What is language?

언어란무엇인가?

Linguistics

Linguistics: Science of language =

Q: What/how much do you know about

language?

What Linguistics know…..

1.Every human & human society use

language.

2.Language is biological and genetic.

3.Language is unique to human beings.

4.Child acquires language without

intentional efforts.

5.Any normal child is capable of learning

any language to which he or she is

exposed.

• Language is complex.

• However, all languages are equally

complex.

• Every language has systematic rules in

the construction of words, sentences, and

meaning.

• A person’s knowledge of their native

language is implicit and sub-conscious:

that is, you don’t know what you know

about language.

• Knowing a language means knowing rules

for constructing linguistic elements.

• Language is creative.

• Language is not just learned from your

environment including your parents or

teachers.

• Every language undergoes change.

• Every language varies according to region,

speaker identity and situation.

• Language can define communities and

identity.

• Language is a live thing just like human

beings – it can be born, grow up, and die.

The structures of language

• Grammars: sound systems, word/sentence structure, meaning

• Language in the brain: where are the language centers in the brain?

• Language acquisition: how can we acquire language?

• Language for communication: how do people differ in their use of language for communication? (by region/gender/situation)?

• Language processing: what kind of rules are involved in language processing?

The big ideas

#1. 언어(language)는인간의고유한생물학적특성(biological) 이다.

-모든인간은언어를가지고있다.

-언어사용은인간만이가지고있는유전학적특성이다. (genetic endowment)

-인간을제외한다른동물세계는언어를가지고있지않다.

#2. 언어는창의적이다 (creative)

-언어를배운다는것은언어의규칙을배우는것이다

#1. 언어는생물학적특성이다.

Q: 언어란무엇인가?

• 언어는통신수단 (communication)이다.

-동물간의통신능력/수단 (개나고양이의소리, 벌의춤등…)

“No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor, but honest.”

-Bertrand Russell-

• 인간이살아가기위한하나의도구

-동물들의통신수단중많은부분이동족보존의목적을지닌다.

Q: 어떻게인간의 ‘언어’를동물들의통신수단과구별지을수있을까???

Charles Hockett: 언어의구성자질(“Design features” of language)

1. 임의성 (arbitrariness)

-말의소리와소리가상징하는개념사이의관계는필연적인아니다.

-집

house, maison(French), dom(Russian),

casa(Spanish)

-수화

-의성어 (onomatopoeia)도임의적임

멍멍, bow-wow, gav-gav (Russian)

꼬끼오, cock-a-doodledoo, kukkokiekuu (Finnish)

-음성상징 (일정한소리의배열이특별한 의미를나타냄)

glare (섬광), gleam (미광), glitter (광채),

gloss (윤기), glisten (번쩍이다) etc…

However…

- glove, glass, gladiator, glucose etc (음성상징과상관없음)

-동물의의사소통: 소리/몸짓과그것들이상징하는개념들은필연적임

2. 창의성 (creativity)

-무수한소리/단어의배열로새로운단어/문장을만들어낼수있음.

This is the house.

This is the house that Jack built.

This is the man who liked Mary who loved John who was working in the company where Sue used to work a long time a go…

The old, old, old, old,…. man came.

-동물의의사소통에선창의성을찾아보기힘듬

3. 전위성 (displacement)

-과거나미래를서술하거나, 거짓말을할수있음.

-동물의의사소통: 현재와현장에관련된것에국한되어있음

4. 이원성 (duality)

-소리체계와의미체계의분리

-의미없는소리들의연속이합쳐져서하나의의미단위를만들어냄

- house [h] [ou] [s]

-소리와의미가독립되어있지않음(위험하다혹은배고프다는신호들..)

5. 교환성 (interchangeability)

-화자가청자가될수있고, 청자가화자가될수있다.

-동물의의사소통: 일방적인경우가많음 (공작새: 수컷만이화려한꼬리를가지고암컷에게교신)

6. 문화적전달 (cultural transmission)

-언어전달이문화적임.

-모든인간이특정언어만을배울수있도록유전적으로결정되지는않음. (인간의외국어습득능력)

-한국어부모한국어습득: 유전적으로결정되는것이아니라어떠한문화권내에서언어를습득하느냐에달려있는문제임.

-동물들은이미유전적으로어떠한신호목록을사용할수있는지결정되어있음.

언어 (language) vs.

통신수단 (Communication)

동물의통신수단

1. 앵무새

-인간의언어를흉내낼수있음.

-단지음성적인흉내에그칠뿐, 언어적요소를갖추지못함.

e.g. Polly / wants / a / cracker

Sue,Mary…./likes, loves,,,,,/an, the…/

book, pencils,….

