chapter 2

15EULOGIO “AMANG” RODRIGUEZ INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER 2

Review of Related Literature and Studies

This chapter indicates the ideas relevant to the present

subject relating to the other studies and is briefly

discussed to provide the foundation of the proposed. In order

to develop a new method and procedures, careful review of

literature and studies had done for the development of the

system.

Local Literature

In today’s busy world, traveling has emerged as an

important leisure activity that people undertake. Motivates

for travel come in a variety of reasons, among them are for

physical enjoyment. These include rest, relaxation and

recreation that would lead to release of stress or lessening

of tension from work. Others desire to learn about places and

their culture, while some enjoy meeting people or visiting

old friends and relatives. Self-fulfillment can also be



achieved through traveling as it contributes to personal

development and even elevates social status (Cruz, 2006;

Goeldner& Richie, 2006; Claravall, 2008).

“A person-trip is defined as one person taking one trip. If

two persons go on that trip, that equals two-person trips. A

trip is any travel 100 miles or more away from home”.

(Introduction to Management in the Hospitality Industry

Clayton W. Barrows and Tom Powers p.415)

A tour becomes doubly enjoyable when there is a well-

trained tour guide who makes a place of interest alive with

his commentaries on almost anything: history, geography,

architecture, food, customs, and legend of trivia. An average

tourist may rely on guidebooks but the knowledge that

imparted by a tour guide may not be found in any brochure.

Tour guides are much like teachers; they deliver information

about a destination in an accurate and engaging fashion.

Thus, Mancini (2006) mentions that eighty percent (80%) of



tour travelers who became part of a previous survey were

extremely satisfied in tours where “learning” was an

important component. They too, were eager to share what they

learned to their friends and relatives. A tour guide is an

individual who leads groups of tourists around a town, museum

or other tourist attraction. The guide provides correct and

accurate information on the features, events and history of

the location; it is given therefore that he has broad

knowledge about the destination (Cruz, 2009). Claravall

further expounds that a tour guide is”. . . either an

employee or affiliate of a duly licensed travel and tour

agency, guides tourists, both foreign and domestic, for a

fee, commission or any other form of lawful remuneration on

local sightseeing excursions. (p.237).” Guides contribute

greatly to the overall tourist experience with their

knowledge, skill and wit. A tour guide personalizes visit to

any destination through his commentary, keeping his narration

light and engaging so that his guests will thoroughly enjoy



themselves. Through the information he imparts, he fosters

greater understanding among the locals and tourists. He

informs the visitors about the local culture and environment.

At the same time, he cautions them on how they must conduct

themselves in the destination. This way, misconceptions about

communities are cleared up and tourists come to appreciate

local culture and the environment. Moreover, a tour guides

take care of the safety of his guests while in the

destination.

“A tour guide may take people on sight-seeing excursions of

limited duration”

(Travel Perspectives A Guide to Becoming a Travel Professional Ginger

Gorham/ Susan Rice p.9)

A tour manager or tour escort, however is different from

a tour guide. While both carry administration duties and

handle clients booked with a tour operator, a tour manager is

an individual who accompanies the guests for the duration of

the entire tour (from point of origin to the destination and



back) and manages the groups, movements and activities. The

tour guide on the other hand acts as the host and operates

only in one area or destination. He is with the tour only for

few hours, usually returning to his home each night.

(Mancini, 2007; Cruz, 2009; Collins, 2000; Claravall, 2008).

Guiding people is a talent. It is to gather all the

important information. A good tourist guide is the one, who

presents all the information in a simple yet exact way. Being

a tour guide is a unique opportunity to live and work with

the must-see places and sites of the world.

A key factor in the cultural process of concept

formation has been the tour guide. The modern role of tour

guiding has its roots in the Grand Tour of the 17th and 18th

centuries: ‘the most satisfactory method of travelling

was . . . under the direction and with the help of a

vetturino . . . who acted as guide and courier’

(TOURISM: A New Perspective/Peter M. Burns and Andrew Holden p.57)



There are many different types of tours and so there are

a great many types of tour guides. However, there are some

essential skills all tour guides must have in order to be

effective.

In Communication Skill: Oratory skills, where a tour

guide must have great communication skills and be able to

talk in depth and at length repeatedly throughout the days

and weeks. This takes a lot of toll on a person’s tongue,

mouth and throat and experience and skill at speeches and

talking would be an essential skill for any tour guide.

