Chapter 14: Population and Urbanization

Living on Spaceship Earth

Soc 100 Dr. Santos

Introductory terms

Demography- the study of human populations Population- all permanent societies, states, communities,

adherents of a common religious faith, racial or ethnic groups, kinship or clan groups, professions, and other identifiable categories of people

Population momentum- the continued growth of a population even if birth rates per couple drop because the number of women of child bearing age is still very high

Below population replacement levels- population size may eventually drop because fewer people are being born than are dying

Urbanization- the movement of populations to cities

Historic and current patterns of population growth Result from:

Human adaptation in thinking and innovation over millenia in order to survive

The agricultural revolution ~ 10K years The industrial revolution ~ 250 years

Improved health and sanitation measures ~ 100 years

Population growth

Age and sex impact individuals’ positions in society and population growth/decline

Dependency ratio- the number of people under age 15 and over age 64 to the number between 15 and 64

The sex ratio- the ratio of males to females in the population

Determines how many women are eligible to give birth and the number of potential spouses

Population pyramids- a visual depiction of sex and dependency ratios

Explaining population growth

Malthusian theory - humans are driven to reproduce and population will increase exponentially unless checks are imposed

Since population increases geometrically but food supplies only increase arithmetically food shortages will result

“Positive checks” on population- wars, diseases, food shortages and famines

Malthus also suggested delayed marriage and abstinence until one could afford a family

Main criticisms of Malthus New agricultural techniques allowed food production to

increase geometrically Malthus did not realize that contraception was a

possibility Poverty does not inevitably result from population

growth - capitalism is a big part of it. Malthus ignored the consumption patterns of

industrialized nations and just blamed the scarcity of resources on the rapid population growth of poor developing nations.

Explaining population growth

Neo-Malthusians - added contraception to Malthus’ suggestions and acknowledged that corporate pollution and Western consumption is to blame for many societal problems worldwide.

Demographic transition theory - countries are believed to go through three stages of population, from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates.

Stages in the demographic transition theory Stage 1- high births, high deaths; pre-industrial, non-urban

societies; births may outpace deaths until disaster occurs Stage 2- high births, declining deaths; less-developed

countries; improvements in health, sanitation, and food availability

Stage 3- low births, low deaths; industrial and post-industrial; mostly small, nuclear families

Demographic transition theory fails to consider: Age at marriage Contraceptive availability A country’s land and resources Economic models, religious beliefs, and political philosophies

Criticism: Assumes that modernization between stages 2 and 3 result in rational choice about family size

Explaining population growth Wealth flow theory - two strategies operate in

decisions about family size (wealth flow from parents to children and vice versa)

When wealth flows from parents to children, family sizes are smaller

When children are working for their parents, family sizes are larger

Conflict theory - social and structural factors built into the economic system are the cause of poverty Capitalist structures result in wealth for capitalists and create

relative “overpopulation” and absolute poverty for workers Socialist societies, through planning, can absorb population

growth; all can find jobs as the system expands to include them

Policy implications of population patterns and economic development Since economic prosperity is a political goal,

population policies depend upon whether the government feels that population growth is good or bad for the economy

Population can be reduced by improved sex education, access to contraceptives, and providing opportunities for citizens (especially women) to obtain jobs and education; it can also be increased by immigration, safety net, pro-family laws

Meso-level analysis: Institutional influence on population change Terms

Size - overall number of people Composition- make-up of the population, including sex

ratio, age distribution, and religious or ethnic representation in the population

Distribution- density or concentration in various portions of the land

Demographic processes that affect population Fertility- birth rate Mortality- death rate Migration- movement of people from one place to another

Factors affecting fertility rates Governmental

Pro-natalist policies- policies that encourage fertility

Anti-natalist policies-policies that discourage fertility

Religious and cultural norms Education (especially for women) Economic Model & Policies

Mortality rates and national health care organizations Infant mortality rates are indicators of a

country’s status in the world Differences caused by national exploitation,

poverty, poor health care, malnutrition, etc. Even in the United States, minorities, those

under 18, unmarried, the poor, and less-educated women have less access to prenatal care => higher i.m.r.

