolve

these double Holliday junctions.106

Figure 2.5. Double-strand break (DSB) repair by homologous recombination and

nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ).

In homologous recombination (HR), DSBs are recognized by the MRN complex, among other

proteins. 5′-3′ exonuclease activity results in the generation of single-strand overhangs that

are coated with RPA. Mediator proteins such as BRCA2 and RAD52 stimulate assembly of a

RAD51 nucleoprotein filament complex that guides subsequent homology search and strand

invasion into the homologous strand (e.g., the identical sister chromatid in late S/G2 phase

and mitosis). Subsequent DNA synthesis and ligation results in the formation of

recombination intermediates that contain double Holliday junctions. These are resolved by

resolving enzymes such as the RecQ helicase BLM, in conjunction with topoisomerase 3α. The

process of NHEJ involves recognition of DSB ends by the Ku70-Ku80 heterodimer, with

subsequent recruitment of DNA-dependent protein kinase. DNA ends are then ligated

following recruitment of XRCC4 and DNA ligase 4.

Several other HR pathways also exist. A potentially important mechanism for cancer

development is break-induced replication (BIR).107 During BIR a broken chromosome end

invades a homologous site and replication proceeds to copy the entire sequence of the

template chromosome. This is relevant to cancer because it can result in large-scale LOH.

Furthermore, BIR is an important mechanism for healing breaks at chromosome ends

resulting from telomere attrition.108 Finally, in yeast, aging is accompanied by a switchlike

increase in mutagenesis and BIR after a certain number of generations.109

Disruption of recombination pathways produces complex effects that pose the danger of

chromosomal rearrangement due to the accumulation of recombination

intermediates.4,9 These are then channeled into alternate, often suboptimal, repair

pathways, increasing the potential for errors and rearrangements. Cancer-causing mutations

have been associated with multiple steps in HR. Given that RecQ helicases are particularly

important resolving enzymes in this process, their inactivation results in widespread

accumulation of recombination intermediates.106,110,111 Mutation of BLM results in Bloom

syndrome, a disease characterized by immunodeficiency, male sterility, dwarfism, skin

disorders, and a high incidence of both leukemia and solid tumors. In addition, the WRN

helicase was identified by virtue of its mutation in Werner syndrome, a disorder characterized

by premature aging, with early atherosclerosis, type 2 diabetes, osteoporosis, and age-

associated malignancies. Rothmund-Thomson syndrome is associated with mutation in the

related RecQ helicase RECQ4, and affected patients exhibit characteristic photosensitivity

with poikilodermatous skin changes, early alopecia and hair graying, juvenile cataracts,

growth deficiency, and an elevated frequency of malignancies such as osteogenic sarcomas.

RecQ helicases have also been shown to facilitate NHEJ, interact with components of the MMR

and BER machinery, and play an important role in telomere maintenance. The combination of

aging and cancer predisposition phenotypes associated with RecQ lesions provides yet

another example of the balance between the deleterious and growth-promoting effects of

genomic instability on developing cancer cells.

BRCA1 and BRCA2 are perhaps the most extensively studied cancer susceptibility genes

required for HR. They are mutated in familial breast and ovarian cancer syndromes and

represent key components of the response to DSBs and subsequent repair by HR.112–

114 BRCA1 forms a heterodimer with the structurally related protein BARD1, and as

previously described, forms a complex together with BRCA2, RAD51, and other proteins

involved in the regulation of repair by HR. Another large, multiprotein complex termed BASC

(BRCA1-associated genome surveillance complex) has been identified, containing tumor

suppressors, mismatch repair proteins, ATM, MRN, and BLM, with a presumed role in the

global sensing and coordinated response to DNA damage. BRCA1 has also been implicated in

S phase and G2/M checkpoint control, and in the organization of heterochromatin.

Mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 are associated with a 60% to 85% lifetime risk of developing

breast cancer and a 15% to 40% lifetime risk of developing ovarian cancer, although only 2%

to 3% of all breast cancer cases are associated with mutation in one of these genes.113 They

account for approximately 40% of cases of familial breast cancer, with mutations

in CHK2 and p53 responsible for an additional 5% and 1% of cases, respectively. Recently,

mutation in PALB2, which encodes a BRCA2-binding partner, has also been described in

familial breast cancer, and may contribute to inherited prostate cancer as well.115 PALB2 is

also identical to the Fanconi anemia gene FANCN. 116 Germ line biallelic mutations

in PALB2 or BRCA2 (FANCD1) result in Fanconi anemia.117

Although it is clear that mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 can destabilize the genome and

promote cancer susceptibility, it remains poorly understood which roles of these proteins are

specifically involved in tumor suppression and why patients with germ line defects primarily

develop breast and ovarian cancer. Somatic inactivation of BRCA1 and BRCA2 has been

reported in other tumor types such as colorectal cancer, as have defects in other components

