chapter 1 n 2 ncert solnts pyschology

8/9/2019 Chapter 1 n 2 Ncert Solnts Pyschology

1/12

Question 1:What is behaviour? Give examples of overt and covert behaviour.

Behaviour is a response or a reaction of an individual or an activity in which the individual is engaged in. It is the result of a stimulus in theenvironment or an internal change. Behaviours may be simple or complex and overt or covert.Examples of overt behaviour (i) Blin ing of eyes when a stone is hurled at a person(ii) Withdrawing the hand immediately after touching a hot panExamples of covert behaviour (i) !he twitching of hand muscles while playing a game of chess.(ii) "ounding of heart during an interview.

Question 2:#ow can you distinguish scientific psychology from the popular notions about the discipline of psychology?

$cientific psychology can be distinguished from the popular notions about the discipline of psychology on the basis of the followingcharacteristics%

Scientific psychology Popular notion about psychology

1.

It is based on scientific study of psychological phenomenon. 1.

It uses common-sense knowledge to understand behaviour.

2.

It explains the psychological phenomenon systematically on the basis ofempirical data.

2.

It explains the phenomenon on the basis of experiences, sayingsor beliefs.

3.

It studies the patterns of behaviour that can be predicted before they occur. 3.

It explains events in hindsight after they occur.

Question 3:Give a brief account of the evolution of psychology.

!he evolution of psychology was an outcome of ancient philosophy. It later varied with the development of different approaches ofpsychological study. !he formal beginning of modern psychology too place in &' with the establishment of an experimental l aboratory in*eip+ig by Wilhelm Wundt.

• !he initial approach to study psychology was based on introspection or structuralism in which the individuals were as ed todescribe their experiences.

• It was followed by functionalism that studied the wor ing of the mind and the impact of behaviour upon people,s interaction withtheir environment.

• Gestalt psychology emerged as a reaction to structuralism in the early - th century and focused on the organisation of theperceptual experiences.

• /nother reaction was the development of behaviourism that studied behaviour or responses in a measurable and ob0ective form.• !his was followed by psychoanalysis of $igmund 1reud that viewed human behaviour as a dynamic manifestation of

unconscious desires2 conflicts and their gratification.• In contrast2 the humanistic perspective emphasised the free will of human beings and their natural striving to grow and unfold

their inner potential.• 1urther2 Cognitive perspective was a combination ofGestalt approach and structuralismand focused on how an individual

perceived the world.• *ater2 Constructivism viewed human beings as activelyconstructing their minds through the exploration of physical and the social

world.• It was followed by 3ygots y,s view that human mind develops through social and cultural processes in which the mind is

perceived as culturally constructed by 0oint interaction between children and adults.!herefore2 the evolution of psychology passed through various stages and levels. $tarting from the roots of philosophy2 it too a newdirection and included numerous theories of structuralism2 functionalism2 behaviourism2 constructivism2 etc. #owever2 in contemporary erathe discipline of psychology has grown into a scientific discipline2 which deals with various processes underlying human experiences andbehaviours.

Question 4:What are the problems for which collaboration of psychologists with other disciplines can be f ruitful? !a e any two problems to explain.

(i) !he problems for which collaboration of psychologists with other disciplines can be f ruitful are as follows%(ii) While dealing with a criminal case2 it is important for a lawyer or a criminologist to understand the psychology of a witness or the criminal.It is also necessary to decide the degree of punishment valid for a crime. !hus2 it is important for a lawyer or a criminologist to have the

nowledge of psychology in order to regulate the legal system of a country.(iii) It is important for an architect or an engineer to satisfy his4her customers by providing with mental and physical space in a building.1urther2 an engineer should also consider the human habits while construction. !hus2 they need to have a psychological nowledge in orderto understand the needs and demands of their customers.

Question 5:5ifferentiate between (a) a psychologist and a psychiatrist (b) a counsellor and a clinical psychologist.


2/12

(a). !he difference between a psychologist and a psychiatrist are mentioned below%

Psychologist Psychiatrist

1.

psychologist deals with the psychological phenomenon. i. psychiatrist deals with serious mental problems.

2.

!is"her main work is research in psychology and formulation of psychological conclusions that are derived on the basis of data.

ii. psychiatrist studies the causes, treatment and preventionof psychological disorders.

