chapter 18 social psychology. social psychology social psychology social psychology the study of how...

Chapter 18Chapter 18Social PsychologySocial Psychology

Social PsychologySocial Psychology

Social PsychologySocial Psychology• The study of how people are influenced by The study of how people are influenced by

groupsgroups The three main focuses of social The three main focuses of social

psychology arepsychology are• How we think about one anotherHow we think about one another• How we influence one anotherHow we influence one another• How we relate to one anotherHow we relate to one another

Social ThinkingSocial Thinking

Attribution Theory:Attribution Theory:• Suggests how we explain someone’s Suggests how we explain someone’s

behavior—be crediting either the behavior—be crediting either the situation of the person’s dispositionsituation of the person’s disposition

• Sources of attributionSources of attribution Disposition: Disposition: internal causes internal causes

(personality tendency)(personality tendency) Situations: Situations: external causesexternal causes

Social ThinkingSocial Thinking Fundamental Attribution ErrorFundamental Attribution Error The tendency for observers (when analyzing The tendency for observers (when analyzing

another’s behavior) to another’s behavior) to underestimateunderestimate the impact the impact of the situation (e.g. financial or social situations) of the situation (e.g. financial or social situations) and and overestimateoverestimate the impact of personal the impact of personal dispositions (personal characteristics).dispositions (personal characteristics).

This is not true when we analyze our own This is not true when we analyze our own behavior. When we analyze our own behavior we behavior. When we analyze our own behavior we are more sensitive to how our behaviors change are more sensitive to how our behaviors change with the situation.with the situation.

There is some evidence that this tendency may There is some evidence that this tendency may be more common in some societies (e.g. the be more common in some societies (e.g. the United States) than in others (e.g. Hindu India).United States) than in others (e.g. Hindu India).

Social ThinkingSocial Thinking The Effects of AttributionThe Effects of Attribution

• Happy People: Happy People: Happy people tend to explain Happy people tend to explain negative behaviors of their friends/spouses as negative behaviors of their friends/spouses as situational.situational.

• Unhappy People: Unhappy People: Unhappy people are more Unhappy people are more likely to explain negative behaviors of their likely to explain negative behaviors of their friends/spouses as being due to the person’s friends/spouses as being due to the person’s disposition.disposition.

• Conservatives: Conservatives: Conservatives tend to explain Conservatives tend to explain social problems (homelessness) as due to people’s social problems (homelessness) as due to people’s disposition.disposition.

• Liberals: Liberals: Liberals are more likely to attribute Liberals are more likely to attribute social problems to situations.social problems to situations.

Attitudes and ActionsAttitudes and Actions Attitude:Attitude: feelings, often based on our feelings, often based on our

beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and particular way to objects, people, and eventsevents

Attitudes and ActionsAttitudes and Actions

Attitudes have three componentsAttitudes have three components1. Cognitive (belief)1. Cognitive (belief)

2. Affective (emotional)2. Affective (emotional)

3. Behavior (way of acting)3. Behavior (way of acting)

Attitudes and ActionsAttitudes and Actions

For example: We may For example: We may feelfeel dislike for dislike for a person (emotion), because we a person (emotion), because we believe he or she is mean (cognition), believe he or she is mean (cognition), and, as a result, and, as a result, actact unfriendly unfriendly toward that person (behavior).toward that person (behavior).

Attitudes Can Affect ActionsAttitudes Can Affect Actions

Attitudes guide actions whenAttitudes guide actions when• Outside influences are minimalOutside influences are minimal• Attitude is specifically related to Attitude is specifically related to

the behaviorthe behavior• Awareness of attitudes is importantAwareness of attitudes is important

Actions Can Affect AttitudesActions Can Affect Attitudes

The Foot-in-the Door The Foot-in-the Door Phenomenon: Phenomenon: A tendency for A tendency for people who agree to a small request people who agree to a small request to comply later with a large one.to comply later with a large one.


The foot-in-the-door phenomenonThe foot-in-the-door phenomenon• When soliciting help for a club if you When soliciting help for a club if you

can initially get someone to commit to can initially get someone to commit to doing something very small (i.e. make doing something very small (i.e. make one poster) then your chances of one poster) then your chances of getting this person to do more getting this person to do more involved and time consuming activities involved and time consuming activities increases.increases.

