Chapter 2Chapter 2

Biochemistry: The Chemical Biochemistry: The Chemical Composition of Living MatterComposition of Living Matter

Chemistry VocabularyChemistry Vocabulary IonsIons are atoms that have lost or gained an electron and are atoms that have lost or gained an electron and

therefore are charged + or –therefore are charged + or – Ex. HEx. H++ , Na , Na++ and Cl and Cl ––

ElectrolytesElectrolytes are substances that release ions when are substances that release ions when dissolved in water and can conduct electricity.dissolved in water and can conduct electricity.

Acids and bases are electrolytesAcids and bases are electrolytes AcidsAcids release H release H++ (hydrogen ions) in water (hydrogen ions) in water

Ex. HCl Ex. HCl H H++ + Cl + Cl ––

BasesBases release ions that bond with hydrogen ions release ions that bond with hydrogen ions Ex. NaOH Ex. NaOH Na Na++ + OH + OH--

More BiochemistryMore Biochemistry pHpH- value that measures hydrogen ion (H- value that measures hydrogen ion (H++) concentration) concentration pH scale ranges from 0-14pH scale ranges from 0-14

pH of blood ranges 7.35-7.45 (7.4 avg)pH of blood ranges 7.35-7.45 (7.4 avg) Major organs involved in regulating pH are the lungs and the Major organs involved in regulating pH are the lungs and the

kidneys.kidneys. ↓ ↓ 7.35 –acidosis ↑7.45 –alkalosis7.35 –acidosis ↑7.45 –alkalosis Causes of acidosis-Lung disease can cause acidosis (changes in Causes of acidosis-Lung disease can cause acidosis (changes in

COCO22 concentration); kidney disease, electrolyte disturbances, concentration); kidney disease, electrolyte disturbances, diarrhea, severe vomitingdiarrhea, severe vomiting

Causes of alkalosis-Lung disease; disorders that affect HCOCauses of alkalosis-Lung disease; disorders that affect HCO33--

concentrationconcentration We can’t survive this state for more than a few hours!We can’t survive this state for more than a few hours!

Inorganic Compounds: SaltsInorganic Compounds: Salts

Salts are composed of oppositely charged ionsSalts are composed of oppositely charged ions Ex. NaEx. Na++Cl Cl –– (NaCl) sodium chloride-table salt (NaCl) sodium chloride-table salt

Salts are abundant in tissues and fluidsSalts are abundant in tissues and fluids They provide many necessary ions that are They provide many necessary ions that are

important in metabolic processesimportant in metabolic processes Ex. Transporting substances in & out of cellsEx. Transporting substances in & out of cells Ex. Muscle contractions and nerve impulse Ex. Muscle contractions and nerve impulse

conductionsconductions Ex. NaEx. Na+, +, Cl Cl –, –, KK++, HCO, HCO33

--(bicarbonate), PO(bicarbonate), PO443-3-(phosphate)(phosphate)

Inorganic Compounds: WaterInorganic Compounds: Water Most abundant compound in the bodyMost abundant compound in the body Accounts for 2/3 of body weightAccounts for 2/3 of body weight Important properties that make water so vital:Important properties that make water so vital:

High heat capacity-absorbs/releaseHigh heat capacity-absorbs/release and transports heat and transports heat Polarity/solvent properties-Polarity/solvent properties- universal solvent universal solvent Chemical reactivity-Chemical reactivity- hydrolysis rxns to help digest foods or hydrolysis rxns to help digest foods or

breakdown biological moleculesbreakdown biological molecules Hydrolysis is the breaking down of a chemical compound Hydrolysis is the breaking down of a chemical compound

into two or more simpler compounds by reacting with water. into two or more simpler compounds by reacting with water. The proteins, fats, and complex carbohydrates in food are The proteins, fats, and complex carbohydrates in food are broken down in the body by hydrolysis that is catalyzed by broken down in the body by hydrolysis that is catalyzed by enzymes in the digestive tract.enzymes in the digestive tract.

Cushioning-Cushioning-protecting fluids( cerebrospinal fluid in brain and protecting fluids( cerebrospinal fluid in brain and amniotic fluid (developing fetus)amniotic fluid (developing fetus)

Organic Compounds: CarbohydratesOrganic Compounds: Carbohydrates•Includes sugars and starches.

•Contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen•Monosaccharides (simple sugars)-composed of only a single chain or single ring structure.

•Glucose (blood sugar), fructose and galactose are examples of monosaccharides•

Carbohydrates continuedCarbohydrates continued•Disaccharides- formed when two simple sugars joined by a dehydration synthesis reaction, which is a reaction that involves the loss of water from the reacting molecule

Ex. Sucrose (table sugar)-formed when glucose + fructose combines

-Lactose( milk sugar)= glucose + galactose

Glycogen, a polysaccharide, is made up of tens or hundreds of glucose units and is the storage form of carbohydrate in the human body.

Lipids-(Fats)Lipids-(Fats)

They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but a much smaller proportion of oxygen atoms than a much smaller proportion of oxygen atoms than carbohydrates.carbohydrates.

They are used to primarily store energy for They are used to primarily store energy for cellular activities.cellular activities.

Fat molecules can supply more energy, gram for Fat molecules can supply more energy, gram for gram, than carbohydrate molecules. gram, than carbohydrate molecules.

They are non polar and most are hydrophobic They are non polar and most are hydrophobic (insoluble in water).(insoluble in water).

The building blocks of fat molecules are The building blocks of fat molecules are fatty acidsfatty acids and and glycerol.glycerol.

Fatty acids

Family of LipidsFamily of Lipids Triglycerides (fats and oils)Triglycerides (fats and oils) PhospholipidsPhospholipids SteroidsSteroids Fatty acidsFatty acids Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K)Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) Eicosanoids- prostaglandins and leukotrienes- Eicosanoids- prostaglandins and leukotrienes-

which regulate body processes such as which regulate body processes such as inflammation, temp regulation, platelet plug inflammation, temp regulation, platelet plug formation, allergic, and immune response, formation, allergic, and immune response, glandular secretions and reproductive processesglandular secretions and reproductive processes

TriglyceridesTriglycerides

The most plentiful lipids in your body and diet.The most plentiful lipids in your body and diet. At room temperature they may be solids (fats) or At room temperature they may be solids (fats) or

liquids (oils).liquids (oils). They are the most highly concentrated form of They are the most highly concentrated form of

chemical energy; storing twice as much as chemical energy; storing twice as much as carbohydrates and proteins.carbohydrates and proteins.

All dietary carbs, proteins, fats and oils are all All dietary carbs, proteins, fats and oils are all stored in adipose tissue.stored in adipose tissue.

All excess are stored in adipose tissue and our All excess are stored in adipose tissue and our capacity for storage is unlimited.capacity for storage is unlimited.

The chemical structure of The chemical structure of triglyceridestriglycerides

They consist of three fatty acids attached They consist of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone.to a glycerol backbone.

Types of FatsTypes of Fats

Saturated fatsSaturated fats contain only single covalent contain only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms.bonds between carbon atoms.Saturated with hydrogen atoms; solids at Saturated with hydrogen atoms; solids at

room temperature and occurs mostly in room temperature and occurs mostly in animal tissues and few tropical plants like animal tissues and few tropical plants like cocoa, palm and coconutcocoa, palm and coconut

These fats can clog arteries These fats can clog arteries

More FatsMore FatsMonounsaturated fatsMonounsaturated fats – – contain fatty acids with contain fatty acids with oneone double covalent bonddouble covalent bond between two fatty acid carbon between two fatty acid carbon atoms; they are not completely saturated with hydrogen atoms; they are not completely saturated with hydrogen atomsatoms

ex. Olive oil and peanut oil ex. Olive oil and peanut oil

Polyunsaturated fats- Polyunsaturated fats- contain contain more than one double more than one double covalent bondcovalent bond between fatty acids carbon atoms. between fatty acids carbon atoms.

ex. Corn oil, safflower oil, sunflower oil, & soybeanex. Corn oil, safflower oil, sunflower oil, & soybeanoiloil

Unsaturated fats are better for your heart; they do not Unsaturated fats are better for your heart; they do not clog arteries like saturated fatsclog arteries like saturated fats