3.

psychologist does not hold a medical degree and is mainly into academicand research fields.

iii.

psychiatrist holds a medical degree and he"she can usemedical treatment to cure the patients.

(b). !he difference between a counsellor and clinical psychologist are mentioned below%

Counsellor Clinical Psychologist

1

.

counsellor deals with the causes, treatment and prevention of different

types of psychological disorders, which are related to motivational andemotional problems.

i. clinical psychologist provides therapy for behavioural

problems, which are related to mental disorders.

2.

#ounsellors help people in vocational rehabilitation programmes, making professional choices and ad$usting to new situations in life.

ii. #linical psychologists conduct interviews and administer psychological tests to diagnose various problems.

3.

counsellor deals with different types of psychological disorders ineveryday life of the patient.

iii.

clinical psychologist deals with specific andcomplicated psychological disorders

Question :5escribe some of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can be put to practice.

$ome of the areas of everyday life where understanding of psychology can be put into practice are as follows%• "sychology helps to understand various personal problems li e family2 marriage and wor sphere. It also helps to deal with larger

problems related to community and society.•

"sychology enables an individual to understand oneself in a balanced and positive way without being reactionary2 in order to dealwith everyday challenges and meet with personal expectations.• 6nderstanding of psychology further helps in analysing the various social2 economic and political problems that affect an

individual,s life and their solution at individual and collective level.• "sychology helps in understanding the cause of violence and need for cooperation that ma es people wise2 which improves the

societal relationships by avoiding conflict2 frustration and aggression.• "sychological analysis also enables in decision7ma ing for various spheres and cultivating healthy lifestyles.

!herefore2 the understanding of psychology enables a person to build stronger relationships at community level and improves the strength atindividual level in order to meet daily challenges and obstacles.

Question !:#ow can nowledge of the field of environmental psychology be used to promoteenvironment7friendly behaviour?

"ns#er :

!he nowledge of environmental psychology is helpful to promote environment friendly behaviour because%• It studies the interaction of physical factors such as temperature2 humidity2 pollution and natural disaster on human behaviour.• It analyses the influence of physical arrangements at wor place on the health2 emotional state and interpersonal relations of the

individual.• Issues li e disposal of waste2 population explosion2 conservation of energy etc. are related with behaviour of human beings as

well as its conse8uence.• !hus2 an understanding of human behaviour in relation to environment generates awareness and inculcates safe environmental

practices.

Question $:In terms of helping solve an important social problem such as crime2 which branch of psychology do you thin is most suitable? Identify thefield and discuss the concerns of the psychologists wor ing in this field.


3/12

!he branch of social psychology is most suitable for the purpose of solving social problems li e crime.It explores the thought process of people and their influence upon others and evaluates the impact of social environment upon the actions ofan individual.$ocial psychologists are concerned with topics li e attitudes2 conformity and obedience to authority2 interpersonal attraction2 helpfulbehaviour2 pre0udice2 aggression2 social motivation and inter7group relations.

Question 1:What are the goals of scientific en8uiry?

!he goals of scientific en8uiry are as follows%• %escription 9 It is very important in a scientific en8uiry to describe the behaviour or a phenomenon accurately in order to be able

to deal with it.• &re'iction ( $cientific en8uiry aims at the understanding of a particular behaviour in relationship to other behaviours or events. It

tries to predict their occurrences under certain conditions with a margin of error.• Explanation 9 $cientific en8uiry is conducted to now the causal factors or determinants of behaviour and the conditions where

the behaviour does not occur.• Control 9 Being able to explain behaviour also l eads to the control in behaviour by ma ing changes in its antecedent conditions.

!he control refers to ma ing a particular behaviour happen2 reduce it and enhance it.• "pplication 9 /pplication of a particular behaviour aims at bringing about positive changes in the lives of people by solving their

problems in various settings.Question 2:5escribe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific en8uiry.