• 17 % put up big ugly sign17 % put up big ugly sign• All did if they put up a little sign firstAll did if they put up a little sign first


Door-in-the-Face Procedure: Door-in-the-Face Procedure:

This argues that after people refuse a This argues that after people refuse a large request, they will look more large request, they will look more favorably upon a follow-up request favorably upon a follow-up request that seems, in comparison, much that seems, in comparison, much more reasonable.more reasonable.


Role Playing Affect AttitudesRole Playing Affect Attitudes The behaviors The behaviors

associated associated with a new role with a new role may may initially feel initially feel artificial. artificial. However, However, they soon they soon seem seem to reflect our true to reflect our true self as we adopt self as we adopt

attitudes in keeping with attitudes in keeping with our rolesour roles

Role PlayingRole Playing

Actually worksActually works Zimbardo (1972)Zimbardo (1972) Prison experimentPrison experiment Got really scaryGot really scary Had to stop the experimentHad to stop the experiment

Role Playing Affects AttitudesRole Playing Affects Attitudes

Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Cognitive dissonance theory holds Cognitive dissonance theory holds that when attitudes and behaviors that when attitudes and behaviors are inconsistent (or “dissonant”), are inconsistent (or “dissonant”), people feel uneasy and are people feel uneasy and are motivated to make them consistent.motivated to make them consistent.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=korGK0yGIDo

http://www.psychexchange.co.uk/videos/view/20957/

Role Playing Affects AttitudesRole Playing Affects Attitudes Example: Example: Leon Fessinger did an experiment Leon Fessinger did an experiment

where he paid people to say that a boring task where he paid people to say that a boring task was enjoyable. Some subjects were paid $20 to was enjoyable. Some subjects were paid $20 to lie and others were paid $1 to lie. According to lie and others were paid $1 to lie. According to the cognitive dissonance theory, those paid $20 the cognitive dissonance theory, those paid $20 to lie had clear justification for lying and should to lie had clear justification for lying and should have experienced little dissonance have experienced little dissonance (inconsistency) between what they said and (inconsistency) between what they said and what they felt toward the task, in fact, their what they felt toward the task, in fact, their attitude toward the task did not change very attitude toward the task did not change very much. However, subjects who received just $1 much. However, subjects who received just $1 had little justification to lie which caused a had little justification to lie which caused a state of cognitive dissonance (or discomfort). state of cognitive dissonance (or discomfort). They could reduce their dissonance by They could reduce their dissonance by displaying a more positive attitude toward the displaying a more positive attitude toward the task, which they did.task, which they did.

Conformity and ObedienceConformity and Obedience

Chameleon effect: Chameleon effect: refers to our refers to our natural tendency to mimic othersnatural tendency to mimic others


Unconsciously mimicking others’ Unconsciously mimicking others’ expressions, postures, and voice tones expressions, postures, and voice tones helps us to empathize with others. helps us to empathize with others. Research participants in an experiment Research participants in an experiment tend to rub their own face when tend to rub their own face when confederates rub their face; similarly, the confederates rub their face; similarly, the participants shake their own foot when participants shake their own foot when they are with a foot-shaking person. The they are with a foot-shaking person. The most empathic people mimic and are liked most empathic people mimic and are liked the most.the most.


Conformity: Conformity: the adjustment of one’s the adjustment of one’s opinions, judgments, opinions, judgments,

or actions so thator actions so that

they match those they match those

of other people of other people

or the normative or the normative

standards of a standards of a

social group or social group or

situation.situation.


Odd dataOdd data• Suicides go up after suicides are publishedSuicides go up after suicides are published• So do car crashesSo do car crashes• Airplane crashesAirplane crashes

Ash’s classic line length experimentsAsh’s classic line length experiments• Solomon Asch found that under certain Solomon Asch found that under certain

conditions, people will conform to a group’s conditions, people will conform to a group’s judgment even when it is clearly incorrectjudgment even when it is clearly incorrect

• About 1/3 of people give the wrong answerAbout 1/3 of people give the wrong answer

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iRh5qy09nNw


Conditions that strengthen conformityConditions that strengthen conformity• Made to feel incompetentMade to feel incompetent• At least three people in the groupAt least three people in the group• One admires the group’s status and One admires the group’s status and

attractivenessattractiveness• The group is unanimousThe group is unanimous• No prior commitment to any responseNo prior commitment to any response• Our behavior is in the openOur behavior is in the open• One’s culture strongly encourages One’s culture strongly encourages

respect for social standardsrespect for social standards


Reasons for ConformingReasons for Conforming• Normative social influence:Normative social influence:

influence resulting from a person’s influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.disapproval.