Migration: Why and where people move

Push-pull theory- some people are pushed by their original locations by wars, plagues, famine, political or religious conflicts, economic crises, or other factors, and pulled to new locations by economic opportunities or political and religious tolerance

Internal migration- movement within a country

Rural to urban common Rates are high in the U.S. because of pull

migration

International migration- movement from one country to another

Often influenced by political unrest, discrimination, or environmental conditions as well as economic conditions

Has been tightly controlled in western countries recently, but illegal immigration still common

Urbanization: Movement from rural to urban areas Urbanization accompanies:

Modernization- transformation from traditional, mostly agrarian societies, to contemporary bureaucratized states

Industrialization- transformation from an agricultural base and handmade goods to manufacturing industries

Most people live in communities (locations that provide residents with a place to live; a sense of identity and belonging; neighbors and friends; activities and social involvements; and access to basic necessities such as food, jobs, schools, and health care)

Cities as micro-level living environments Tonnies - two types of community

extremes Gemeinschaft- small, traditional communities;

characterized by families and personal relationships and values

Gesellschaft- large, impersonal urban areas; characterized by formal relationships and contracts and a money economy; isolation

Cities as micro-level living environments Durkheim - two types of social bonds

Mechanical solidarity- shared beliefs, values, and traditions; homogeneity of thought; typical of rural areas and simple societies Order upheld by shared beliefs and values

Organic solidarity- society held together by a specialized division of labor; common in complex societies Order upheld by restitutive law in which individuals make

amends for wrong doing

Life in the city

Urban residential patterns Neighborhoods- identifiable areas within the larger

metropolitan area Meet most of the needs of residents Residents are homogenous with respect to income,

interests, ethnicity or race, etc. High degree of social interaction among residents Symbolic commitment

Suburbs- areas immediately adjacent to the city

Living in cities Simmel - the intensity and stimulation of city life

and the market effects on urban relations—causes city dwellers to be insensitive and avoid intense relationships to protect their privacy

Wirth - urban dwellers develop coping mechanisms for living in high-density, heterogeneous areas, including becoming sophisticated and depersonalizing from others

Fischer - urban life strengthens social groups, promotes diverse subcultures, and encourages intimate social circles among those who share similar activities or traits

How did cities evolve?

The Chicago School theory of urban development- cities grow in a series of circles, moving out from the center. Each circle is dominated by a particular type of activity and residential pattern

The Urban Question and Social Justice and the City theories of urban development- urban space is both socially defined and in scarce supply; therefore, political-economic conflict will arise over how space gets allocated and by whom

Conflict theories of urban development- city problems are a result of domination by elites, creating poverty and exploitation of the poor; urbanization and modernization are a cause of poverty

Types of cities

Urbanized nations- countries in which more than half of the population live in urban areas

Industrial cities- primarily commercial centers motivated by competition

Postindustrial cities- high percentage of employees in the service sector; closely tied to capitalism, global production, and instant exchanges of information

“New Towns”- cities built from scratch by urban planners as economically self‑sufficient entities with all necessary amenities

Gentrification- members of the middle and upper class, mostly young white professionals, buying and renovating rundown properties in central-city neighborhoods

Megacities- cities with over 10 million people Megalopolis- a spatial merging of two or more

cities along major transportation corridors Indigenous cities- traditional cities that usually

predate European ones; centers usually include a bazaar and religious and government buildings

Dual cities- modern westernized "colonial" central cities located next to a traditional, indigenous cities

Urban problems, the environment, and social policy: Macro-level perspectives Rural migrants and overcrowding Environment, infrastructure, and urban

ecosystems Poverty Crime and delinquency

Global trends that will affect urban planning Urbanization will continue Information and transportation technologies allow

for global contact and reduce commitment to certain geographical areas

International boundaries will diminish in importance

Economies will rely on brainwork rather than physical labor

Conflicts between cultural and political groups will continue to affect urban life

McDonaldization- creation of a consumer world dominated by major Western food, music, fashion, and entertainment-- will continue