Chapter 14 - Bones, Muscles, and Skin

Body Organization and Homeostasis

·The levels of organization in the body consist of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.·Homeostasis is the process by which an organism's internal environment is kept stable in spite of changes in the external environment.

The Skeletal System·Your skeleton provides shape and support, enables you to move, protects your organs, produces blood cells, and stores minerals and other materials until your body needs them.·Joints allow bones to move in different ways.·Bones are complex living structures that undergo growth and development.·A balanced diet and regular exercise are important for a life time of healthy bones.

The Muscular System·Your body has three types of muscle tissues - smooth, skeletal, and cardiac.·Skeletal muscles work in pairs. While one muscle contracts, the other muscle in the pair relaxes to its original length.

The Skin

·The skin has several functions: protection, maintaining temperature, eliminating wastes, gathering information, and making vitamin D.·The two skin layers are epidermis and dermis.·Three simple habits can help you keep your skin healthy. Eat a healthful diet. Keep your skin clean and dry. Limit your sun exposure.

Chapter 15

Food and Digestion

Food and Energy·Food provides the body with raw materials and energy.·Carbohydrates provide energy as well as the raw materials to make cell parts.·Fats provide energy and form a part of the cell membrane. Fatty tissue protects and insulates the body.·Proteins are needed for tissue growth and repair. They also play an important part in chemical reactions within cells.

Food and Energy·Vitamins and minerals are needed in small amounts to carry out chemical processes.·Water is the most important nutrient because the body's vital processes take place in water.·The USDA guidelines provide a personalized way to help people make healthy food choices based on their age, sex, and amount of physical activity.

The Digestive Process Begins·The digestive system breaks down food into molecules the body can use. Then the molecules are absorbed into the blood and carried throughout the body. Finally, wastes are eliminated.·Both mechanical and chemical digestion begins in the mouth. ·In the esophagus, contractions of smooth muscles push the food toward the summer.·Most mechanical digestion and some chemical digestion occurs in the stomach.

Final Digestion and Absorption·Almost all chemical digestion and absorption of nutrients takes place in the small intestine.·The liver produces, bile which breaks up fats.·The pancreas produces enzymes that help break down starches, proteins, and fats.·In the large intestine, water is absorbed into the bloodstream. The remaining material is readied for elimination.

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Chapter 16

Circulation

The Body's Transport System·The cardiovascular system carries needed substances to cells and carries waste products away from cells. In addition, blood contains cells that fight disease.·The heart pushes blood through the cardiovascular system. The right side of the heart is separated from the left side by the septum. Each side has an upper chamber and a lower chamber.

·Blood circulates in two loops. First, it travels from the heart to the lungs and then back to the heart. Second, it is pumped from the heart to the body and then it returns to the heart.·Blood leaves the heart through the arteries. When it reaches the capillaries, materials are exchanged between the blood and the body's cells. Veins carry blood back to the heart. The walls of arteries and veins consist of three layers. Capillary walls are only one cell thick.

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Blood and Lymph·Blood is made up of four components: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.·The marker molecules on your red blood cells determine your blood type and the type of blood that you can safely receive in transfusions.·The lymphatic system is a network of vein-like vessels that returns the fluid to the bloodstream.

Cardiovascular Health

·Diseases of the cardiovascular system include atherosclerosis and hypertension.·To help maintain cardiovascular health, people should exercise regularly; eat a balanced diet that is low in saturated fats and trans fats, cholesterol, and sodium; and avoid smoking.

The Respiratory System·The respiratory system moves oxygen from the outside environment into the body. It also removes carbon dioxide and water from the body.·As air travels from the outside environment to the lungs, it passes through the following structures: nose, pharynx, trachea, and bronchi.

·After air enters an alveolus, oxygen passes through the wall of the alveolus and then through the capillary wall into the blood. Carbon dioxide and water pass from the blood into the alveoli. This whole process is known as gas exchange.·When you breathe, the actions of your rib muscles and diaphragm expand or contract your chest, causing air to flow in or out.

Smoking and Your Health·Some of the most deadly chemicals in tobacco smoke are tar, carbon monoxide, and nicotine.·Over time smokers an develop chronic bronchitis, emphysema, lung cancer, and atherosclerosis.