!he various steps involved in conducting a scientific en8uiry can be described as follows%)i* Conceptualisation of problem ( It is important in a scientific en8uiry to narrow down the focus and understand the specific problem. It isdone by reviewing past research2 personal experience and observations. !his is further followed by preparing a hypothesis or a tentativesolution of the problem.)ii* %ata collection ( !he second step involves the preparation of a blueprint of the entire study. It consists of four aspects namely2identifying the participants in the study2 methods of data collection2 tools to be used in research and procedure for data collection.)iii* %ra#ing conclusions ( !he data are analysed through statistical procedures and represented graphically in the form of pie7chart2 bar7diagram2 etc. It helps to verify the hypothesis and draw conclusions by putting them into an appropriate context.)iv* +evising research conclusions ( !he existing hypothesis is finally confirmed on the basis of revision of data else2 a new hypothesis isstated and tested by new data. !he research may also be revised by other researchers2 hence ma ing it a continuous process.Question 3::xplain the nature of psychological data.

!he nature of psychological data can be explained through the following points%• ,he psychological 'ata are not in'epen'ent entities: !he physical or social context2 the persons involved and the time of the

behaviour affects the data. 1or instance2 an individual behaves differently in a group than being alone.• ,he -uality an' nature of 'ata is affecte' by the metho' of 'ata collection: It is possible that while conducting a personal

interview2 an individual provides with answers which are different than his4her behaviour as observed by the researcher.• %ata are facts #ithout any meaning: !his suggests that data do not spea themselves about reality. !hey only ac8uire meaning

when placed in a context by the researcher.Question 4:#ow do experimental and control groups differ? :xplain with the help of an example.

:xperimental groups differ from control groups as independent variable manipulation occurs in an experimental group whereas it is absent ina control group. 1or example2 in a study conducted by *atane and 5arley2 there were two experimental groups and one control group. !heparticipants in the study were sent to three types of rooms.;oom & in which the participant was alone formed the control group. ;oom - and


4/12

!he strengths and wea nesses of experimental method as a method of en8uiry are%

trengths• It provides a relatively convincing evidence of a cause7effect relationship between two or more variables.• !he extraneous variables can be eliminated from the laboratory.• It can minimise the se8uence effect with the help of counter7balancing techni8ue.• It eliminates any potential systematic differences between groups by giving random assignment to groups of participants. !his is

done to help in framing the conclusion without any assumption.

ea nesses• !he highly controlled laboratory situation only simulates the conditions of the outer world.• !he results of the experiments cannot be generally applied to real situations2 thus field experiments are re8uired in such

situations.• It is not always feasible to study a particular problem experimentally.• It is difficult to now and control all the relevant variables2 particularly in field experiments. =any variables cannot be manipulated

in laboratory settings.Question !:5r. >rishnan is going to observe and record children,s play behaviour at a nursery school without attempting to influence or control thebehaviour. Which method of research is involved? :xplain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.

5r. >rishnan will use non7participant observation methodto observe and record children,s play behaviour at a nursery school withoutattempting to influence or control the behaviour. $he will sit in the corner of the play school and will observe the behaviour of children2 theirinteraction with other children and teachers2 how they play and react to winning and losing. !he children will not be aware that they are beingobserved. *ater2 she will record her observations in a fi le. $he will analyse and conclude it and then try to match her conclusion with thehypothesis.0erits of non participant observation metho'

!he researcher observes the people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation as it occurs.%emerits of non participant observation metho'!his method is time ta ing2 labour intensive and vulnerable to the researcher,s bias. !he observations are influenced by the personal valuesand interpretations of the observer.Question $:Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the limitations of this method?

!he two examples where a survey method can be used are as follows%(i) !o find out the attitudes of people on polio eradication programme.(ii) !o record information about the members of a particular population.!he limitations of survey method are as follows%

• "eople may give inaccurate information because of memory lapses or they do not want the researcher to now their real opinionsabout a particular issue.

• "eople sometimes respond in a way they thin the researcher wants to hear.

Question 6:5ifferentiate between an interview and a 8uestionnaire.

!he difference between an interview and a 8uestionnaire are%

Interview Questionnaire

1.

It is a form of interaction in which %uestions are askeddirectly to the respondents.

i. It is a framework in which %uestions of scientific en%uiry are written.

2.

&uestions may vary in their se%uence according to the needof the situation.

ii. &uestions are in written in an appropriate se%uence which is answered in written by the respondents.

3.

'esearcher and respondents are in face-to-face contact. iii.

'esearcher and respondents are not re%uired to be in face-to-face contact.