of DSB repair such as ATM and FANC genes. A subset of sporadic breast cancer, defined by

lack of expression of the estrogen and progesterone receptors and absence

of HER2 amplification (termed triple-negative breast cancer) and a “basal-like” phenotype

shares strong similarities with the tumors that develop in patients with germ

line BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations. These sporadic basal-like cancers also exhibit defects in X

chromosome inactivation,118 and co-cluster with BRCA10-deficient breast cancers on

transcriptional arrays. Although these sporadic triple-negative breast cancers appear to have

normal BRCA1, these similarities have led to the suggestion that they may be defective at

another point within the BRCA1 pathway. Another possibility is that breast tissue selectively

accumulates genotoxins that induce a heightened requirement for BRCA1 and BRCA2.

Further study is needed to elucidate the mechanism behind the tissue-specific nature

of BRCA1 and BRCA2mutant cancer.

Nonhomologous End-Joining

Given that HR uses an identical sister chromatid as template to guide repair, in principle it

should be error-free.4,95,119,120 In yeast, where the genome lacks extensive repetitive

sequences, HR is indeed mostly error-free. However, in humans, where the genome contains

extensive repetitive sequences, HR poses the danger of repeat sequence recombination

resulting in gross chromosomal rearrangements. One factor that prevents this type of error is

that repair by HR is limited to late S and G2 phases of the cell cycle, after DNA replication.

Thus, HR predominantly occurs when a homologous template sequence is held in close

physical proximity to the break by the cohesion between sister chromatids. In humans and

other higher eukaryotes it appears that NHEJ is relatively more important than in other

organisms such as fungi. It seems that, at least in G1 cells, the small-scale errors generated

by NHEJ are less detrimental than the potential large-scale errors (deletions or translocations)

that could arise from HR. NHEJ involves direct end-joining of the broken double-strand DNA

ends, without a template for repair. Thus, NHEJ can occur during any phase of the cell cycle,

although it primarily occurs during G1 phase.

In the process of NHEJ, broken DNA ends are recognized by a heterodimer of Ku70/Ku80,

which recruits the catalytic subunit of DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) and the

Artemis nuclease120–122 (Fig.2.5). DNA-PK–mediated phosphorylation of Artemis facilitates

its activation and results in the processing of DNA ends in a subset of DSBs, contributing to

the error-prone nature of NHEJ. DNA ligation is subsequently mediated by a complex that

contains XRCC4 and DNA ligase IV. NHEJ is integrally involved in the V(D)J recombination and

class switching that occurs during normal lymphocyte maturation. During V(D)J

recombination and certain other physiologic settings, cleavage induced by the RAG nuclease

may generate regions of microhomology that allow for relatively precise end-joining.

While mutations in these core NHEJ components in mice cause severe immunologic defects,

apoptosis, and premature senescence of cultured fibroblasts, concomitant p53 inactivation

results in a high frequency of lymphomas with recurrent, clonal rearrangements.123 Certain

chromosome regions, such as the c-myc and the immunoglobulin heavy chain (IgH) loci, are

targeted in a recurrent fashion in these lymphomas, similar to common translocations

observed human lymphomas. These regions may contain specific sites that are recognized by

the RAG nuclease, and the initial cleavage combined with defective NHEJ may be responsible

for these aberrant chromosome fusions. Alternatively, NHEJ deficiency has been linked to

impaired telomere capping and end-to-end fusions, with so-called breakage-fusion-bridge

cycles (see later discussion) promoting translocations and gene amplifications. It is also

possible that fragile sites within these chromosomal loci and elsewhere throughout the

genome may account for the particular susceptibility of certain chromosome regions to

breakage and rearrangement.

Although there is abundant evidence that NHEJ defects can promote tumorigenesis in mouse

models—at least in the setting of concomitant p53 deficiency—there are few reports that

implicate NHEJ deficiency in human cancer. The reasons for this are unclear. Loss of NHEJ

may be cell-lethal in humans. Consistent with this idea, Artemis deficiency, which results in a

very restricted NHEJ defect, is observed in rare lymphoma-prone patients. Similarly, there is a

report of a ligase IV mutation in a leukemia patient.124However, it may also be the case that

more human tumors need to be carefully characterized for subtle mutations,

haploinsufficiency, and epigenetic silencing.

