chapter 13 meiosis. fig. 13-1 i. inheritance of genes genes = segments of dna genes are passed by...
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Chapter 13Chapter 13
Meiosis
Fig. 13-1
I. Inheritance of Genes
• Genes = segments of DNA
• Genes are passed by gametes (sperm and eggs)
• Each gene has a specific location (locus) on a chromosome
II. Asexual vs Sexual Reproduction
• Asexual reproduction = one parent, genetically identical offspring, mitosis
• Sexual reproduction = two parents, offspring have combinations of genes
Fig. 13-2
(a) Hydra (b) Redwoods
Parent
Bud
0.5 mm
III. Human Chromosomes
• Human somatic cells (body cells) have 23 pairs of chromosomes
• Karyotype = an ordered display of the pairs of chroms from a cell
• Homologous chromosomes = The two chroms in each pair (homologs)
• Chroms are same length and carry genes controlling the same traits
Fig. 13-3a
APPLICATION
Fig. 13-3b
TECHNIQUE
Pair of homologousreplicated chromosomes
Centromere
Sisterchromatids
Metaphasechromosome
5 µm
• Sex chromosomes are X and Y
• Human females have a pair of X chroms (XX)
• Human males have one X and one Y (XY)
• Autosomes = 22 pairs of chroms that do not determine sex
• Each pair of homologous chroms has one chrom from each parent
• Diploid cell (2n) has two sets of chromosomes
• For humans, the diploid number is 46 (2n = 46)
• In a cell in which DNA synthesis has occurred, each chromosome is replicated (two identical sister chromatids)
Fig. 13-4
Key
Maternal set ofchromosomes (n = 3)
Paternal set ofchromosomes (n = 3)
2n = 6
Centromere
Two sister chromatidsof one replicatedchromosome
Two nonsisterchromatids ina homologous pair
Pair of homologouschromosomes(one from each set)
• Gamete contains a single set of chroms, and is haploid (n) (monoploid)
• Humans, haploid number is 23 (n = 23)
• Each set of 23 = 22 autosomes + 1 sex chrom
• In an unfertilized egg (ovum), the sex chrom is X
• In a sperm cell, the sex chrom may be either X or Y
• Fertilization = union of gametes
• Zygote = fertilized egg and has one set of chroms from each parent (2n)
• Produces somatic cells by mitosis and develops into an adult
IV. Chromosomes in Human Life Cycle
• At maturity, ovaries and testes produce haploid (n) gametes
• Gametes are only types of human cells produced by meiosis (23 chroms, 1 from each pair)
Fig. 13-5Key
Haploid (n)Diploid (2n)
Haploid gametes (n = 23)
Egg (n)
Sperm (n)
MEIOSIS FERTILIZATION
Ovary Testis
Diploidzygote(2n = 46)
Mitosis anddevelopment
Multicellular diploidadults (2n = 46)
V. Stages of Meiosis
• First cell division (meiosis I), homologous chroms separate
• Meiosis I = two haploid daughter cells with replicated chrom; reductional division
• Second cell division (meiosis II), sister chromatids separate
• Meiosis II = four haploid daughter cells with unreplicated chroms; equational division
Fig. 13-7-1Interphase
Homologous pair of chromosomesin diploid parent cell
Chromosomesreplicate
Homologous pair of replicated chromosomes
Sisterchromatids Diploid cell with
replicated chromosomes
Fig. 13-7-2Interphase
Homologous pair of chromosomesin diploid parent cell
Chromosomesreplicate
Homologous pair of replicated chromosomes
Sisterchromatids Diploid cell with
replicated chromosomes
Meiosis I
Homologouschromosomesseparate
1
Haploid cells withreplicated chromosomes
Fig. 13-7-3Interphase
Homologous pair of chromosomesin diploid parent cell
Chromosomesreplicate
Homologous pair of replicated chromosomes
Sisterchromatids Diploid cell with
replicated chromosomes
Meiosis I
Homologouschromosomesseparate
1
Haploid cells withreplicated chromosomes
Meiosis II
2 Sister chromatidsseparate
Haploid cells with unreplicated chromosomes
Fig. 13-8
Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase ITelophase I and
CytokinesisProphase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II and
Cytokinesis
Centrosome(with centriole pair)