(.

'esearcher can visit the respondents or call them at theoffice.

iv. 'esearcher can go to the places to distribute the %uestionnaire or %uestions can be sent through e-mail and post.

).

*he %uestions are flexible by nature. v. *he %uestions are rigid.

+.

umber of %uestions can be increased or decreased. vi. umber of %uestions cannot be changed.

Question 17::xplain the characteristics of a standardised test.

!he characteristics of standardised test are as follows%• 8ali'ity ( !he test has to be devised to measure what it claims to measure in order to be held as valid and usable.


5/12

• +eliability ( !his refers to the consistency of scores obtainedby an individual on the same test on two different occasions. !est7retest indicates temporal stability and split7half indicates internal consistency of the test.

• 9orms ( !he test needs to devise norms or the average performance of the group. It helps in comparison and interpretation of anindividual,s performance in relation to the overall standards of the group.Question 11:5escribe the limitations of psychological en8uiry.

!he limitations of psychological en8uiry are as follows%• ac of true ;ero point ( "sychological measurements do not have a +ero point. !he scores that are assigned to individuals in

psychological studies are not absolute in nature but have relative value.• +elative nature of psychological tools ( "sychological tests need to be developed2 modified and adapted according to the

context of study. 1or example2 test developed for urban children is not suitable and cannot be applied on tribal children.• ub


6/12

!he various endocrine glands and the hormones secreted by them are as follows%

Endocrine glands Hormones

ituitary glandrowth hormones

onadotropic

*hyroid gland *hyroxin

drenal gland

#orticoids

/pinephrine orepinephrine

ancreas Insulin

onads /strogensrogesteronendrogens

*estosterone

!he endocrine system controls or regulates our behaviour with the help of chemical substances nown as hormones. #ormones enable theindividual to react to the stimuli present in the environment. !hey also enable the growth of individuals2 their maturity and help inreproduction. 1or example2 growth hormones help in growth of a child while gonadotropic hormones bring primary and secondary sexualchanges. !hyroxin maintains the metabolic rate of the body while estrogens and testosterone help in reproduction. !his system wor s withdifferent parts of the nervous system and also nown as neuroendocrine system.Question 5:#ow does the autonomic nervous system help us in dealing with an emergency situation?

!he autonomic nervous system helps us in dealing with an emergency situation with the help of i ts two divisions namely2 $ympatheticdivision and "arasympathetic division.)i* ympathetic 'ivision

• 5uring an emergency situation the sympathetic division helps in 8uic and powerful actions.• It stops the digestion of food and causes the flow of blood from internal organs to the muscles and also increases the breathing

rate2 oxygen supply2 heart rate and blood sugar level.)ii* &arasympathetic 'ivision

• "arasympathetic division decelerates the sympathetic division after the emergency gets over.• It brings the heart beat2 breathing and blood flow to the normal levels. It also calms down the individual to the normal condition.

Question ::xplain the meaning of culture and describe its important features.

!he term culture refers to the shared customs2 beliefs2 values2 norms institutions and other products of a community which are transmittedfrom one generation to another. It includes all materialistic2 abstract and behavioural particulars that exist prior to the individual and consistsof features that vary across societies. !he important features of culture are as follows%

• It contains values and language that can be expressed.• It contains a way of life that is followed by individuals who have grown in that context.• It is a historically t ransmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols.• It has influence upon human behaviour.

Question !:5o you agree with the statement that @biology plays an enabling role2 while specific aspects of behaviour are related to cultural factors,? Givereasons in support of your answer.

!he statement that biology plays an enabling role while2 specific aspects of behaviour are related to cultural factors2 is correct. !he reasonsare as follows%

• Aulture decides the norms of behaviour for an individual while biology helps in materiali sing the behaviour.• !he biological frame of the body enables the individual to create culture. !he human brain2 endocrine glands2 hormones etc. are

responsible for humans being intelligent and different from other species.• Aulture ascribes meaning to biological actions and lends them rationality.

Question $:5escribe the main agents of socialisation.

!he main agents of socialisation are as follows%)i* &arents


7/12

• !he socialisation of a child starts wi th the help of parents and other members of the family. "arents introduce the child to thesociety and provide the building bloc s of socialisation.