Reasons for ConformingReasons for Conforming• Informational social influence: Informational social influence:

influence resulting from one’s willingness to influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality. accept others’ opinions about reality.

(When the accuracy of our judgments seem (When the accuracy of our judgments seem important, people rarely conformed when important, people rarely conformed when the task was easy, but they conformed half the task was easy, but they conformed half the time when the task was difficult. If we the time when the task was difficult. If we are unsure of what is right, and if being are unsure of what is right, and if being right matters, we are receptive to others’ right matters, we are receptive to others’ opinions)opinions)

ObedienceObedience

ObedienceObedience• The tendency to comply with The tendency to comply with

orders, implied, or real, from orders, implied, or real, from someone perceived as an authority someone perceived as an authority figurefigure

ObedienceObedience Milgram’s ExperimentMilgram’s Experiment

Description of the experiment: Description of the experiment: In In the Milgram studies, the experimenter the Milgram studies, the experimenter ordered “teachers” to deliver shocks to ordered “teachers” to deliver shocks to a learner for wrong answers. Torn a learner for wrong answers. Torn between obeying the experimenter and between obeying the experimenter and responding to the learner’s pleas, the responding to the learner’s pleas, the people usually chose to obey orders, people usually chose to obey orders, even though it supposedly meant even though it supposedly meant harming the learner.harming the learner.

Stanley Milgram’s ExperimentStanley Milgram’s Experiment

ObedienceObedience Conditions in which obedience was Conditions in which obedience was

highest: highest: when the person giving the orders was when the person giving the orders was

close at hand and was perceived to be a close at hand and was perceived to be a legitimate authority; legitimate authority;

when the authority figure was supported when the authority figure was supported by a prestigious institution; by a prestigious institution;

when the victim was depersonalized or at when the victim was depersonalized or at a distance;a distance;

when there was no role models for when there was no role models for defiance.defiance.

Lessons From the Conformity Lessons From the Conformity and Obedience Studiesand Obedience Studies

The experiments demonstrate that social The experiments demonstrate that social influences can be strong enough to make influences can be strong enough to make people conform to falsehoods or capitulate people conform to falsehoods or capitulate to cruelty. The studies, because of their to cruelty. The studies, because of their design, also illustrate how great evil design, also illustrate how great evil sometimes grows out of people’s sometimes grows out of people’s compliance with lesser evils. Evil does not compliance with lesser evils. Evil does not require monstrous characters but ordinary require monstrous characters but ordinary people corrupted by an evil situation. By people corrupted by an evil situation. By understanding the processes that shape understanding the processes that shape our behavior, we may be less susceptible our behavior, we may be less susceptible to external social pressures in real-life to external social pressures in real-life situations that lad to violate our own situations that lad to violate our own internal standards.internal standards.

Individual Behavior in the Individual Behavior in the Presence of OthersPresence of Others

Social FacilitationSocial Facilitation• occurs when the presence of another occurs when the presence of another

person improves performance.person improves performance.

• This is not true in all situations. Social This is not true in all situations. Social facilitation holds true when we are facilitation holds true when we are engaging in a behavior we feel we can engaging in a behavior we feel we can do well.do well.


Social ImpairmentSocial Impairment• occurs when another’s presence harms occurs when another’s presence harms

performanceperformance

• This is more likely to occur if you are This is more likely to occur if you are performing a task that you usually find performing a task that you usually find difficult. Knowing that people are difficult. Knowing that people are watching may make the task seem even watching may make the task seem even more difficult.more difficult.


Social Loafing: Social Loafing: occurs when occurs when people in a group exert less effort people in a group exert less effort than they would when performing than they would when performing alone.alone.


Social LoafingSocial Loafing• This is more common among men This is more common among men

than women. than women.