Sisterchromatids Chiasmata
Spindle
Homologouschromosomes
Fragmentsof nuclearenvelope
Centromere(with kinetochore)
Metaphaseplate
Microtubuleattached tokinetochore
Sister chromatidsremain attached
Homologouschromosomesseparate
Cleavagefurrow
Sister chromatidsseparate Haploid daughter cells
forming
Prophase I
• Occupies more than 90% of time needed for meiosis
• Chromosomes condense
• Synapsis = homologous chroms loosely pair up, aligned gene by gene
VI. Meiosis I
• Crossing over = nonsister chromatids exchange DNA segments
• Each pair of chromosomes forms a tetrad, a group of four chromatids
• Usually has one or more chiasmata, X-shaped regions where crossing over occurred
Metaphase I
• Tetrads line up at the metaphase plate, one chrom facing each pole
• Microtubules attached to the kinetochore of each chromosome of each tetrad
Fig. 13-8b
Prophase I Metaphase I
Centrosome(with centriole pair)
Sisterchromatids Chiasmata
Spindle
Centromere(with kinetochore)
Metaphaseplate
Homologouschromosomes
Fragmentsof nuclearenvelope
Microtubuleattached tokinetochore
Anaphase I
• Pairs of homologous chroms separate, sister chromatids remain attached
Telophase I and Cytokinesis
• Each half of the cell has a haploid set of chroms; each chrom still consists of two sister chromatids
• Cytokinesis forms two haploid daughter cells
• No chrom replication occurs between meiosis I and meiosis II
Fig. 13-8c
Anaphase ITelophase I and
Cytokinesis
Sister chromatidsremain attached
Homologouschromosomesseparate
Cleavagefurrow
Prophase II
• Spindle apparatus forms
• Chroms (composed of two chromatids) move toward the metaphase plate
VII. Meiosis II
Metaphase II
• Sister chromatids are arranged at the metaphase plate
• Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister chromatids of each chromosome are no longer genetically identical
• Kinetochores attach to microtubules
Fig. 13-8e
Prophase II Metaphase II
Anaphase II
• Sister chromatids separate
• Sister chromatids of each chrom now move as two newly individual chroms
Telophase II and Cytokinesis
• Nuclei form, and the chroms begin decondensing
• Cytokinesis makes four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of unreplicated chroms
• Daughter cells are genetically distinct from the others and from the parent cell
Fig. 13-8f
Anaphase IITelephase II and
Cytokinesis
Sister chromatidsseparate Haploid daughter cells
forming
• Meiosis - Andersen (9 min)
• Mitosis / Meiosis Simulation - Andersen (12 min)
VIII. Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis
• Mitosis keeps the number of chromosomes the same, producing cells that are genetically identical to the parent
• Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes sets from two (diploid) to one (haploid), producing cells that differ genetically from each other and from the parent
• Mechanism for separating sister chromatids is virtually identical in meiosis II and mitosis
Fig. 13-9a
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
MEIOSIS I
Prophase I
Chiasma
Chromosomereplication
Homologouschromosomepair
Chromosomereplication
2n = 6
Parent cell
Prophase
Replicated chromosome
Metaphase Metaphase I
Anaphase ITelophase I
Haploid n = 3
Daughter cells ofmeiosis I
MEIOSIS II
Daughter cells of meiosis II
nnnn
2n2n
Daughter cellsof mitosis
AnaphaseTelophase
Fig. 13-9b
SUMMARY
MeiosisMitosisProperty
DNAreplication
Number ofdivisions
Occurs during interphase beforemitosis begins
One, including prophase, metaphase,anaphase, and telophase
Synapsis ofhomologouschromosomes
Does not occur
Number ofdaughter cellsand geneticcomposition
Two, each diploid (2n) and geneticallyidentical to the parent cell
Role in theanimal body
Enables multicellular adult to arise fromzygote; produces cells for growth, repair,and, in some species, asexual reproduction
Occurs during interphase before meiosis I begins
Two, each including prophase, metaphase, anaphase, andtelophase
