chapter 10 thinking and language 10-1 thinking 1. describe the nature of concepts and the role of...
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 10
Thinking and Language
10-1 Thinking
1. Describe the nature of concepts and the role of prototypes in concept formation.2. Discuss how we use trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, and insight to solve
problems.3. Describe how the confirmation bias and fixation can interfere with effective problem
solving.4. Explain how the representativeness and availability heuristics influence our
judgments.5. Describe the effects that overconfidence and framing can have on our judgments
and decisions.6. Discuss how our beliefs distort logical reasoning, and describe the belief
perseverancephenomenon.
7. Describe artificial intelligence, and contrast the human mind and the computer as information processors.
10-1
Thinking Q1. A man bought a horse for $60 and sold it for $70. Then he bought the
same horse back for $80 and again sold it for $90. How much money did he make in the horse business?
Q2. A man bought a horse for $60 and sold it for $70. Then he bought firewood for $80 and again sold it for $90. How much money did he make?
Question 2 is much easier b/c of the way that the question is framed. Framing - the way an (issue or question) is posed
how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments (it may or may not—ie open ended question)
Another Example: What is the best way to market ground beef--as 25% fat or 75% lean?
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Thinking thinking- the mental activity involved in the understanding, processing,
and communication of infoaka <<cognition>> Cognitive Psychologists
study these mental activities concept formation problem solving decision making judgment formation
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Thinking
Concept mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people ex. concept of a ball-football, golf ball, basketball, baseball, bouncing ball, crystal ball Concepts can be subdivided into hierarchies
Prototype mental image or best example of a category
matching new items to the prototype provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin)
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Thinking
Algorithm methodical,formulaic logical rule or procedure that guarantees
solving a particular problem contrasts with the usually speedier–but also more error-prone--
use of heuristics
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Thinking
Heuristic “Cognitive shortcut” simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make
judgments and solve problems efficiently usually speedier than algorithms more error-prone than algorithms
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Thinking
Unscramble
S P L O Y O C H Y G Algorithm
all 907,208 combinations Heuristic
throw out all YY combinations other heuristics?
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Thinking
Insight sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a
problem without; an “epiphany” contrasts with strategy-based solutions Exc: The “Aha!” Experience
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Thinking
Fig 1: side view of squinting face or soldier & dog passing archway?
Fig 2: ghoul & ears looking over fence or custodian cleaning floor?
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Thinking
You just me Stood
wellView
HUH?
What is the smallest # of links that need to be opened and resoldered to make a continous chain of 15?
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Thinking Riddles:
1. The maker doesn’t want it, the buyer doesn’t use it, and the user doesn’t see it. What is it? Coffin
2. A man left home one morning. He turned right and ran striaght ahead. Then he turned left. After a while, he turned left again, running faster than ever. Then he turned left once more and decided to go home. In the distance he could see two masked men waiting for him. Who were they?The umpire and the other team’s catcher
3. Translate: YYURYYUBICURYY4METoo wise you are, too wise you be, I see you are, too wise for me.
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Thinking Confirmation Bias
tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions and ignore contradictory information
David Levy Study-- Asked college kids to interview to determine introversion/
extroversion ½ were asked to det if interviewee was ext (asked ext rel q’s) ½ to det if int was int (asked int rel q’s) Therapists may selectively elicit clinical information that affirms
their initial diagnostic impressions Ie. Have you had occasion to drink alone? (who hasn’t – are we
all alcs?)
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ThinkingObjectives:
3. Describe how the confirmation bias and fixation can interfere with effective problem solving.
4. Explain how the representativeness and availability heuristics influence our judgments.
6. Discuss how our beliefs distort logical reasoning, and describe the belief perseverancephenomenon.
8. Describe the structure of language in terms of sounds, meanings, and grammar.
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Thinking
Fixation inability to see a problem from a new perspective impediment to problem solving Once we incorrectly represent the problem, it’s hard to
restructure how we approach it
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The Matchstick Problem
How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles?
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The Matchstick Problem
Solution to the matchstick problem
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Thinking
Mental Set tendency to approach a problem in a particular way especially a way that has been successful in the past
but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem Like a perceptual set but it affects problem solving << ment set is a type of fixation as is functional
fixedness>>
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Thinking What number is next in this series?
10,4,3,11,15……..?a. 14 b. 1 c. 17 d. 12
TenFourThree ElevenFifteenfourteen
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Thinking
Functional Fixedness tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual
functions impediment to problem solving Ie. Looking all over house for a screwdriver instead of
using nickel in pocket. Walking through rain w/ newspaper under arm rather
than using as umbrella
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The Candle-Mounting Problem
Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?
