Chapter 12

Additional Research Approaches

Additional Approaches in Research in HHP

Methods not as prevalent as those previously presented, but may have application in some areas of HHP• Historical• Epidemiological• Single Participant• Creative Activities

Historical Approach

The researcher attempts to record and understand events of the past in order to better explain present events and suggest possible future directions

Nature of Historical Research

Involves collection of data Through the eyes of other people who

witnessed an event or wrote about it Why we do certain things today is based

on what has happened to us in the past• Need to understand the past• Discovery of new data/information may lead to

new interpretations

Sources of Historical Data

Primary sources Secondary sources

Primary sources

Source is directly connected to the event of interest

Original documents or physical artifacts People that can provide eyewitness

testimony Highest credibility and preferred data

source

Secondary sources

Secondhand accounts of historical happenings

Hearsay evidence . . . person is not directly tied to event

Textbooks, newspapers, encyclopedias, etc.

Considered less reliable source of data

Evaluating Historical Data Historical data must be critically evaluated to

determine authenticity and worth External criticism

• Physical or chemical tests of documents• Tests of signature, script, and handwriting• Consistency of language usage

Internal criticism• Assesses the meaning of the content• Author’s motives• Consistency with other reports of same event

Two or more independent sources are needed to verify a historical fact

Oral History

Oral history research is conducted through taped interviews with individuals in a position to recall various events or movements

Oral history information can be very subjective and opinionated

Strict application of external and internal criticism should be observed

Biographical Research

Study of the life, career, and contributions of persons of interests . . . often leading scholars, coaches, educators, etc.

Often based on extensive personal interviews of the person of interest supplemented with interviews of others

Epidemiological Approach

Descriptive epidemiology – • seeking to identify patterns or trends in

disease, injury, or death Analytic epidemiology –

• seeking to determine causation of disease, injury, or death

Common in public health fields

Research Designs

Cohort studies• a.k.a as prospective studies – a study that

begins with a group of people (a cohort) and follows them over time

Case-control studies • AKA as retrospective studies – a study

comparing a group who already have a condition of interest to a group that does not

Case group – the group with the characteristic of interest (e.g., cancer)

Control group – the group without the characteristic of interest

Epidemiological Statistics Used to Measure Strength of an

Association

Relative risk (RR) Odds ratio (OR) Attributable risk (AR)

Relative Risk (RR)

The extent to which it is more (or less) likely that a health problem or condition will occur in an exposed group compared to an unexposed group• RR = 1 no relationship between exposure and condition• RR > 1 positive relationship; means that those exposed

are x times more likely to contract the condition• RR < 1 negative relationship; means that those exposed

are x times less likely to contract the condition

Applicable statistic for cohort studies

Odds Ratio (OR)

The most common measure of association between exposure and health outcome

An estimate of relative risk• It is the odds of a health problem or condition

occurring in an exposed group (case group) compared to an unexposed group (control group)

• Interpretation is similar to that of RR Applicable statistic for case-control studies

Attributable Risk (AR)

Index of the percent of cases in the total group (unexposed group) that occur in the group with a risk factor (exposed group)

Difference between the incidence rate for the exposed group minus the incidence rate for the unexposed group divided by the incidence rate of the unexposed group

Applicable statistic for cohort studies

Single Participant Approach

a.k.a. “single subject research” Research conducted on the individual level

with the performance of each research participant, rather than the group, being analyzed

Behavior or performance of each participant is evaluated across time with each participant serving as their own control

Collection and Analysis

The basic approach is to obtain a baseline measure on the participant, administer a treatment, then obtain another measure on the participant

Comparisons are made between the baseline score and the treatment score

Applied behavior analysis (ABA)

Research Designs

Baseline data are collected (A)• To ensure a stable measure at baseline, data

may be collected on multiple occasions• Graphing is useful technique to show data path

Treatment data are collected (B)• A-B design• A-B-A-B design (more common)• Others

Nonparametric statistics

Creative Activities

Creative research vs. creative activity Involves the creation or development of

some art form that is considered new or unique• Common in dance or fine arts• Artist, painter, dancer, sculptor, musician, etc.

Evaluation of Creative Activity

Exhibitions or displays Performances or recitals Standards for evaluation

• Judges or critics evaluate• Honors and awards received• Acknowledgments• Receipt of grants