Telomere Maintenance

Telomeres, the structures at the ends of chromosomes composed of repetitive sequences

and a 3′ G-strand overhang, are key mediators of genomic instability.125 In humans,

telomerase is expressed at low to undetectable levels in somatic tissues, leading to an age-

dependent compromise of telomere integrity and resultant telomere dysfunction. By contrast,

telomerase is expressed in many tumors, resulting in stabilization of telomere length and

restoration of capping function. The activation of telomerase expression during cancer

progression supports the idea that telomere dysfunction contributes to chromosome

instability during a specific window in oncogenesis.126,127 For example, telomerase activity

is low in small and intermediate-sized colon polyps, and high in late adenomas and colorectal

carcinomas, consistent with the observation that CIN arises early during colorectal

tumorigenesis, at a time of short telomere length. Furthermore, telomere shortening as a

consequence of cell turnover in the setting of chronic inflammatory states such as

hepatocellular cirrhosis may contribute to chromosome instability and carcinogenesis in

these settings. Conversely, the lack of complex karyotypes in many lymphomas may be

related to early activation of telomerase in the setting of the frequent dysregulation of Myc, a

positive regulator of telomerase expression.128

Studies of mice deficient in telomerase activity have yielded powerful evidence that telomere

dysfunction can drive chromosomal instability and epithelial carcinogenesis. Strongly

reminiscent of the shift in tumor spectrum to epithelial malignancies on aging humans, aging

mice deficient in telomerase and heterozygous for mutant p53 exhibit carcinomas of the

breast, colon, and skin.128 Such tumors are exceedingly rare in wild type mice, which

primarily develop sarcomas and hematopoietic malignancies. Moreover, the presence of

cytogenetic profiles similar to human carcinomas supports a role for telomere dysfunction in

epithelial carcinogenesis. A breakage-fusion-bridge cycle is believed to be responsible for

chromosomal fragmentation and the nonreciprocal translocations observed in such tumors

(Fig. 2.6). With progressive erosion of telomeres, unprotected chromatid ends can undergo

end-to-end fusion, with the formation of a dicentric chromosome. During mitosis, the fused

chromosome ends form anaphase bridges as sister centromeres are pulled to opposite

centrosomes, resulting in chromosome breakage. The further generation of atelomeric

chromosomes by this process can result in propagation of breakage-fusion-bridge

mechanisms and continued chromosome instability. In addition to generating translocations,

this form of genetic instability can also result in amplifications and deletions.129,130 The

observation that mouse epithelial tumors in this model exhibit amplified and deleted regions

syntenic to those seen in human carcinomas lends further support to the notion of

chromosomal fragile sites that may be conserved between species.

Figure 2.6. Breakage-fusion-bridge cycle.

In the setting of telomere dysfunction and uncapping of chromosome ends, telomeric fusions

may occur between identical sister chromatids or between different chromosomes

(dicentrics). During anaphase, as sister chromatids are pulled to opposite poles, the fused

chromosome ends are placed under tension and form anaphase bridges. These pulling forces

result in chromosome breaks that contribute to deletions, amplifications, and translocations.

In addition, because of the further generation of unprotected chromosome ends, the cycle

may be repeated.

More recently, key regulatory elements of telomere structure have been implicated in

genomic instability and tumorigenesis.131,132 TRF2, an important regulator of telomere

protection and telomere length, is overexpressed in a variety of epithelial malignancies,

including lung, skin, and breast cancer, and has been shown to interact with a number of

DNA repair proteins, such as the MRN complex, the WRN and BLM helicases, DNA-PK, PARP,

and ERCC1/XPF. Moreover, mice develop an XP-like syndrome when TRF2 is expressed in the

skin at high levels, with UV-induced skin cancer, severe telomere shortening, and

chromosomal instability.133 Concomitant telomerase inactivation in these mice dramatically

accelerates carcinogenesis, with TRF2 promoting recombination at telomeres and de-

repression of pathways that lead to alternative lengthening of telomeres (ALT).131 ALT

involves recombination between telomeres as an alternative means of telomere extension

and is operative in a small minority of tumors that are telomerase-negative. Taken together,

these studies identify a fundamental role for telomeres and their regulatory proteins in the

genesis of chromosome abnormalities and epithelial malignancies.

Telomerase may also play important roles beyond telomere maintenance in the regulation of

genome stability.134 It is expressed at low levels during S phase in normal cells, and

targeted disruption of hTERT, the catalytic subunit of telomerase, has been shown to impair

heterochromatin formation on a global level and to disrupt the response to DNA damage in

normal human fibroblasts.134,135 These results are consistent with the emerging ties

between regulators of telomere maintenance, heterochromatin structure, and components of

DNA damage response.136–138 In addition, they lend further support to the idea that stem

cells, which express higher levels of telomerase than their differentiated progeny, are

protected from genomic injury. It is important to note, however, that telomerase-deficient

mice are viable and do not exhibit significant phenotypic defects until later generations. The

specific role of telomerase in chromatin maintenance and the DNA damage response remains

to be elucidated, and the reason it is down-regulated in association with cell differentiation

remains to be determined.