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The Candle-Mounting Problem
Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container
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Heuristics
Representativeness Heuristic judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well
they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes
may lead one to ignore other relevant information
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Heuristics – Rep
Linda is 31, single, outspoken and very bright. She majored in philosophy in college. As a student, she was deeply concerned with discrimination and other social issues, and she participated in antinuclear demonstrations. Which statement is more likely?
a. Linda is a bank tellerb. Linda is a bank teller and active in the feminist movement>>the probability of 2 uncertain events occurring together is always
less than the odds of either happening alone.P 389-390: Truck Driver or Poet??
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Heuristics
Availability Heuristic estimating the likelihood of events based on their
availability in memory if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because
of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Example: airplane crash seen on news leads one to drive
Classroom exc-deaths per 100k
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Thinking
Overconfidence tendency to be more confident than correct tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s
beliefs and judgments
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Thinking
Belief Bias the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort
logical reasoning sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or
valid conclusions seem invalid
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Thinking
No Gox box when in purple socks.
Jocks is a Gox wearing purple socks.
Therefore Jocks does not now box.
Logical Conclusion?
No cars run when they’re out of fuel.
My car is out of fuel.
Therefore my car does not now run.
Logical Conclusion?
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Thinking
>>both are valid but we are not strictly logical thinkers and beliefs can distort logic which is why the 2nd conclusion is easier to ascertain
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Thinking
Some A are B.Some B are C.Therefore some A are C.Seems Logical, Right?
Some women are Democrats.Some Democrats are men.Therefore some women are men. Maybe not.>>both are invalid
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Thinking
Some A are B.
Some B are C.
Therefore some A are C.
Some cars are Toyotas.
Some Toyotas are trucks.
Therefore some cars are trucks.
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Thinking
Belief Perseverance clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on
which they were formed has been discredited Once we form belief, we ignore contrary evidence Once beliefs form and get justified, it takes more
compelling evidence to change them than it did to create them
Ex p 396 Mark Lepper firefighters as cautious or risk taker pers type
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Artificial Intelligence
“Mary saw a bicycle in the store window. She wanted it.” We draw from vast amts of knowledge and schemas that have nothing to do
w/ syntax. We know 100 mil things about the world. Does a computer know what Mary wants? Artificial Intelligence designing and programming computer systems
to do intelligent things to simulate human thought processes
intuitive reasoning learning understanding language
Check out: http://www.cyc.org
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Artificial Intelligence
Computer Neural Networks computer circuits that mimic the brain’s
interconnected neural cells performing tasks
learning to recognize visual patterns learning to recognize smells
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Language
Language Structure phonemes – smallest distinctive sound unit of a language a set of basic sounds ex. b, a, t, ch, k, s English language has about 40 consonant phonemes carry more info than vowel phonemes <<The treth of thes statement shed be evedent frem thes bref
demenstrtretien.>> people who grow up learning one set of phonemes usually have
difficulty pronouncing phonemes from other languages ex. th sound tough for a German, says “dis” for this Ich (German for I) is tough for native Eng spkrs
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Language
Chat- How many phonemes? 3 – CH A T morpheme- the smallest unit of language that carries meaning usually a combo of 2 or more phonemes however, some phonemes are also morphemes ex. I some morphemes are words like bat, but prefixes and suffixes are
also morphemes —bat(s)- 2 morphemes Undesirables- How many morphemes? 4- UN DESIR ABLE S
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Language
grammar- system of rules that enables us to communicate w/ and understand others
– made up of syntax and semanticssemantics – the set of rules by which we derive meaning from
morphemes, words and sentencesex. adding –ed to a verb makes it past tensesyntax – rules for ordering words into sentences
ex. adj. Come before nouns-not true in Spanish (white house v casa blanca)
