Chapter 2

Concepts For Social And Cultural Theories Key Terms

SocietyA relatively self-sufficient and self-sustaining group of people who are united by social relationships and who live in a particular territory.

Social structureA characteristic of a group rather than of an individual.

Stratification The unequal distribution of rewards (or of things perceived as valuable) among members of a society; the class structure.

Classes Groups of people who share a similar position in the stratification system.

Mobility, upward and downwardA change of position within the stratification system.

Status The position or rank of a person or group within the stratification structure.

Achieved statusA position gained on the basis of merit (in other words by achievement).

Ascribed status A position assigned to individuals or groups without regard for merit but because of certain traits beyond their control, such as race, sex, or parental social standing.

The strength of weak tiesMark Granovetter’s proposition that, for purposes of spreading information, weak ties are stronger, or more effective, than strong ones.

Tie Another word for a link or a relationship among persons or groups.

Redundant tie One that duplicates links among members of the same network.

Structural holes Unlinked pairs that show up on network diagrams as blank space.

Bridge ties Links across holes between groups.

Bridge position One having bridge ties.

Local networks Dense networks with strong, redundant ties. They are called local because members often engage in the direct, person-to-person interaction that is necessary to form and sustain strong ties. Hence, members tend to be clustered geographically.

Cosmopolitan networksNetworks that are relatively full of holes, consisting of weaker, nonredundant ties. The word cosmopolitan means worldly, at home throughout throughout the world, or widely distributed. Hence, members of a cosmopolitan network seldom engage in face-to-face interaction and tend to be scattered geographically.

Culture The sum total of human creations—intellectual, technical, artistic, physical, and moral. Culture is the complex pattern of living that directs human social life, the things each new generation must learn and to which they eventually may add.

Values Ideals or ultimate aims; general evaluative standards about what is desirable.

Norms Rules that define the behavior that is expected, required, or acceptable in particular circumstances.

Role A set of expectations governing the behavior of persons holding a particular position in society; a set of norms that defines how persons in a particular position should behave.

Multiculturalism The presence of several significant cultures.

Subculture A culture within a culture; a group that maintains or develops its own set of beliefs, morals, values, and norms, which usually are at variance with those of the dominant culture.

Prejudice Negative or hostile attitudes toward and beliefs about a group.

Discrimination Actions taken against a group to deny its members rights and privileges available to others.

Assimilation The process by which an individual or a group reacts to a new social environment by adopting the culture prevalent in that environment.

Accommodation An agreement between two groups to ignore some cultural differences between them and emphasize common interests instead.

Modernization The processes of industrialization, economic development, and technological innovation by which a culture sustains high standards of living and maximizes control over the physical environment.

Globalization The development of global communications, a global economy, and a global culture. anti-Semitism Prejudice and discrimination against Jews.

Reference group A group a person uses as a standard for self-evaluation.