• It is also more common in Western It is also more common in Western

individualistic cultures than in individualistic cultures than in Eastern collectivist cultures.Eastern collectivist cultures.


Why does social loafing occur?Why does social loafing occur? 1. Reward comes regardless of effort1. Reward comes regardless of effort

2. 2. Rewards will be dividedRewards will be divided

3. Group members may think that 3. Group members may think that

their efforts just aren’t necessarytheir efforts just aren’t necessary


Deindividuation:Deindividuation: The loss of self-awareness and self-The loss of self-awareness and self-

restraint occurring in group situations that restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. When foster arousal and anonymity. When people experience deindividuation, they people experience deindividuation, they undergo heightened emotional arousal and undergo heightened emotional arousal and an intense feeling of cohesiveness with the an intense feeling of cohesiveness with the group. Because of deindividuation, people group. Because of deindividuation, people may do things they wouldn’t do if they may do things they wouldn’t do if they were alone or identifiable. Deindividuation were alone or identifiable. Deindividuation is heightened when members of a group is heightened when members of a group act in unison or wear uniforms.act in unison or wear uniforms.


Examples of Deindividuation:Examples of Deindividuation: In the 2001 NFL season, Cleveland In the 2001 NFL season, Cleveland

fans covered one end of the field fans covered one end of the field with beer bottles when they thought with beer bottles when they thought a referee’s call cost them the game. a referee’s call cost them the game. Sports fans often yell comments Sports fans often yell comments during a game that they would never during a game that they would never yell if they were alone in the stands yell if they were alone in the stands and easily identified.and easily identified.


Example of Deindividuation:Example of Deindividuation:• The hood and mask of the Ku Klux Klan The hood and mask of the Ku Klux Klan

uniform heightens the sense of uniform heightens the sense of anonymity felt by Klansmen. So does anonymity felt by Klansmen. So does the darkness of night at a cross burning. the darkness of night at a cross burning. Such factors add to the likelihood that Such factors add to the likelihood that people will commit antisocial acts that people will commit antisocial acts that they would not commit if alone or it they would not commit if alone or it their identity were known.their identity were known.

• Your examples?Your examples?

Effects of Group InteractionEffects of Group Interaction

Group PolarizationGroup Polarization the enhancement of a group’s prevailing the enhancement of a group’s prevailing

inclinations through discussion within inclinations through discussion within the group.the group.


Group PolarizationGroup Polarization• Positive examples:Positive examples: strengthens

feelings of tolerance in a low-prejudice group, reinforces motivation of those in a self-help group.

• Negative examples:Negative examples: high-prejudice students became MORE prejudice when they discussed racial issues in a group..

• Hale examples?Hale examples?

Effects of Group InteractionEffects of Group Interaction Groupthink: Groupthink: the mode of thinking

that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. This is more likely to happen in small, closely knit groups


Group ThinkGroup Think• Example: The U.S. senate intelligence Example: The U.S. senate intelligence

committee demonstrated group think committee demonstrated group think when personnel involved in the Iraq when personnel involved in the Iraq weapons of mass destruction issue: weapons of mass destruction issue: examined few alternatives, selectively examined few alternatives, selectively gathered information, exerted pressure gathered information, exerted pressure to conform within the group or withhold to conform within the group or withhold criticism, and collective rationalizationcriticism, and collective rationalization


Group ThinkGroup Think• Historical Example: Cuban Missile CrisisHistorical Example: Cuban Missile Crisis

The Power of IndividualsThe Power of Individuals Minority Influence: Minority Influence: When they are

persistent and united, minorities can influence the behavior or beliefs of the majority. Minorities can sway majorities, but only if they stand firm. Social psychologists found that minorities that waffle in their convictions have trouble persuading others, while those who are unwavering are far more successful in their persuasive efforts.

PrejudicePrejudice

Mixture of beliefs, emotions and Mixture of beliefs, emotions and actions towards a groupactions towards a group

Influences cognitionInfluences cognition While blatant prejudice is on the While blatant prejudice is on the

wane, subtler forms are still out wane, subtler forms are still out therethere

Emotional Roots of PrejudiceEmotional Roots of Prejudice

Scapegoat Theory:Scapegoat Theory:• suggests that prejudice offers an suggests that prejudice offers an

outlet for anger by providing outlet for anger by providing someone to blame. someone to blame.