The role of telomere dysfunction in promoting cancer is further supported by findings in a

rare genetic disorder, dyskeratosis congenita (DC). DC is a progressive bone marrow failure

syndrome that is classically associated with the clinical triad of abnormal skin pigmentation,

leukoplakia, and nail dystrophy. X-linked DC is caused by mutations in dyskerin, which leads

to reduced levels of TERC and telomerase activity. Autosomal dominant DC can be caused by

mutations in TERT, TERC, or the telomere binding protein TRF1-interacting nuclear factor 2.

Autosomal recessive DC can be caused by mutations in the dyskerin-associated proteins

NHP2 and NOP10. In all cases, patients have very short germ line telomeres. In addition to

bone marrow failure, patients with DC are also prone to develop myelodysplastic syndrome,

leukemia, and solid tumors. Thus, telomere-shortening syndromes in humans recapitulate the

impaired maintenance of proliferative tissues and the tumor predisposition seen in

telomerase-knockout mice.

What Causes Chromosomal Instability and Whole-Chromosome

Aneuploidy?

Chromosomal instability (CIN), defined as a persistently high rate of loss and gain of whole

chromosomes, is a common characteristic of many cancers. CIN, or the “rate” of karyotypic

change, should be distinguished from aneuploidy, or the “state” of the karyotype. Although

CIN leads to aneuploidy, not all aneuploid tumors exhibit CIN; some tumors are aneuploid

with a uniform, stable karyotype. The first breakthrough in understanding the mechanisms of

CIN came from studying different colon cancer cell lines that exhibited either a CIN or MIN

phenotype.139 In a single-cell cloning assay, the colon cancer cell lines with MIN maintained

a stable chromosome content, but the aneuploid colon carcinoma cells exhibited deviations

from the modal chromosome number, indicating the presence of CIN. The fusion of MIN and

CIN cells resulted in hybrid cells that retained the CIN phenotype, suggesting that the

mechanisms that cause CIN act in dominant fashion. Subsequent work demonstrated that a

compromised spindle assembly checkpoint could result in CIN.140

Chromosome Cohesion Defects

Accurate chromosome segregation is achieved through carefully orchestrated interactions

between the mitotic spindle, kinetochores, and cohesin.11,29 Replicated chromosomes

attach to the spindle microtubules via the kinetochore, an organelle that is assembled onto

centromeric chromatin. Prior to anaphase, replicated sister chromatids are held together by

cohesin, a protein ring that physically links the sisters.141,142 The detailed molecular

mechanism of how cohesin holds sisters together is a topic of much current

research.143 Most cohesin is lost from chromosome arms prior to metaphase in a manner

that requires the Polo and Aurora B kinase. Centromere cohesion is then lost after anaphase

onset, a direct consequence of the protease separase cleaving a cohesin subunit (Fig. 2.7).

Recently, mutations in genes involved in sister chromatid cohesion, including subunits of the

cohesion complex, were identified in colorectal tumors through the sequencing of human

homologues of genes known to cause CIN in budding yeast.144 The frequency and functional

consequences of these mutations has not yet been tested experimentally. Additional

evidence suggesting a role for the disruption of cohesion in the development of CIN comes

from data demonstrating that some breast cancer tumors, as well as osteosarcoma and

prostate tumors, express high levels of separase.145–147 Although, in theory, excessive

separase could cause premature chromatid disjunction and subsequent chromosome mis-

segregation events, the significance of this mechanism in generation of CIN has not been

definitively established.

Figure 2.7. Spindle checkpoint.

During metaphase, paired sister chromatids attach to the bipolar mitotic spindle apparatus at

kinetochores, organelles that are assembled onto centromeric chromatin. Sister chromatids

are held together by a cohesin, a protein ring that physically links them together.

Kinetochores that remain unattached to the spindle catalyze the formation of an active MAD2

complex (“wait” anaphase signal) that binds and inhibits CDC20. Once the final kinetochore

is occupied by the spindle, the wait anaphase signal is lost, and CDC20 activates the

anaphase-promoting complex to ubiquitinate substrates such as cyclin B and securin. The

resultant proteasomal degradation of securin releases the enzyme separase to cleave

cohesin and allow for sister chromatid separation under the tension of the mitotic spindle.

Spindle Assembly Checkpoint Defects

Attachment of kinetochores to microtubules is monitored by the spindle checkpoint

(Fig. 2.7).29,148,149A number of spindle checkpoint proteins have been identified, initially

via screens in budding yeast, and include MAD1, MAD2, BUB1, BUBR1, BUB3, and a BUB3-

related protein RAE1. Although mutations in these spindle assembly checkpoint proteins do

occur in human tumors it appears to be a relatively rare event, as discussed in the next

section.150 To prevent chromosome mis-segregation, the spindle checkpoint proteins bind to

kinetochores that are improperly attached to the spindle and form a “stop” or “wait”

anaphase signal. Ultimately the wait anaphase signal prevents cleavage of cohesin by

separase. This involves a cascade of events that include activation of spindle checkpoint

proteins at the kinetochore, diffusion of the activated signal throughout the cell, and binding

of spindle checkpoint proteins to CDC20, which is the key activator of the E3 ubiquitin ligase

complex, the APC. Once all kinetochores are attached to the spindle, the wait anaphase

signal is lost and CDC20 is released. Activated APC then triggers mitotic cyclin degradation,

separase activation, and cohesin cleavage. How this checkpoint signal is rapidly reversed is

poorly understood.