Knowledge, a tour guide must have extensive and accurate

knowledge of the flora, fauna and history of the local area

as well as the site or sites they are specifically touring. A

tour group tends to task many similar questions but there

will always be something new.

Research skills, the biggest difference between a good

tour guide and a bad one is the accuracy and how up to date

their information is. A tour guide should have good research



skills so they have right info the information.

Engaging personality, to provide enjoyable tours, a tour

guide should also have an outgoing, enthusiastic and engaging

personality. Someone who enjoys questions and can entertain

their group is something tour companies look for.

An interest in traveling, many tour companies try to

find guides who have traveled extensively so they may be able

to better serve the variety of cultures and ethnicities they

will encounter in a tour group.

Organizational skills, there is a great amount of

organization needed for being a tour guide both in the

information they many provide and as well as taking account

of everybody in a single tour group to ensure their safety.

Memory, a tour guide should have a high capacity for

memorization because of the amount they are expected to know

and be able to tell off the top of their head without going

back to look things up.



Patience, everything seems obvious to the one who knows

the answer, and as a tour guide you will often encounter

situations where a great deal of patience is needed. It is

also necessary to be able to cope with stressed tourists and

possible dissatisfied customers.

Confidence, as the face and voice of ancient castles and

living cultures, a certain amount of confidence is needed to

project authority and mastery of the information. A hesitant

or unconfident tour guide is not only unpleasant to watch but

also will not inspire confidence in their tour.

Leadership skills, to ensure an enjoyable and effective

tour, a guide must have some leadership abilities to

encourage and direct the group when needed. Depending on the

type of tour offered, the guide may have to travel with a

group for a long time or over significant distance and to do

this it is essential they are a good leader.

(http://www.paidemployment.com/Articles/

Ten_Essential_Skills_for_a_Tour_Guide;173.aspx)



Time management skills are the abilities of a tour guide

to recognize and solve personal time management problems. The

goal of these time management lessons is to show tour guide

what he can do to improve those skills. With good time

management skills you are in control of your time and your

life, of your stress and energy levels. You make progress at

work. You are able to maintain balance between your work,

personal, and family lives. You have enough flexibility to

respond to surprises or new opportunities.

Safety is something many guides overlook. Nothing is

more critical than making sure your guests are safe. Always

carry an emergency medical kit on your person. Band-Aids are

particularly important because feet tend to blister from all

the walking associated with sight-seeing. At your earliest

convenience take a CPR training course.

Decision making is an essential leadership skill. If tour

guide can learn how to make timely, well-considered



decisions, then tour guide can lead his team to well-deserved

success.

Tour guides are one of the key front-line players in the

tourism industry. Through their knowledge and interpretation

of a destination's attractions and culture, and their

communication and service skills, they have the ability to

transform the tourists’ visit from a tour into an experience.

The role and duties may not be that glamorous as the

profession, in many countries, lacks a well-defined career

path and their incomes are reliant on a variety of income

sources.

“As a tour guide, you occupy a key position in the

promotion of this world wide industry... you become the

bridge between nations, you can promote friendly contact,

rapport and understanding between peoples“.

(Tour Guiding Primer, 2008, p. 6)



Foreign Literature

Customer expectations are “pretrial beliefs about a

product …that serve as standards or reference points against

which product performance is judged” (Zeithaml, Berry, &

Parasuraman, 2003, p. 1). Most research on service

expectations has entailed examination of either service

quality or satisfaction. This comes as no surprise

considering the central role expectation plays in

conceptualizing satisfaction and service quality (Moutinho,

2007; Oliver, 2000; Parasuraman, Berry, & Zeithaml, 2001;

Pizam, Neumann, & Reichel, 2008; Turner, Reisinger, &

McQuilken, 2001; Zeithamletc al., 2003).

Customer expectations have been studied in cross-cultural

contexts. For instance, in their study on hotel service

quality and customer satisfaction in China, Y. Wang and

Pearson (2002) assessed service expectation by evaluating the

importance of various service items. More recently, Kanousi’s

(2005) study showed that culture may impact service recovery



expectations, and specifically individualism, masculinity,

and long-term orientation (i.e., three of the five Hofstadter

cultural dimensions) were related to service recovery

expectations. Similarly, Kuehand Voon (2007) examined how

culture influences the service expectations of Generation Y

consumers, and their findings showed that uncertainty

avoidance and long-term orientation positively affected

service quality expectations, but power distance affected

service quality expectations in a negative way.