The Excretory System·The excretory system is the system in the body that collects wastes produced by cells and removes the wastes from the body.·The structures of the excretory system that eliminate urea, water, and other wastes include the kidneys, ureters, the urinary bladder, and the urethra.·The nephrons filter wastes in stages. First, both wastes and needed materials, such as glucose, are filtered from the blood into a nephron. Then, much of the needed material is returned to the blood, and the wastes are eliminated from the body.·Excretion maintains homeostasis by keeping the body's internal environment stable and free of harmful levels of chemicals.

Infectious Disease·When you have an infectious disease, pathogens have gotten inside your body and caused harm.·The four major groups of human pathogens are bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protists.·Pathogens can spread through contact with either an infected person; soil, food, or water; a contaminated object; or an infected animal.

The Body's Defenses·In the first line of defense, the surfaces of the skin, breathing passages, mouth, and stomach function as barriers to pathogens. These barriers trap and kill most pathogens with which you come into contact.·In the inflammatory response, fluid and white blood cells lead from blood vessels into nearby tissues. The white blood cells then fight the pathogens.·The cells of the immune system can distinguish between different types of pathogens. The immune system cells react to each kind of pathogen with a defense targeted specifically at that pathogen.

The Body's Defenses·The cells of the immune system can distinguish between different types of pathogens. The immune system cells react to each kind of pathogen with a defense targeted specifically at that pathogen.·HIV is the only kind of virus known to attack the human immune system directly and destroy T cells. HIV can spread from one person to another only if body fluids from an infected person come in contact with those of an uninfected person.

Preventing Infectious Disease·A person acquires active immunity when their own immune system produces antibodies in response to the presence of a pathogen.·A person acquires passive immunity when the antibodies that fight the pathogen come from a source other than the person's body.

Noninfectious Disease·An allergy develops in response to various foreign substances that set off a series of reactions in the body.·A diabetic has high levels of glucose in the blood and excretes glucose in the urine. The person's body cells do not have enough glucose.·Cancer is a disease in which cells multiply uncontrollably and destroy healthy tissue.

MIND LAB

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How the Nervous System Works·The nervous system directs how your body responds to information about what is happening inside and outside your body. Your nervous system also helps maintain homeostasis.·The three kinds of neurons found in the body are sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.·For a nerve impulse to be carried along at a synapse, it must cross the gap between an axon and the next structure.

Divisions of the Nervous System·The central nervous system is the control center of the body. It includes the brain and spinal cord.·The peripheral nervous system consists of a network of nerves that branch out from the central nervous system and connect it to the rest of the body.·A reflex is an automatic response that occurs very rapidly and without conscious control.·Concussions and spinal cord injuries are two ways the central nervous system can be damaged.

The Senses·The eyes convert light into nerve impulses that your brain interprets, enabling you to see.·The ears convert sound into nerve impulses that your brain interprets, enabling you to hear. Structures in your inner ear control your sense of balance.·The senses of smell and taste work together.·The skin contains touch receptors that respond to a number of stimuli.

Alcohol and Other Drugs·Most abused drugs are dangerous because of their immediate effects on the nervous system. Long-term drug abuse can lead to addiction and other health and social problems.·Commonly abused drugs include depressants, stimulants, inhalants, steroids, and alcohol.·Alcohol use can destroy cells in the brain and liver, and lead to addiction.

The Endocrine System·The endocrine system produces chemicals that control many of the body's daily activities as well as growth and development.·The endocrine glands include the pituitary, hypothalamus, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, thymus, and pancreas. They include ovaries in females and testes in males.·Through negative feedback, when the amount of a particular hormone in the blood reaches a certain level, the endocrine system sends signals that stop the release of that hormone.

The Male and Female Reproductive Systems

·Sexual reproduction involves the production of eggs by the female and sperm by the male. The egg and sperm join during fertilization.

The Human Life Cycle·The zygote develops into an embryo and then into a fetus.·The membranes and other structures that form during development protect and nourish the developing embryo and then the fetus.·The birth of a baby takes place in three stages - labor, delivery, and afterbirth.·The changes that take place between infancy and adulthood include physical changes, such as an increase in size and coordination, and mental changes, such as the ability to communicate and solve complex problems.