Occurs during prophase I along with crossing overbetween nonsister chromatids; resulting chiasmatahold pairs together due to sister chromatid cohesion
Four, each haploid (n), containing half as many chromosomesas the parent cell; genetically different from the parentcell and from each other
Produces gametes; reduces number of chromosomes by halfand introduces genetic variability among the gametes
• Three events are unique to meiosis (all three occur in meiosis l):
– Synapsis and crossing over in prophase I: Homologous chromosomes physically connect and exchange genetic information
– At the metaphase plate, there are paired homologous chromosomes (tetrads), instead of individual replicated chromosomes
– At anaphase I, it is homologous chromosomes, instead of sister chromatids, that separate
Cell Cycle / Mitosis / Meiosis - Andersen (14 min)
IX. Genetic Variation in Offspring
• Mvmt of chroms during meiosis and fert gives variation
• Mutations (changes in DNA) are original source of genetic diversity
• Mutations create different versions of genes (alleles, A or a)
• Reshuffling of alleles during sexual reproduction produces genetic variation
A. Independent Assortment of Chromosomes
• Homologous chroms orient randomly at metaphase I of meiosis
• Each pair of chroms sorts maternal and paternal homologues into daughter cells independently of the other pairs
• Number of combinations possible is 2n, where n is the haploid number
• Humans (n = 23), there are more than 8 million (223) possible combinations
Fig. 13-11-1
Possibility 1 Possibility 2
Two equally probablearrangements ofchromosomes at
metaphase I
Fig. 13-11-2
Possibility 1 Possibility 2
Two equally probablearrangements ofchromosomes at
metaphase I
Metaphase II
Fig. 13-11-3
Possibility 1 Possibility 2
Two equally probablearrangements ofchromosomes at
metaphase I
Metaphase II
Daughtercells
Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 Combination 4
B. Crossing Over
• Produces recombinant chromosomes (combine genes inherited from each parent)
• Begins in prophase I, as homologous chroms pair up gene by gene
• Homologous portions of two nonsister chromatids trade places
• Variations come from combining DNA from two parents into a single chromosome
Fig. 13-12-1Prophase Iof meiosis
Pair ofhomologs
Nonsisterchromatidsheld togetherduring synapsis
Fig. 13-12-2Prophase Iof meiosis
Pair ofhomologs
Nonsisterchromatidsheld togetherduring synapsis
Chiasma
CentromereTEM
Fig. 13-12-3Prophase Iof meiosis
Pair ofhomologs
Nonsisterchromatidsheld togetherduring synapsis
Chiasma
Centromere
Anaphase I
TEM
Fig. 13-12-4Prophase Iof meiosis
Pair ofhomologs
Nonsisterchromatidsheld togetherduring synapsis
Chiasma
Centromere
Anaphase I
Anaphase II
TEM
Fig. 13-12-5Prophase Iof meiosis
Pair ofhomologs
Nonsisterchromatidsheld togetherduring synapsis
Chiasma
Centromere
Anaphase I
Anaphase II
Daughtercells
Recombinant chromosomes
TEM
C. Random Fertilization
• Variation arises because any sperm can fuse with any ovum (unfertilized egg)
• Fusion of two gametes (each with 8.4 million possible combinations from ind assort) produces a zygote with about 70 trillion diploid combinations
• Crossing over adds even more variation
X. Evolution and Genetic Variation
• Natural selection results in the accumulation of genetic variations favored by the environment
• Sexual reproduction contributes to the genetic variation in a population, which originates from mutations
You should now be able to:
1. Distinguish between the following terms: somatic cell and gamete; autosome and sex chromosomes; haploid and diploid
2. Describe the events that characterize each phase of meiosis
3. Describe three events that occur during meiosis I but not mitosis
4. Name and explain the three events that contribute to genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms
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