Taking a qualitative approach, Lidén and Edvardsson

(2003) examined customer expectations on service guarantees

in public transport. In seven focus group sessions,

participants were told how to develop a chart of their

expectations on service guarantees. Lidén and Edvardsson

(2003) also explored in detail customers’ needs and thoughts

as sources of expectation. Their findings emphasized the

importance of fairness as part of the guideline of service

guarantee design. Next, the authors will turn to a review of



Chinese outbound tourism. 2.3. The Development of Chinese

Outbound Tourism. The Chinese government, through the

establishment of the Approved Destination Status (ADS)

system, started allowing the Chinese public to travel

overseas for leisure purposes in early 2000s. Nevertheless,

some may argue the starting point of Chinese outbound tourism

could be tracked back to 2003, when Mainland Chinese citizens

were allowed to visit Hong Kong and Macao under special

arrangements (Qu & Lam, 2007; Zhang & Heung, 2001). In 2007,

through the enactment of the “Provisional Regulation on Self-

supported Outbound Travel,” the Chinese government officially

revised its tourism policy so that people could travel abroad

at their own expense (Arlt, 2006; Guo, Kim, & Timothy, 2007).

To date, there were a total of 139 countries and territories

with ADS, and 104 of these agreements were already

implemented (Qian, 2010). In 2009, Mainland Chinese citizens

made approximately 47.66 million trips outside Mainland China

(Qian, 2010).



The rapid growth of Chinese outbound tourism has been

frequently associated with such descriptors as “stunning” or

“astonishing” (Guo et al., 2007; Y. Wang & Sheldon, 2005).

Thanks to the country’s fast economic development, rising

individual wealth, and the relaxation of much travel

restrictions imposed by authorities, the Chinese outbound

tourism market grew at an average rate of 21 percent per year

from 2002 to 2007 (National Bureau of Statistics of China,

2003; 2004; 2008). Indeed, the unleashed demand for travel

abroad is so large that the growth rate of China’s outbound

travel surpassed that of the country’s national economy,

inbound and domestic tourism, and primarily all other Asian

and developed countries (Guo et al., 2007). Also, Chinese

outbound tourism has been developing steadily; in 2003, when

SARS was sweeping the globe, the total number of Chinese

outbound visitors still increased by 21.8% (National Bureau

of Statistics of China, 2004). In the year of 2009, despite



the global economic slowdown, China outbound tourism

maintains a 4-percent growth rate (Qian, 2010).

From destinations’ point of view, China has become an

important source market. In Asian countries such as Japan,

Singapore, and the Philippines, the Greater China Region

(Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan) has emerged as

their leading source market (Japanese Tourism Marketing Co.,

2009; Philippine Department of Tourism, 2009; Singapore

Department of Statistics, 2009). In other countries, such as

the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom, China is

among their fastest-growing source markets and has quickly

become one of their top Asian markets (Canadian Tourism

Commission, 2008; Office for National Statistics, 2008;

Sheatsley etc., al., 2009).

A recent study estimated that the current Chinese

outbound travel market comprises approximately 22 million

people who have traveled or plan to travel to destinations

outside Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macao. Among them,



11.5 million have traveled or plan to travel to destinations

outside Asia (Li, xHarrill, Uysal, Burnett, & Zhan, 2010).

Although the current size of Chinese outbound travel is

already quite impressive, from a percentage-of-total

population standpoint, Chinese outbound tourism development

remains in an early stage but with huge growth potential (Lim

& Y. Wang, 2008). Further, despite the current global

economic slowdown, China’s economy is by and large in good

shape. Chinese outbound travel is hence expected to continue

growing steadily (although at a lower rate) and “contribute

to the stability of the world’s tourism economy” (Dai, 2008).

This will probably make China an even more important target

market for destination marketing organizations (DMOs)

worldwide.

Local Studies

A tour guide is an individual who leads groups of

tourists around a town, museum or other tourist attraction.