It is important to note that although some CIN cell lines have a defective spindle assembly

checkpoint (SAC), several live-cell imaging studies have demonstrated that most CIN cells

actually have an intact and functional checkpoint.151–153 Likewise, in another study, both

diploid and CIN cells underwent mitotic arrest in response to spindle poisons with equal

efficiency.151

Kinetochore-Microtubule Attachment Defects

Attachment of kinetochores to microtubules is necessary but not sufficient for proper

chromosome segregation. The spindle checkpoint is also activated if kinetochores are

attached but not under proper tension, an indication of successful biorientation.154 Improper

kinetochore-microtubule attachments that are not under normal tension are disassembled by

a mechanism involving phosphorylation of kinetochore proteins by the Aurora B

kinase.155,156 Recent work has shown that phosphorylation of an Aurora B substrate at the

kinetochore depends on its distance from the kinase at the inner centromere. Repositioning

Aurora B closer to the kinetochore prevents stabilization of bioriented attachments and

activates the spindle checkpoint. Thus, centromere tension can be sensed by increased

spatial separation of Aurora B from kinetochore substrates, which reduces phosphorylation

and stabilizes kinetochore microtubules.157

The efficient correction of microtubule-kinetochore attachment errors requires the release of

incorrectly attached microtubules. Thus, interactions that inappropriately stabilize

microtubule attachments might be expected to increase chromosome mis-segregation errors

and generate CIN. In fact, recent work demonstrated that kinetochore-microtubule

attachments were more stable in cancer cells with CIN than in a noncancerous, diploid cell

line.158 Furthermore, increasing the stability of kinetochore-microtubule attachments in the

diploid cell line was sufficient to cause chromosome segregation defects at levels comparable

to those in cancer cells with CIN. Conversely, overexpression of proteins that cause increased

kinetochore-microtubule dynamics was sufficient to restore stability to chromosomally

unstable tumor cell lines.159 This work demonstrates that the temporal control of

microtubule attachments to chromosomes during mitosis is central to genome stability in

human cells.

Supernumerary Centrosomes

CIN is also known to be correlated with extra centrosomes. Although this relationship was

long-standing, it was not until recently that a mechanism was proposed to link these two

common characteristics of cancer cells. Early theories hypothesized that extra centrosomes

generate CIN by promoting a multipolar anaphase, which results in three or more aneuploid

daughter cells. Recent long-term, live-cell imaging experiments, however, revealed that cells

with extra chromosomes typically cluster the extra chromosomes during mitosis to ensure

that anaphase occurs with a bipolar spindle.160–164 The imaging also demonstrated,

though, that these cells with extra centrosomes had a significantly increased frequency of

lagging chromosomes during anaphase. Further analysis revealed that these segregation

errors were a result of the cells with supernumerary centrosomes passing through a transient

“multipolar spindle intermediate” in which merotelic kinetochore-microtubule attachment

errors accumulated before centrosome clustering and anaphase (Fig. 2.8). Merotely, a

conformation where a single kinetochore is attached to microtubules arising from opposite

spindle poles, was previously known to generate lagging chromosomes during anaphase and

cause chromosome segregation errors.165,166 The results of these live-cell imaging

experiments, consequently, provide a direct mechanistic link between extra centrosomes and

CIN, two common characteristics of solid tumors. Thus, for chromosome segregation, “CIN

geometry” may be as important as “CIN genes.”

Figure 2.8. A mechanism linking extra centrosomes to chromosomal instability.

The first cell illustrates a cancer cell with extra centrosomes undergoing a multipolar

metaphase. Note that the geometry predisposes to “merotelic” attachments (see

chromosome in the middle) where a single chromatid forms attachments to different spindle

poles. The second cell illustrates the clustering of centrosomes, which is required for cancer

cell survival. Note that the merotelic attachment persists and does not activate the spindle

assembly checkpoint. Cell three has undergone anaphase and the merotelic attachment

results in a lagging chromosome. Lastly, daughter cells are illustrated with resulting

aneuploidy.

Does Whole-Chromosome Aneuploidy Cause Cancer?