PhospholipidsPhospholipids

Have a glycerol backbone and two fatty Have a glycerol backbone and two fatty acids attached to the first two carbons and acids attached to the first two carbons and attached to the third carbon is a phosphate attached to the third carbon is a phosphate groupgroup

Phospholipids are main lipids in cell Phospholipids are main lipids in cell membranesmembranes

The phosphate (POThe phosphate (PO443-3-) is the polar end and ) is the polar end and

the fatty acid end is the nonpolar endthe fatty acid end is the nonpolar end

SteroidsSteroidsAll steroids have four rings of carbon All steroids have four rings of carbon

atomsatomsCholesterol found in all body cells; it is a Cholesterol found in all body cells; it is a

steroid from which other steroids may be steroid from which other steroids may be synthesized by body cellssynthesized by body cellsEx. Estrogen & progesterone (female sex Ex. Estrogen & progesterone (female sex

hormones)hormones)Testosterone (male sex hormone) and cortisol Testosterone (male sex hormone) and cortisol

(aka hydrocortisone-released when stressed)(aka hydrocortisone-released when stressed)

Testosterone

Cortisol aka hydrocortisone

ProteinsProteins

Large molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, Large molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen; some contain sulfuroxygen and nitrogen; some contain sulfur

They are much more complex in structure than They are much more complex in structure than carbs or lipidscarbs or lipids

Function includes: structure of body cells; speed Function includes: structure of body cells; speed up chemical rxns (enzymes); contraction of up chemical rxns (enzymes); contraction of muscle, help defend body against invading muscle, help defend body against invading microbes (antibodies); some hormones are microbes (antibodies); some hormones are proteinsproteins

More on ProteinsMore on Proteins

Proteins are composed of long chains of Proteins are composed of long chains of amino acids (building blocks).amino acids (building blocks).

All amino acids have an amino group(NHAll amino acids have an amino group(NH22) ) at one end and an acid carboxyl group at one end and an acid carboxyl group (COOH) at the other end(COOH) at the other end

Each of the 20 AA have a different side Each of the 20 AA have a different side chain (R-group)chain (R-group)

AA’s are held together by peptide bondsAA’s are held together by peptide bondsDipeptide=2 AA’s joins; tripeptide=3 AA’sDipeptide=2 AA’s joins; tripeptide=3 AA’sMany AA’s= polypeptideMany AA’s= polypeptide

Structure of the Amino AcidStructure of the Amino Acid

Dehydration SynthesisDehydration Synthesis

Showing how amino acids are joined (peptide bond) together to create a polypeptide chain…a protein

More Protein InfoMore Protein Info

Proteins have unique 3-dimensional shapes Proteins have unique 3-dimensional shapes because of the way that each polypeptide twists, because of the way that each polypeptide twists, folds and come togetherfolds and come together

If proteins encounter a hostile environment: If proteins encounter a hostile environment: temp, pH, or ion concentration is altered, the temp, pH, or ion concentration is altered, the protein will protein will denaturedenature

DenaturationDenaturation will cause proteins to lose its will cause proteins to lose its shape and the protein will no longer be shape and the protein will no longer be functionalfunctional

3-D Structure of Protein3-D Structure of ProteinCollagen- composed of 3 chains of amino acids. Each chain is over 1400 AA’s long!

Enzymes are proteins that speed Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reaction in our bodyup chemical reaction in our body

Catalysts are enzymes that speed up rxns Catalysts are enzymes that speed up rxns without being consumed themselveswithout being consumed themselves

Catalysts are used in the laboratoryCatalysts are used in the laboratoryMost enzymes end in –aseMost enzymes end in –ase

Ex. Protease-breaks down proteinsEx. Protease-breaks down proteinsFind 3 more examples & their function in your Find 3 more examples & their function in your

text pg 52text pg 52

How an enzyme worksHow an enzyme works1. Enzyme and substrate

come together at active site of enzyme, forming an enzyme-substrate complex

2. Enzymes catalyzes reaction and transforms substrate into products

3. When reaction is complete, enzyme is unchanged and free to catalyze same reaction again on a new substrate.