Chapter 12

Interconnectivity of humans within the physical environment both in the long and short run

Effects of the natural and built environments and associated spatial determinants that influence the satisfaction of basic needs

Axis Orientations• Two axes run north-south across the Americas &

Africa• One axis runs east-west across Europe to Asia• East-West axis eased the diffusion of new

technologies throughout Europe and Asia due to common climate features, whereas the Americas and Africa lagged behind.

Sahara Desert• Cuts sub-Saharan Africa off from northern Africa• The expanding Roman Empire spread

technological advancements throughout Europe and Northern Africa, but sub-Saharan Africa lagged behind

GDP varies greatly around the globe and many physical features contribute to this inequality.• Nations in tropical regions and landlocked nations

tend to fall among the lower income nations.• Nations in higher latitudes and with access to a body

of water tend to fall among higher income nations. Trade and movement of goods between two

nations decreases with distance.• Isolated countries and those in low-development area

are prevented from receiving new technologies needed to fully develop.

Source: CIA World Factbook

2009 GDP in current U.S. Dollars (Billions)

Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators (2009)

Why did certain religions spread so quickly?• The largest religions (Christianity and Islam),

along with others, are universalizing religions— these religions attempt to convert others.

• Ethnic religions remained confined to a specific region— these religions are something one is born into rather than converted to.

• Human migration also eased the spread of religion.

Source: Teacherweb (accessed 07/01/11)

Ecosystems Theory

Cultural Ecology

Adaptation and dependence on the environment are crucial to understanding societal development of evolution

Analyzes the everyday transactions of individuals across many layers of social interaction

The extent to which humans adapt to environmental circumstances requires specific kinds of behaviors by humans

The affect of meeting basic needs on the physical environment

Life Above the Arctic Circle• Culture is adapted to life in an extreme climate,

with almost every behavior, even rituals, tied to climate.

• Residents, who consume a high-fat diet for warmth, live in small groups or villages, and employment tends to be limited to hunting or fishing.

Seasonal Affective Disorder• Occurs during fall and winter when there is reduced

sunlight.• Involves symptoms of depression.

What nations experience the highest death toll?

Wealthier nations experience fewer deaths from natural disasters than poorer nations.

Higher elevated nations are less likely to experience natural disasters that result in high death tolls.

More democratic nations experience lower death tolls from natural disasters.

Geospatial analysis• Mapping of disaster-related stress within a

disaster area• Helps direct services in disaster areas where

stress loads are their highest Levels of PTSD vary with respect to severity of

disaster and proximity to the disaster.

Humans are increasingly congregating in cities

Spatial characteristics affect the health and well-being for residents in cities• County-level sprawl• Spatial organization of racial discrimination

The Baltimore Ecosystem Study questioned:1. Relationship between spatial structures

(socioeconomic, ecological, and physical) and change through time

2. Relationship between fluxes of energy and matter with human, built, and social capital and change through time

3. Improvements in environment quality through better understanding of ecological system

Inferences about specific individuals based on aggregate patterns or data

Helpfulness of making generalizations about a phenomenon, but dangers in assuming it applies to everyone

Homes, office buildings, roads, and other constructions built by humans

Effect of built environment on:• Health-related behaviors

Association between paint peeling and water leakage with alcohol use and higher stress levels

• Worker productivity• Worker well-being

Lack of information on rural ecology• Acceleration of humans migrating to cities• Diversity of rural areas

Increased poverty in non-metro areas Benefits of natural habitats for rural

residents

Two Frameworks• Situationist Perspective

Factors external to the individual that are components of a given situation contribute strongly to a particular behavior

• Dispositional Perspective Internal factors of an individual, such as traits or

thought processes, contribute strongly to a particular behavior

Background• 1971 study conducted by Philip Zimbardo• Simulation of situational social roles and the

ecology of a prison• 24 research volunteers: 12 given the role of

inmates, 12 given the role of prison guards Volunteers were Stanford students, of sound mental

and physical health, with no history of violence Volunteers were given uniforms, and inmates

subject to degradation rituals to facilitate simulation

The Study• Prison guards used punishment to keep

order Emotional and physical abuse Tactics used to confuse inmates and eliminate

trust among them• Inmates attempted rebellion and prison

escape• Ended early after only 6 days because too

much abuse and distress had occurred

Findings• Study results defended the situationist

perspective Prior to study, prison inmates and guards were

characterized as behaving in a certain manner due to internal factors

Study showed that individuals display extreme behaviors when placed in an extreme situation

Productivity• Characteristics of office space affect productivity

by as much as 20%• Impact of traditional versus open planned space

Health• Plants were found to have a moderating affect

on blood pressure during stressful work• Windows in an office space were found to reduce

heart rate, whereas plasma screens displaying natural scenery had a limited impact.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)• Computer software packages analyzing spatial

data• Connects behavior to spatial patterns• Uses

Police Departments: assessing crime “hot spots” Human Service Professionals: determining service

needs Public Health: mapping disease outbreaks and

effects

Fetal environment and infancy Early childhood and childhood Adolescence Adulthood

Infant mortality rate• Population characteristics such as

race/ethnicity and economic opportunities predict much of the variation across states

• Relative poverty predicts variation across economically advanced nations

Neighborhood decay/disintegration• Reduced supervision of children• Reduced contact with other children Limits on socialization

Sexual development and developing countries• Variation in contraceptive practices• Variation in teen pregnancy Lower in Asia and Southeast Asia Higher in sub-saharan Africa, Latin America, and Caribbean

Food insecurity• Running out of food and not having enough

money to buy more• In a Texas study, 18.6% of older adults

reported food insecurity• Characteristics of one’s community predicted

risk for insecurity Decreased risk of food insecurity were associated with higher levels of community involvement and positive perceptions of the physical state of the community

Geographic features of the planet contribute to inequalities between cultures.

The method by which people meet basic needs directly affects the physical environment.

Climate influences how we live our everyday life. The growth of urban migration has expanded

knowledge on the impact of urban ecology on human behavior.

Extreme environments are associated with extreme behaviors.

Behavior throughout one’s life course is affected by spatial location.