Whole chromosome losses or gains are very common in human cancer.73 Although the

specific gains or losses vary from tumor to tumor, some changes are recurrent in a given

tumor type. For example, the gain of chromosome 3 or 3q is reportedly as common in

cervical cancer as the Philadelphia chromosome is in chronic myelogenous

leukemia.167 Likewise, glioblastomas frequently exhibit loss of chromosome 10 and

melanomas often show gain of chromosome 7. Despite the fact that whole chromosome loss

or gain is frequently observed in both solid and hematologic malignancies, a causal role for

aneuploidy in cancer progression has been controversial.168,169

The identification of germ line mutations in the gene encoding BUBR1 in the disease mosaic

variegated aneuploidy has provided the strongest evidence for a causal link between

aneuploidy and cancer in humans because patients with this disorder exhibit growth

retardation, microcephaly, and multiple childhood malignancies. Premature chromatid

separation is frequently seen in more than 50% of lymphocytes from patients with mosaic

variegated aneuploidy and many tissues exhibit more than 25% aneuploid cells. Mutations in

other components of the spindle assembly checkpoint, including MAD1 and MAD2, have also

been described in sporadic cancers and cell lines. Deregulated expression of spindle

checkpoint proteins is potentially more common in tumors, but it is always difficult to know

which cells to compare with the tumor cells.

Mouse models support the notion that spindle checkpoint misregulation can contribute to

tumorigenesis.150,170–172 However, they also illustrate that there is no simple one-to-one

correspondence between checkpoint defects and cancer. Homozygous null mutations in

spindle checkpoint genes are early embryonic-lethal. Heterozygous wild type/null animals are

viable, but display increased aneuploidy. This illustrates an important point that partial loss of

spindle checkpoint function is biologically significant. Although heterozygous checkpoint

mouse models do not display a dramatic increase in spontaneous tumors, many models

display an increase in tumors after carcinogen exposure. Overexpression of MAD2, which is

commonly observed in sporadic tumors and can result from RB inactivation, causes extensive

chromosomal abnormalities associated with a wide variety of tumors in mice.173,174 Over

50% of mice engineered to overexpress MAD2 exhibit tumors including hepatocellular

carcinomas, lung adenomas, fibrosarcomas, and lymphomas. Furthermore, MAD2 is not

required for tumor maintenance in this setting, as restoration of normal MAD2 levels had no

effect on subsequent tumor progression. This observation is consistent with the idea

that MAD2 overexpression triggers genetic instability during an early phase of tumor

development, promoting subsequent self-sufficiency in tumor growth.

However, at least in theory, spindle checkpoint genes, including MAD2, may have additional

functions outside mitosis, making it difficult to isolate a primary mitotic defect as the cause of

tumor formation in these mice. This issue has been addressed by targeted deletion of CENP-

E, a kinetochore-associated motor protein that is specifically expressed during mitosis.

Heterozygous loss of CENP-E results in an age-dependent increase in aneuploidy in mice, with

associated formation of splenic lymphomas and benign lung tumors.175 Nonetheless, CENP-E

heterozygosity also inhibits tumor formation in the setting of p19ARF loss, suggesting that

aneuploidy can act both oncogenically and as a tumor suppressor depending on the genetic

context. The tumor-suppressing effect of aneuploidy likely reflects the fitness cost from gene

expression imbalance.176,177 Consistent with this idea, mice with significantly reduced

BUBR1 display an array of early aging phenotypes: reduced lifespan, cachectic dwarfism,

muscle atrophy, cataracts, and infertility.170

An additional, facile way to accumulate whole-chromosome aneuploidy is via a tetraploid

intermediate.178–180 Interestingly, many studies have linked tetraploidy to tumorigenesis. A

number of cell-division defects can lead to cytokinesis failure and tetraploidy: errors in DNA

replication or repair, or errors in spindle function and chromosome segregation. Mitotic

defects lead to spindle checkpoint activation, but cells eventually recover and fail cytokinesis

in the face of persistent chromosome segregation errors. This phenomenon is known

as mitotic slippage. Recent work has also identified a pathway linking telomere damage to

tetrapoloidy.181 Persistent telomere dysfunction in p53-deficient cells activates an ATM/ATR

and Chk1/Chk2 signaling cascade that blocks entry into mitosis and extends G2. Eventually,

the cells switch to a state resembling G1 in which the DNA replication inhibitor geminin,

which prevents re-replication in G2, is degraded and Cdt1, which is required for origin

licensing, is re-expressed. Thus, in the face of persistent telomere or other DNA damage,

cells skip mitosis entirely and “endocycle” between G1 and S phase, producing tetraploid

cells. Cell fusion is also an additional mechanism by which tetraploidy is generated.

It has been hypothesized that the presence of an additional complement of normal

chromosomes may enhance fitness by buffering against the effects of deleterious mutations.