The guide provides correct and accurate information on the



features, events and history of the location. It is given

therefore that he has broad knowledge about the destination

(Cruz, 2009). Claravall further expounds that a tour guide is

“. . . either an employee or affiliate of a duly licensed

travel and tour agency, guides tourists, both foreign and

domestic, for a fee, commission or any other form of lawful

remuneration on local sightseeing excursions. (p. 237).”

Tourist guiding has an important and multifaceted role

in tourism. A safe and quality experience offered by a guided

tour involves the guide, tourists and the environment, and is

fulfilled when all the three components interact at the same

point in space and time. The role of guides in the tourism

system distinguishes itself by its potential to manage and

orchestrate tourist experiences, enhance destination image

and implement the goals of responsible tourism.

A well-traveled person has a wider outlook in life; more

often than not they are also looked up by others. Travel,

after all is considered a natural teacher and a bridge to



understanding of people. It is not surprising therefore, that

Cruz (2006) describes travelling not as a want but a need.

Tour guiding is a very satisfying occupation. Aside from

meeting many people, one can earn a good salary, not to

mention tips that satisfied guests will give. Andoy Dalimag,

enthusiastically shares his experience: “Being a tourist

guide is fun and almost like playing. . . It is something I

like doing because my town has a great tourist attraction

plus I get to meet and learned from the people I tour (Gordon

commends, 2008).” A tour guide is not uprooted from his home

and does not have the responsibility of overseeing to all the

needs of his clients, unlike that of a tour escort. It also

builds character and challenges one’s skills. Constant

interaction with different types of people tests one’s

patience and decision making skills (Mancini, 2006).

Guides contribute greatly to the overall tourist

experience with their knowledge, skill and wit. A tour guide

personalizes visit to any destination through his commentary,



keeping his narration light and engaging so that his guests

will thoroughly enjoy themselves.

Through the information he imparts, he fosters greater

understanding among the locals and the tourists. He informs

the visitors about the local culture and environment. At the

same time, he cautions them on how they must conduct

themselves in the destination. This way, misconceptions about

communities are cleared up and tourists come to appreciate

local culture and the environment. Moreover, a tour guide

takes care of the safety of his guests while in the

destination.

Foreign Studies

The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (Hornby, 2000,

p.572) defines a guide as ‘a person who shows other people

the way to a place, especially somebody employed to show

tourist around interesting places’. In this definition,



providing direction is indicated as the primarily role of a

guide. This path finding role is the original function of a

guide who acts as a geographical guide to offer directions

(Cohen, 2005).

A key actor in the cultural process of concept formation

has been the tour guide. The modern role of tour guiding has

its roots in the Grand Tour of the 17th and 18th centuries:

‘the most satisfactory method of travelling was . . . under

the direction and with the help of an vetturino . . . who

acted as guide and courier’

(TOURISM: a new perspective/Peter M. Burns/Andrew Holden p.57)

The International Association of Tour Managers (IATM)

ant the European Federation of Tourist Guide as a person who

guides groups or individual visitors from abroad or from the

home country around the monuments, sites and museums of a

city or region; to interpret in an inspiring and entertaining

manner, in the language of the visitor’s choice, the cultural



and natural heritage and environment (European Federation of

Tourist Guide Associations, 2008).

These industry bodies perceive the tour guide’s role as

providing not only direction but also cultural and

environmental interpretation. It is implied that

interpretation is a part of guiding. The practice of

interpretation was originally used in the USA National Park

Service, and then adopted by others in both the public and

non-public sectors. The goal of interpretation is to convey

the magnificence of a place, inspire visitors and ultimately

convince them of the need to persevere parklands’ (Pond,

2003, p.71). ‘Interpretation provides the sociological,

educational and cultural underpinning of guiding’ (Pond,

2003, p.71). Cohen (2005) posits that interpretation is the

essence of the cultural-mediating role of tour guides, As a

result, interpretation is increasingly recognized by tourism

industry bodies and researches as a key function of guiding



(Cohen, 2005; Weiler et al., 2001; Pond, 2003; Gurung et al.,

2006; Weiler and Ham, 2011).

In addition, the aforementioned definitions underline

the multifaceted nature of the guiding job by categorizing

tour guides based on types of tours including inbound or

domestic; the tour setting such as city or regional; the

subject matter (e.g. cultural, natural heritage and

environment) as well as the negative language of the tour

client.

