chapter 1 principle of computers
TRANSCRIPT
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Hardware Computer Organization for the 1
DRAM capacity
M b i t c a p a c i t y
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000
15K
64K 256K
1M4M
16M
64M
256M
1000M ~2004
1000M ~2004
512M
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Hardware Computer Organization for the 2
Abstract view of a computer
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Hardware Computer Organization for the 3
Abstraction layers
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Memory hierarchy
• There is a hierarchy of memory
•In order to maximize processor throughput, the fastest memory isclosest to the processor
- Also the most expensive
• Notice:
- The exponential rise in capacity
with each layer
- The exponential rise in access timein each layer
CPUPrimary Cache
2K- 1,024K byte (1!"#
$%" &!ter'ace U!it
ec)!*ary Cache
256K - 4M$yte (10!"#
Mai! Mem)ry
1M + 2 byte (0 !"#
ar* /i"
40 - 250 $yte ( 100,000 # !"
ape $ac%p
50 - 10$yte ("ec)!*"#
&!ter!et
33 !)3e*e)reer
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Hardware Computer Organization for the
Hard disk drive
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Hardware Computer Organization for the !
Representing a number as a voltage
• epre"e!t the *ata a3%e a" a )3tae )r c%rre!t a3)! a "i!3e
e3ectrica3 c)!*%ct)r ("i!a3 trace# )r ire
24.5645 :
24.5645
/&;
CK
/irecti)! )' "i!a3
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Hardware Computer Organization for the "
Parallel transmission of 0 to 9
• epre"e!t the *ata a3%e a" a )3tae )r c%rre!t a3)! m%3tip3e
e3ectrica3 c)!*%ct)r"
•=et each ire repre"e!t )!e *eca*e )' the !%mber
• ;!3y !ee* t) *ii*e %p the )3tae )! each ire i!t) 10 "tep"
• 0 : t) 9 )3t"
• Ca! hae c)!"i*erab3e >"3)p? betee! a3%e" be')re it ca%"e"pr)b3em"
2
4
5
6
4
5
4.2
/&;
CK
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Hardware Computer Organization for the #
inary data transmission
• epre"e!t the *ata a3%e a" a )3tae )r c%rre!t a3)! m%3tip3e, para33e3,
e3ectrica3 c)!*%ct)r"
•=et each ire repre"e!t )!e p)er )' 2 )' the !%mber ( 20 thr)%h 2@ #
• ;!3y !ee* t) *ii*e %p the )3tae )! each ire i!t) 2 p)""ib3e "tep"
• 0 : >!) )3t"? )r >")me )3t"? reater tha! Aer) ()! )r )'' #
• Ca! hae 3)t" )' >"3)p? betee! a3%e"20
21
22
2
24
25
26
27
28
29
210
211
212
21
214
215
)! 1
)'' 0
)! 1
)'' 0
)'' 0
)! 1
)! 1
)! 1)'' 0
)'' 0
)'' 0
)! 1
)! 1
)! 1
)! 1
)'' 0
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Hardware Computer Organization for the $
A simple A!D circuit
• igital computers force us to deal with num!er systems other than decimal
- A"" digital computers are collections of switches made from transistors- A switch is ON or OFF
- A !inary #digital$ system lends itself to using electronic on%o& switching
• 'rinciples of "ogic #a !ranch of 'hilosophy $ are useful to descri!e the digitalcircuits in computers
- True%(alse, )%*, +n%+((, igh%"ow all descri!e the same possi!le states
of a digital system• An electrical circuit, with ordinary switches, is a convenient display
+
-
$ C
C B a!* $C B a!* $
$attery ymb)3
=iht b%3b (3)a*#
on/of switchon/of switch
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Hardware Computer Organization for the 1%
Decimal representation
• riting a num!er is the same in all num!er systems
• .ach column of the num!er represents the !ase that the num!eris raised to
• .xample: /0,01/ 2 31610
104 10 102 101 100
6 5 5 66 100 B 6
101 B 0
5 102 B 500
5 10 B 5000
6 104 B 60000D
B 6556
• Notice how each column is weighted !y
the value of the !ase raised to the power
• Notice how each column is weighted !y
the value of the !ase raised to the power
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inary numbers
• 4ust li5e decimal num!ers, !inary num!ers are represented as thepower of the !ase:
• .xample: )*)*))**
$
27 26 25 24 2 22 21 20
128 64 2 16 8 4 2 1
$a"e" )' e a!* ;cta3
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 27 B 128
0 26 B 0
1 25 B 2
0 24
B 01 2 B 8
1 22 B 4
0 21 B 0
0 20 B 0
10101100 B 172
172
2 10
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Hardware Computer Organization for the 12
inary and octal numbers
• "et6s loo5 at our example again:
• Notice that !ecause 7 2 33 we can easily convert !inary to octal
- 4ust group columns of three and treat as !inary within acolumn to get octal num!er from * to 8
26 (21 20 # 2( 22 21 20# 20 ( 22 21 20#
128 64 2 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 thr% 70 thr% 560 thr% 192
82 81 80
4 80 B 4
5 81 B 40
2 82 B 128
17227 26 25 24 2 22 21 20
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• exadecimal is the same principle as octal
- exadecimal is the most common num!er system in computerscience
- +ctal was common with minicomputers !ut is now a specialfunction counting system
• 9ac5 to our example: )* x )/ )3 x ) 2 )83 2 A; #ex$
inary and he"
27 26 25 24 2 22 21 20
128 64 2 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
24(2 22 21 20# 20 ( 2 22 21 20#
161 160
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Hardware Computer Organization for the 14
its# bytes# nibbles# words# etc$
$it (1#
@ibb3e (4#
/ /0
$yte (8#/7 /0
/15 /0 E)r* (16#
=)! (2#
/1 /0
/6 /0
/)%b3e (64#
/127 /0
:=&E (128#
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Hardware Computer Organization for the 1
A %even %egment Display using &D
0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101
0110 0111 1000 1001 0001 0000
carry
the
)!e