2. Karl von Frisch: 벌의춤연구

벌: 춤으로꿀의존재와위치를알림

i) 원형춤 (round dance): 꿀이 6m 내에있음

-춤의활기성이먹이의질을나타냄

ii) 8자춤 (sickle dance): 꿀이 6m 와 18m사이임.

-꿀의방향과태양방향이같으면 8자가운데선이수직으로위를향함

iii) 꼬리흔들기춤 (tail-wagging dance): 꿀이 18m 밖에있음

-천천히흔들수록더멀리있음.

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bees/dances.html

• 체계적인통신수단

• 통신수단의목적이오로지꿀의근원지와거리를알리는데에한정되어있음.

• 수평적인거리는정확하게춤으로전달하지만,

수직적거리는알릴수없음.

3. 영장류

i) Koko (gorilla)

- American Sign Language를배움.

-어느정도의창의성을드러내지만매우제한적임.

ii) Nim Chimsky (Chimp) – name after Noam

Chomsky

-수화 (sign language)를배움.

H. Terrace

- Nim은체계적이고일관된단어순서를지키지못함.

- 자발적으로수화를사용하지않음.

- 대화자간에오고가는의사표시 (turn-

taking)를하지못함.

- Nim이말하는것의많은부분이학습자가방금수화를한것을모방하는것임.

- 3-4 단어가연결된수화에서어느새로운정보를추가하지못함.

Examples from Nim Chimsky

• Nim eat Nim eat.

• Drink eat me Nim.

• Me gum me gum.

• Tickle me Nim play.

• Me eat me eat.

• Me banana you banana me you give.

• You me banana me banana you.

• Banana me me me eat.

• Nim eat Nim eat.

• Drink eat me Nim.

• Me gum me gum.

• Tickle me Nim play.

• Me eat me eat.

• Me banana you banana me you give.

• You me banana me banana you.

• Banana me me me eat.

Q: 영장류의언어습득이가능한가?

- 영장류가습득하는언어능력은매우제한되어있음.

- 집중적인고도의학습훈련을통해서만가능하지만성공을장담할수없음.

- 비록창의성(creativity)이나전위성(displacement)를보이지만인간의언어와동일한수준의언어를구사하는것은불가능함.

Interim Summary

- 언어는인간만이가진고유한생물학적특성이다. (동물의통신수단과는다름)

- 인간언어의고유한특성으로는임의성,

창의성, 전위성, 이원성등이있다.

#2. 언어는창의적이다.

언어능력 (linguistic competence) vs. 언어수행(linguistic performance)

-언어능력: 화자의머리속에내재되어있는언어지식

-언어수행: 그능력을이용해실질적으로언어를구사하는것

-언어를 ‘안다’는것과언어를 ‘수행’한다는것은다름.

-말더듬, 반복, 주저, 인칭이나높임말의잘못사용등으로인한잘못된 ‘언어수행’이언어사용자의‘언어능력’이없다고말할수는없음.

Q: 언어를배운다는것은무엇을의미하는가?

• Charles Hockett:

“Language users can create and understand

completely novel messages.”

“In a language, either new or old elements are

freely assigned new semantic loads by

circumstances and context. This says that in

every language new idioms constantly come

into existence.”

Think about…

• 벌의춤 (꿀을발견한거리와방향)

“꿀이 6미터이내에있으니, 태양과같은 xx 도의각도로날아라.”

꿀이 6미터이내에있으니, 태양과같은 11도의각도로날아라.

꿀이 6미터이내에있으니, 태양과같은 34도의각도로날아라.

…..

꿀이 6.453미터이내에있으니, 11분 34초내에태양과같은 43.45도의각도로날아라.

John, who was a student, flunked his exams.

Mary, who was a student, flunked her exams.

John, who was a doctor, flunked his exams.

John, who was a student, passed his exams.

John, who was a student, flunked his final

exam.

John, who was a sickly child, always missed

his classes…..

John, who was a student, flunked his exams.

*Loves, who was a student, Mary exams her.

*John, who was a likes, flunked Sue his.

*John, who loves who, hit his hates.

나는철수를예전에좋아했다.

영희는책을 2년전에좋아했다.

영희는철수를오래전에싫어했다.

*싫어했다영희는책을 2년전에

*좋아했다철수를예전에나는

언어의창의성

John, who was a student, flunked his

1 2 3 4 5 6

exams.

7

1. 명사: John, student, teacher,…

2. 동사: likes, hates, ate, …

3. 관사: the, a, this, that, ….

4. 명사: Mary, cat, dog, bookstore,…

5. 동사: passed, wash, cleaned

6. 소유격: her, his, my, John’s, Mary’s

7. 명사: houses, tables, fans, …..