As indicated in their organizational names, we can see

that the International Association of Tour Managers (IATM)

and European Federation of Tourist Guide Associations (EFTGA)

also distinguish between the job of a tour manager and a tour

guide. Tour Manager, often used interchangeably with courier,

tour escort and tour leader, refers to a person whose escorts

the group during the entire trip, and is mainly responsible

for managing the logistical aspects of the tour (Cohen,

2005). A tour guide, normally city-based, accompanies the



group on day tours and sometimes on overnight tours. His or

her major role is to provide the group with the information

on the visited place(s). The tour guide might also undertake

some of the administrative responsibilities of a tour manager

(Hollaway, 2001). However, in many cases, especially in non-

urban areas, the roles of tour manager and guide are often

merged and the differences between the two are blurred. For

the purpose of this chapter, we define a tour guide as

someone who plays the roles of both tour manager and tour

guide.

“A tour guide may take people on sight-seeing excursions of

limited duration”

(Travel Perspectives A Guide to Becoming a Travel Professional/Susan Rice

p.9)

This review of definitions of tour guides reveals that a

tour guide’s role can be multifaceted, including provision of

direction and information on attractions and the visited

region, facilitating understanding of the destination and its



culture and managing the safety, security and control of the

group (Schmit, 2009; Hollaway, 2001; Pond, 2003). The level

of demand for each of these roles depends upon the nature of

the group and the situation (Hollaway, 2001). Based on

existing definitions, we define a tour guide of inbound group

tours as a person who leads groups from abroad to the

important sites of a city or region, provides commentary and

interpretation of cultural and natural attractions in the

language of the visitors, facilitates tourists’ experiences

in the host country and manages the tour.

Most respondents showed interest in local culture and

customs such as participating in local events, festivals, and

shows. A respondent in Beijing commented, “[I would like to

experience] local surroundings. For example, younger tourists

who visit England can go to a concert to experience the

atmosphere; older tourists may want go to an opera.”

Participants in Beijing and Shenzhen said that they prefer to

see things not available in China. For instance, some were



curious about red-light districts, sex museums, and other

adult-entertainment venues, simply because those are

prohibited in China. Although half of the FGs would like to

experience some local nightlife, respondents in Guangzhou and

Nanjing thought that evening should be reserved for resting

because daytime activities are exhausting.

As for activities, some FG participants reported

interests in shopping. For example, a respondent in Xi’an

expected tour operators to have a better understanding of “…

Chinese shopping habits: What kind of things should they buy

when traveling abroad? What gifts would they buy for seniors

and what would they buy for children? So that they could

provide suitable products to satisfy Chinese needs for

shopping.”Another respondent in Shenzhen preferred to visit

“shopping areas with local flavor instead of regular shops.

No matter if purchases are made, the experience will be

better.” A respondent in Tianjin commented, “The only thing

which attracts me is shopping; there are international brands



at very good prices.” All participants indicated that they

did not want “forced” shopping. In addition, their activities

of interest include extreme sports, horse-riding, fruit-

picking, gambling, shows, and parties.

Synthesis of Related Literature and Studies

Based on our groups’ research, we are confident to

conclude that a Filipino tour guide provide a link between

tourists and destinations by giving information that

eventually helps in understanding and appreciation of

cultures.

Therefore, there are some essential skills all tour

guides must have in order to be effective.

Communication Skills. 1.Oratory skills 2.Knowledge

3.Research skills 4.Engaging personality 5.An interest in

traveling 6.Organizational skills 7.

Memory8.Patience9.Confidence10.Leadership skills;



(http://www.paidemployment.com/Articles/

Ten_Essential_Skills_for_a_Tour_Guide;173.aspx)

Management Skills; Critical thinking skills; Decision making

skills.

However, we found out that the functions and

effectiveness of the tourist guide in every tourist

destination depends on the qualities of a tour guide such as:

enthusiasm, outgoing and approachable, self-confidence,

proactive nature, sensitivity, flexibility, authenticity,

pleasant, professional appearance, sense of humor, knowledge,

good communication skills, organization, decisiveness, good

health, personal integrity, charisma, love of country,

people-loving, open mindedness, tactfulness, punctuality,

proper decorum, honesty, resourcefulness, fairness in

treatment, patience, reasonable and humble.

chapter 2

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