• To boost our own sense of status, it To boost our own sense of status, it also helps to have others to also helps to have others to denigrate.denigrate.

Cognitive Roots of PrejudiceCognitive Roots of Prejudice

We have a need to categorize stuffWe have a need to categorize stuff The availability heuristic does not The availability heuristic does not

help muchhelp much The just world hypothesisThe just world hypothesis

• They deserve itThey deserve it

AggressionAggression

Aggression:Aggression: any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy. .


This definition of aggression has a more precise meaning than it does in every day usage where an assertive salesperson or a dentist who make us wince with pain may be described as “aggressive.” On the other hand, psychology’s definition recognizes a verbally assaultive person or one who spreads a vicious rumor as aggressive.


There are genetic factorsThere are genetic factors There are biochemical factorsThere are biochemical factors The frustration aggression The frustration aggression

hypothesishypothesis Learning effectsLearning effects

ConflictConflict Conflict: Conflict: a perceived incompatibility of

actions, goals, or ideas.

Social traps: Social traps: a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Mirror-image perceptions: Mirror-image perceptions: each party views itself as moral and the other as unworthy and evil-intentioned.

AttractionAttraction

Three factors that influence our Three factors that influence our attraction for someoneattraction for someone

1.1. ProximityProximity

2.2. Physical AttractivenessPhysical Attractiveness

3. Similarity3. Similarity

AttractionAttraction

ProximityProximity• (geographic nearness) is the most important (geographic nearness) is the most important

predictor of attraction. The more often predictor of attraction. The more often people interact, the more they tend to like people interact, the more they tend to like each other. The situation in which people each other. The situation in which people meet also influences attraction. If people meet also influences attraction. If people meet others in positive circumstances, they meet others in positive circumstances, they are more likely to be attracted to each other.are more likely to be attracted to each other.

• (This is sometimes called the “mere exposure (This is sometimes called the “mere exposure effect”: repeated exposure to novel stimuli effect”: repeated exposure to novel stimuli enhances our liking of them)enhances our liking of them)

AttractionAttraction Physical AttractivenessPhysical Attractiveness

• People tend to like attractive people. People tend to like attractive people. This is true ofThis is true of both both men and women. But men and women. But

according to the matching hypothesis, people according to the matching hypothesis, people tend to form committed relationships with tend to form committed relationships with people who we perceive to be similar in people who we perceive to be similar in physical attractiveness. When a couple is physical attractiveness. When a couple is noticeably unequal in attractiveness the less noticeably unequal in attractiveness the less physically attractive person has other physically attractive person has other compensating assets (i.e. wealth, status, or compensating assets (i.e. wealth, status, or social competence). Being physically attractive social competence). Being physically attractive can influence social opportunities and also can influence social opportunities and also influence the way one is perceived. We view influence the way one is perceived. We view attractive people as healthier, happier, more attractive people as healthier, happier, more sensitive, and more successful.sensitive, and more successful.

AttractionAttraction SimilaritySimilarity

• People tend to like others who have People tend to like others who have attitudes similar to their own, attitudes similar to their own, especially attitudes about other especially attitudes about other people. Attitudes influence attraction, people. Attitudes influence attraction, and attraction influences attitudes.and attraction influences attitudes.

Romantic LoveRomantic Love

Passionate Love:Passionate Love: an aroused state of intense positive an aroused state of intense positive

absorption in another, unusually present absorption in another, unusually present at the beginning of a love relationship. at the beginning of a love relationship.

As it relates to Schachter-Singer’s Two-As it relates to Schachter-Singer’s Two-Factory Theory of Emotion (A.K.A. Factory Theory of Emotion (A.K.A. Cognitive Appraisal Theory)Cognitive Appraisal Theory)

Romantic LoveRomantic Love Companionate Love: Companionate Love:

• the deep affectionate attachment we the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.intertwined.

(companionate love = commitment + intimacy)(companionate love = commitment + intimacy)

• Companionate love often Companionate love often emerges as a relationship emerges as a relationship matures. matures.