언어의무한성

• 문장을구성하고있는단어의성분을이해한다.

• 문장을구성하고있는법칙을이해한다.

• 구성성분과법칙을응용하여무한대의새로운문장을만들어낼수있다.

Q: 얼마나많은문장법칙을필요로하는가?

A가 B를 C했다.

D를 E한 A가 B를 C했다.

F가 H를 G한 A가 B를 C했다…….

“Can we store all these patterns in our

heads? No, because no matter how many

we store, there is always a longer one.”

-Jackendoff-

• 언어의순환성 (recursiveness)

-문장을만드는규칙이또다른문장을만드는규칙이될수있음.

-언어지식은곧단어의규칙을아는것이아니라규칙의 ‘규칙’을알아내는것임

More on creativity

• 의미없는말들을끊임없이나열할수있음.

- Colorless green ideas sleep furiously

-내가너한테천원을주면너는언제밥을먹고학교를가서내려오는길에시장을들리고…

• Twas brillig, and the slithy tovesDid gyre

and gimble in the wabe…(Lewis Carroll)

• 유아의언어습득

- 단어성분이나문장규칙을배우지않아도일정한나이가되면성인수준의언어를구사하게된다.

- Universal grammar (UG)의습득: 모든언어가가지고있는공통적인특성

- 모든인간은 ‘언어습득기재(Language

Acquisition Device)를가지고있음.

- UG + LAD + 환경 = 언어습득

Grammar

• 무한한문장을만들어낼수있는규칙을문법(grammar)라함.

• 문법은추상적인개념임.

• 규칙에맞지않는문장은‘비문법적’(ungrammatical)이라함.

Grammaticality문법성 vs . 비문법성

• 문법성(grammaticality)과비문법성(ungrammaticality)을가릴수있는것은우리가가진 ‘언어지식’을바탕으로한다.

• 어느언어를듣고그것이외국어인지모국어인지구별할수있는능력도인간이가진언어학적능력에기반한다.

i) John likes Mary (주어-동사-목적어)

ii) 철수는영희를좋아한다. (주어-목적어-동사)

iii) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (Chomsky)

iv) 소리없는외침

Prescriptive vs. Descriptive

Grammar Prescriptive Grammar (규범문법)- 학교문법 (18세기) - 옳고그른문법이정해져있음. - 사회적으로높은위치에있는사람들이사용하는문법으로알려져있음.

- 표준어사용과밀접한관계가있음

1. 이중부정John does not eat anything/*nothing2. 의문대명사Whom/*who do you like?

• 규범문법은라틴어와그리스어의문법규칙에기반을두고있음

• 라틴어와그리스어는 18세기의 ‘우위’에있다고생각된언어

• 영어가열등하다는생각을기반으로우월하게보이는라틴어와그리스어의문법규칙을영어에그대로적용함

Descriptive grammar (기술문법): 언어학의대상

- 비논리적이거나열등한언어는없음.

- 언어변화는자연적인것임.

“Great change leads to inconsistencies in all languages, but these do not impede communication” (McWhorter)

1. 영어에서관사는명사전에와야한다.

a boy / *boy a

2. 주어>목적어>동사John sang a song. /*sang John a song

언어와생각

• Many people have thought that the

structure of a language influences how its

speakers perceive the world around them.

“ The background linguistic system of each

langue is not merely the reproducing

instrument for voicing ideas but rather is

itself the shaper of ideas, the program and

guide for the individual’s mental

activity…..”

(Whorf: 1956)

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

• Linguistic determinism: The language we speak determines how we perceive and think about the world.

-우리가언어를사용하는것이우리가지각하고사고하는방식을결정한다.

Ex: 1) 호피인디안은인도유럽어를사용하는화자들과다르게시간을인지할것이다.

2) 에스키모가눈을많이접하기때문에눈에관련된어휘가많을것이다.

Criticisms

Counterclaim:

- A란언어가 B에대한언어보다어휘수나문법규칙이적다고해서, A란언어를사용하는사람들의세상에대한지식이더모자란다고말할수있는가?

(e.g. Inuit:’눈’에대한어휘가영어보다적음, 호피인디언의시제에대한개념)

- 어느언어가다른언어보다우월하다고말할수없음.

- 인간의언어구사능력은모두평등함.

Summary

• 언어는인간만이지닌고유한특성이다.

• 언어는동물이사용하는통신기재와는근본적으로다르다.

• 모든언어가지니는공통적인특성이있다.

(UG)

• 모든언어는평등하며, 각언어가복잡한고유의구조와특성을지니고있다.

• 언어는변화하는대상이다.