In addition, tetraploidy itself may enhance genomic instability by the presence of extra

centrosomes. As previously described, work has shown that extra centrosomes promote CIN

and chromosome mis-segregation through a transient multipolar spindle

intermediate.161,162 Further evidence for this tetraploid intermediate model has also come

from the study of progressive dysplasia in Barrett’s esophagus, which reveals that early loss

ofp53 is correlated with the development of tetraploidy and subsequent

aneuploidy.182 Moreover, experimental inhibition of cytokinesis in p53-null cells results in

the generation of whole-chromosome aneuploidy, chromosome rearrangements, and rapid

tumor formation in a mouse breast cancer model.179 Finally, recent studies suggest that

genetic inhibition of cytokinesis or viral induction of cell fusion can promote tumorigenesis.

Finally, aneuploidy associated with APC loss has been shown to result from a combination of

defects in mitosis and apoptosis that results in an early stage of tetraploidy and

polyploidy.183,184 Given that APC loss occurs early in colorectal cancer development and is

associated with the majority of the 85% of sporadic cancers with CIN, it is possible that

genomic instability in this setting is related to the formation of a tetraploid

intermediates.86 However, this remains an open issue because little genomic instability has

been detected at early stages in APC-deficient mouse models.185 Finally, the mechanism by

whichMAD2 overexpression generates aneuploidy appears to involve mitotic slippage,

resulting in the formation of tetraploid cells.173 Because RB pathway inactivation is

fundamental to tumorigenesis, it is possible that associated up-regulation of MAD2 promotes

aneuploidy more generally in cancer cells via the production of unstable tetraploid cells.

What is the Mechanism of Tumorigenesis?

There are multiple theories of how whole-chromosome aneuploidy could promote

tumorigenesis. Extra copies of chromosomes could provide an advantage under certain

selective pressures by increasing the expression of a single gene, or a combination of

multiple genes on the aneuploid chromosome. This type of mechanism has been described

for budding yeast to adapt to defects in cytokinesis, as well as the acquisition of drug

resistance by Candida albicans.186,187 An alternative explanation for the tumor-promoting

activity of aneuploidy is that the extra chromosomes buffer cancer cells against the effects of

deleterious mutations in essential and haploinsufficient genes.

Another theory proposes that the driving force of tumorigenesis is the inherent instability of

aneuploid karyotypes.169 According to this theory, a chromosome mis-segregation event,

which is initiated by either a carcinogen or spontaneously, generates additional karyotypic

evolution by destabilizing the proteins that segregate, synthesize, and repair chromosomes.

Sporadically, such evolutions generate new cancer-causing karyotypes, which are stabilized

by selection for their oncogenic function. Thus, in this model, CIN is generated in an

autocatalytic fashion. A variation on this theme suggests that aneuploidy can cause protein

imbalances that generate additional, non–whole-chromosome genomic instability, such as the

acquisition of transforming mutations. In support of this model, structural chromosome

abnormalities, such as nonreciprocal translocations, dicentric chromosomes, and double-

minute chromosomes, are often noted alongside numerical chromosome abnormalities.179 It

is unclear, though, whether these structural rearrangements are directly linked to the mis-

segregation events.

Aneuploidy may also contribute to tumorigenesis through loss of heterozygosity. The possible

roles for LOH in tumorigenesis include the duplication of oncogenes, loss of tumor

suppressors, or acquisition of improper epigenetic patterns.77 As discussed earlier, it has

been demonstrated in mice that Bub1 insufficiency can drive tumor formation through tumor

suppressor gene LOH.78

Perspectives and Implications for Cancer Therapeutics

Oncogenesis represents an evolutionary process by which cells acquire successive genetic

alterations that facilitate growth, survival, and ultimately properties that allow for

dissemination to distant sites. Genomic instability can facilitate tumor development by

accelerating the accumulation of such growth-promoting mutations, but this potentially

comes with the cost of acquiring deleterious mutations that can impair fitness. Thus, the

outcome of genomic instability can be cancer, but it can also be tissue degeneration, cell

death, and aging. As detailed in this chapter, a wide variety of mechanisms can result in the

generation of genomic instability. At one end of the spectrum, mutations in proteins such as

the RecQ helicases, which play critical roles in normal genome maintenance, result in

predominantly degenerative disease, manifesting premature aging phenotypes in addition to

cancer development. On the other hand, mutations in mismatch repair genes, such

as MLH1, MSH2, and BRCA, which have more limited and overlapping roles in the DNA

damage response, result in normal development but a tissue-specific predisposition to

cancer. Thus, destabilization of the genome can vary in the degree to which cancer

promotion or tissue degeneration is favored. A major challenge for the field now is to

elucidate the specific mechanisms and genetic interactions that tip the balance in one

direction or the other.