Romantic LoveRomantic Love

Companionate LoveCompanionate Love• Two ingredients for a long-lasting Two ingredients for a long-lasting

relationship are:relationship are: equity: a condition in which people equity: a condition in which people

receive from a relationship in receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.proportion to what they give to it.

self-disclosure: revealing intimate self-disclosure: revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.aspects of oneself to others.

AltruismAltruism

Altruism:Altruism: unselfish regard for the unselfish regard for the

welfare of others. welfare of others.

Examples: donating blood, offering Examples: donating blood, offering time and money to help victims of time and money to help victims of a natural disaster. In the cases of a natural disaster. In the cases of true altruism, there is no true altruism, there is no expectation of personal reward.expectation of personal reward.

Bystander InterventionBystander Intervention

Bystander effect: Bystander effect: the phenomenon in which the the phenomenon in which the

chances that someone will help in an chances that someone will help in an emergency decreases as the number emergency decreases as the number of people present increases. (when of people present increases. (when alone with the person in need, 40% of alone with the person in need, 40% of people helped; in the presence of five people helped; in the presence of five other bystanders, other bystanders,

only 20% helped)only 20% helped)

Bystander InterventionBystander Intervention Kitty GenoveseKitty Genovese In the Genovese incident, thirty-eightIn the Genovese incident, thirty-eight

decent, law-abiding citizens in New York decent, law-abiding citizens in New York City watched and listened from their City watched and listened from their apartments while a woman was battered apartments while a woman was battered and then murdered during a thirty-five and then murdered during a thirty-five minute period, but no one did anything to minute period, but no one did anything to help. News media seized upon the story help. News media seized upon the story to speculate about the causes of such to speculate about the causes of such “callousness”; apathy, lack of regard for “callousness”; apathy, lack of regard for others, and the “cold society” others, and the “cold society”

were all suggested.were all suggested.

Kitty GenoveseKitty Genovese


Psychologists John Darley and Bibb Latane point out that situation variables, not personality traits, led to the lack of help in the Kitty Genovese case. Emerging from their research was the concept of the bystander effect, the idea that the presence of other inhibits helping behavior.

Bystander InterventionBystander Intervention The following situational The following situational

factors determine whether factors determine whether someone will help:someone will help:

1.1. Noticing: Noticing: If people are busy they may not pay If people are busy they may not pay

attention to what is happening around attention to what is happening around them. This is particularly true in urban them. This is particularly true in urban settings, because the presence of settings, because the presence of others is distracting and can divert others is distracting and can divert attention from a victim’s problem.attention from a victim’s problem.

Bystander InterventionBystander Intervention The following situational factors The following situational factors

determine whether someone will determine whether someone will help:help:2. Interpreting the Situation:2. Interpreting the Situation: The The situation must be determined to be situation must be determined to be one in which an emergency exists. Ifone in which an emergency exists. If others present do not seem to defineothers present do not seem to define the situation as an emergency then the situation as an emergency then you are less likely to help.you are less likely to help.


determine whether someone will determine whether someone will help:help:2. Taking Responsibility: 2. Taking Responsibility:

Generally in large groups no one Generally in large groups no one takes responsibility; everyone in thetakes responsibility; everyone in the group assumes that someone elsegroup assumes that someone else will or should take responsibility.will or should take responsibility.

• Diffusion of responsibility: a belief that someone Diffusion of responsibility: a belief that someone else will helpelse will help


determine whether someone will determine whether someone will help:help:

4. Deciding how to help: 4. Deciding how to help: Once the decision to help is made, the

question is how to help. If the person feels competent in the situation, she or he will often offer direct aid. If the person does not feel competent, she or he will offer indirect aid by calling for competent help.


determine whether someone will determine whether someone will help:help:

5. Helping: 5. Helping: After deciding to help and how to help,After deciding to help and how to help, some people are still too embarrassed some people are still too embarrassed to actually do so.to actually do so.

Audience inhibition: Audience inhibition: some people may be too some people may be too embarrassed to help because thy may feel embarrassed to help because thy may feel that they are being evaluated by other that they are being evaluated by other bystanders and may do something to be bystanders and may do something to be judged negatively.judged negatively.


Additional findings: Additional findings:

Happy people are helpful people. Happy people are helpful people.

chapter 18 social psychology. social psychology social psychology social psychology the study of how...

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