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10-2 Language
9. Trace the course of language acquisition from the babbling stage through language explosion stage.
10. Explain how the nature-nurture debate is illustrated in the various theories of language development.
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Language Development
U know apx 80k words After age 1 – learn avg of 13/ day and 5k/ yr Most parents struggle stating rules of syntax but before children
can add 2+2, they’re creating grammatically correct sentences Preschoolers comprehend & speak w/ a facility that puts college
students trying to learn for lang to shame Children know that sounds comm meaning and thus move from
babbling to one word stage
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Language Development
Acquiring Language infants are born w/ no language by 4 months can understand cause and effect and discriminate
speech sounds> marks beginning of the babbling stage
when babies utter nonsense sounds unrelated to the language of their parents -ex. ah-goo, da-da-da-da-da
not an imitation of adult speech you can’t discern nationality from babbling and deaf children also
babble before 10 months babies can make a wide variety of phonemes,
they begin to lose this ability at this point by 10 months babbling has changed enough to guess nationality
10-2
Language We are all born to recognize speech sounds from all
the world’s languages
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage ableto discriminateHindi t’s
Hindi-speaking
adults
6-8 months
8-10months
10-12months
English-speaking
adultsInfants from English-speaking homes
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Language One-Word Stage (12 mos)
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Language
Two-Word Stage beginning about age 2 the stage in speech development during which a child
speaks in mostly two-word statements Also Called: Telegraphic Speech
child speaks like a telegram-–“go car”--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting “auxiliary” words
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Language
Summary of Language Development
Month(approximate)
Stage
4
10
12
24
24+
Babbles many speech sounds.
Babbling reveals households language.
One-word stage.
Two-word, telegraphic speech.
Language develops rapidly intocomplete sentences.
*18 mo – go from 1 new word/ wk to 1/ day
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Language
Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and experience activates them as it modifies the brain
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Language
New language learning gets harder with age
100
90
80
70
60
50Native 3-7 8-10 11-15 17-39
Percentage correct ongrammar test
Age at school
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Explaining Language Development
Nature v. Nurture Debate resurfaces Chomsky v. Skinner BF Skinner (behaviorist-Nurture)-explained lang dev w/
learning principles1. Association-sight of things w/ sound2. Imitation/ Modeling/ Observational Learning-of words spoken by others3. Reinforcement-success, smiles & hugs
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Language
Noam Chomsky (Nativist Theory)—disagrees Believes children do learn from environment <<BUT>> They acquire untaught words & grammar too quickly to be explained solely
by learning. Stated Skinner failed to exp how kids learn syntax w/o having been taught
grammar>>children generate unique, complex sentences that they’ve never heard>>idea of L.A.D. – Language Acquisition Device and Critical Period>>principles of language are in our genes>>Lenneberg>>Overregularization/ Overgeneralization of Grammar supports idea of
universal grammar/ language (Chomsky)ie. He “holded” the candy.
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Language
11. Discuss Whorf’s linguistic determinism hypothesis and the relationship between thought and language.
12. Describe the research on animal intelligence and communication and discuss the controversy over whether animals have language.
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Thinking & Language
Linguistic Determinism (Linguistic Relativism) Whorf”s hypothesis that language determines the way we think Hopi no past tense (Whorf thought they couldn’t conceptualize past) Eng v Jap (Eng-lots of self-focused vocab, Jap-more vocab for interpersonal
relations)-bilinguals report different sense of self depending on what language they’re using
Univ of Waterloo Study (2002) asked China-born bilingual students to desc self in Chinese and English
In English-self desc mostly positive self statements In Chinese-equal positive and negative self-statements (balance)>>lang shaped how they thought about themselves
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Language
The interplay of thought and language
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Animal Thinking and Language
Animals communicate Does their communication = language? Aristotle thought lone honeybee led others to honey source 1901-German rsrchr trapped lone bee when it returned to
hive; others still flew straight to honey Karl von Frisch (1950) won Nobel Prize for experiment
showing that explorer bee communicated honey location through a dance
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Animal Thinking and Language
The straight-line part of the dance points in the direction of a nectar source, relative to the sun
Duration of dance indicates distance
Dance signals # of landmarks passed in route
>>bees do communicate but not w/ complexity of humans
Direction ofnectar source
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Animal Thinking and Language
Do animals think? Monkeys display object permanence Rsrchrs found 39 local customs related to chimp tool
use, grooming, courtship Tool development and use shows that chimps can
solve problems shaped by reinforcement Chimps display insight>>Wolfgang Kohler (1925) exp with Sultan (p413) Animals do not show Theory of Mind (p 414 & p151)
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Animal Thinking and Language
Chimps are our closest genetic relative 1969 Allen & Beatrix Gardner teach chimp Washoe sign
language (learns 132 signs)>>generated scientific & public interest in animal language
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Animal Thinking and Language
Human Lang may’ve evolved from Gestured Communication
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Animal Thinking and Language
Is this really language?
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Animal Thinking and Language
Critics: It’s just operant behavior. Chimp uses “you tickle” and “tickle you”
interchangeably>>chimps do not develop language (syntax) Perceptual sets at work in trainers’ wishful thinking in
interpreting chimp signs as language>>Washoe signing water bird is just separately naming
water and bird
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