Another important consideration is whether conditions leading to genomic instability are

present in cancers at diagnosis or are transient, hit-and-run events. For example, inherited

cancer syndrome mutations such as mismatch repair gene defects in HNPCC can speed up

the acquisition of critical growth-promoting mutations, but, once transformed, the fitness of

the tumor cells may be compromised by the ongoing mutator phenotype. Likewise, in

sporadic tumors, loss of repair proteins such as ERCC1 in NSCLC may initially promote

tumorigenesis, but the presence of these defects in mature tumors may provide a point of

attack for certain chemotherapeutic agents. For instance, recent studies suggest the ERCC1-

deficient lung tumors are more sensitive to the cytotoxic agent cisplatin.92 However, some

genome-destabilizing events are transient. For instance, some FANC genes are methylated

and silenced early in cancer progression, leading to genomic instability.188 However, later in

tumorigenesis, these genes may be reactivated, resulting in a tumor with a stable genome.

Also, although short telomeres can produce a crisis accompanied by gross chromosomal

rearrangements, rampant aneuploidy is suppressed by telomerase re-expression. Similarly,

cytokinesis failure and tetraploidy may be transient early events. If the major genome

destabilization is transient, cancer cells may be aneuploid, but stably aneuploid. Indeed, it is

fairly common for every cell in an aneuploid tumor to have the same abnormal karyotype;

metastases and recurrences can have the same abnormal karyotype as the primary tumor.

Ill-defined adaptations may enable many tumors to tolerate their altered genomes.

Understanding the mechanisms of genome destabilization that are operative in specific

tumors will likely have important consequences for cancer therapeutics. Traditional cytotoxic

chemotherapy combinations have largely been derived empirically. Many cytotoxic agents,

such as platinum chemotherapies, induce cancer cell killing through DNA damage, with a

therapeutic window that is relatively narrow. Tumor cell killing is at least in part correlated

with p53 expression and the ability of cancer cells to undergo apoptosis in response to

damaging agents. Indeed, the recent observation that restoration of wild typep53 function in

mouse models of oncogenesis induces spontaneous tumor regression highlights the fact that

some tumors become “addicted” to p53 loss.18,189 However, the heterogeneity of response

within tumor types also suggests that genome-destabilizing mutations present in the cancer

genome may sensitize certain subtypes to specific cytotoxic agents. The apparent sensitivity

of ERCC1-deficient NSCLC to platinum-based chemotherapy highlights this

point.92 Moreover, topoisomerase I inhibitors such as the camptothecins have been shown to

have enhanced sensitivity in the setting of defects in the multiple protein components that

respond to DSBs.190 Similarly, spindle checkpoint defects, if they become fixed in cancer cell

populations, may modulate the response to microtubule-based agents such as taxanes and

vinca alkaloids.191,192

This idea, in which defects in one pathway facilitate sensitivity to DNA-damaging agents, or

alternatively, predispose to cell death in response to targeted inhibition of another pathway,

relates to the concept of synthetic lethality.193,194 Originally defined in yeast, extension of

this concept to targeted cancer therapy may ultimately result in improved selective cancer

cell killing with a wider therapeutic window. An elegant example of this approach has been

demonstrated in vitro for BRCA1- and BRCA2-deficient cells.93,94 Deficiency or inhibition of

PARP1 in normal cells results in impairment of the BER response, causing lesions that would

normally be repaired by BER to be channeled into the HR pathway. Exposure of cells

lacking BRCA1 and BRCA2 to PARP inhibition results in the lethal accumulation of DNA

damage. Thus, PARP inhibition appears to be selectively toxic for BRCA-deficient cancer cells,

with potential efficacy in other contexts in which HR or even other types of DNA damage

responses are impaired.

The profound sensitivity of BRCA mutant cells to PARP inhibition has led to the development

of a number of clinical trials to test the efficiency of this approach.195 A recent phase 1 study

reported that the orally active PARP inhibitor olaparib (AZD2281) is well tolerated and has

few of the adverse effects associated with conventional chemotherapy.196 Furthermore,

objective antitumor activity was reported in patients with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations, all of

whom had ovarian, breast, or prostate cancer. PARP inhibitors are also being used in

combination regimens, as inhibition of PARP can potentiate the effects of numerous DNA-

damaging agents, such as temozolomide and irinotecan.

The concept of synthetic lethality has also been applied to tumors harboring mutations in

PTEN, MSH2, VHL, and RAS.197–201 The work with RAS, for example, suggests that targeting

the NF-κB signaling pathway might be one strategy to treat K-RAS mutant

tumors.200 Furthermore, this concept might be further generalizable. For example, certain

genes in yeast are required for the survival of polyploid cells, with deletion of these genes

resulting in so-called ploidy-specific lethality.202 Identification of similar targets in human

cancer cells may facilitate the design of targeted agents that selectively impair the growth of

tumors with increased numbers of chromosomes or centrosomes.203

Finally, the advent of genomic technologies and large-scale characterization of cancer

genomes will allow for a more refined view of carcinogenesis and enhanced subclassification

of tumors. Knowledge of genome-destabilizing pathways that promote oncogenesis but

impair fitness in specific tumors may eventually allow better tailoring of therapies in

individual patients.

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