• "arents approve and discourage certain types of behaviour among children.• "arenting styles are based upon strategies that can be authoritative2 authoritarian and democratic or permissive. !hey exert

varying degrees of acceptance and control upon their children.• !he parenting style is also influenced by conditions of life li e poverty2 illness etc. Grandparents and networ of social

relationships also socialise children through parental influences.• !his agency has a direct and significant effect upon the child,s behaviour and personality.

)ii* chool• $chools provide children with an organised set up for interaction with teachers and peers.• Ahildren in schools learn various cognitive s ills2 social s ills2 self7control2 self7initiative2 responsibility2 and creativity and also

internalise the norms set by the society.• $chooling therefore2 can transform a child,s personality since children learn to become self7reliant.

)iii* &eer group• 5evelopment of self7identity is greatly facilit ated by the peer group.• Ahildren not only learn to assert their own point of view2 but also accept and adapt to those of others.• !hey also ac8uire 8ualities li e sharing2 trust2 mutual understanding2 role acceptance and fulfilment.• !he interaction is direct2 therefore the socialisation is smooth.

)iv* 0ass 0e'ia• Ahildren learn about many things through television2 newspaper2 boo s and cinema. /dolescents and young adults often derive

their models from them.• Ahildren learn to form their own opinions and ideas with interaction to mass media.• #owever2 this agency may also promote anti7social aspects that have to be avoided by the individuals.

• Question 6:•

#ow can we distinguish between enculturation and socialisation? :xplain.• :nculturation and socialisation can be distinguished in the following ways%

Enculturation Socialisation

1.

/nculturation is the learning that takes placewithout direct, deliberate teaching.

i. 0ocialisation is a deliberate process that takes place through agencies like family,school, peer group and mass media.

2.

/nculturation leads to ac%uisition of ideas, conceptsand values in a specific socio-cultural context.

ii. 0ocialisation is a general process that helps in development of knowledge, skillsand dispositions that enable individuals to function effectively as members of thesociety.

3.

/nculturation takes place through observation. iii.

0ocialisation takes place through interaction.

(.

*he effects of enculturation are visible in thecultural behaviour of the individual.

iv. *he effects of socialisation are to condition the individual towards sociallyaccepted behaviour through rewards and punishment.

Question 17:What is meant by acculturation? Is acculturation a smooth process? 5iscuss.

/cculturation refers to the cultural and psychological changes that result from contact with other cultures. !his process can be direct2 indirect2voluntary or involuntary.!he smoothness of the process of acculturation depends upon the re7socialisation of the people2 this is becausesometimes it is easy for people to learn new norms2 values2 dispositions and patterns of behaviour. $uccessful adaptation in such instancesleads to a smooth process of acculturation towards the group that is responsible for it. Aontrary to this2individuals also face difficulties while adopting new cultural traits and it results in a state of conflict.!his situation arises mostly when acculturation is involuntary and is painful as it leads to experience of stress and other behaviouraldifficulties.Question 11:5iscuss the acculturative strategies adopted by individuals during the course of acculturation.

!he acculturative strategies adopted by individuals during the course of acculturation are as follows%• ntegration: !his is an attitude of maintaining one,s own cultural traits and identity while staying in daily interaction with other

culture.• "ssimilation: !his is an attitude of 8uitting one,s own culture and becoming part of another culture. It results in the loss of one,s

culture and identity.


8/12

• eparation: !his attitude is of avoiding interaction wi th other culture and holding on to one,s own culture and glorifying the culturalidentity.

• 0arginalisation: !his attitude is of little interest in maintaining one,s culture and little interest in having interaction with otherculture. "eople are indecisive about their actions and continue to stay with a lot of stress.

• Question 1:• What is development? #ow is it different from growth and maturation?• 5evelopment is the pattern of progressive2 orderly and predictable changes that originate at conception and continue to ta e place

throughout an individual,s life. It is different from growth and maturation by the following features%

Growth Development

1.

rowth refers to an increase in the si e of body parts or ofthe organism as a whole.

i. evelopment on the other hand refers to a larger process, which is in termsof growth and maturation both.

2.

rowth is measurable and %uantified. ii. evelopment is not always measurable and %uantified.

3.

ny change that does not lead to the decline in age isconsidered as growth.

iii.

*he change that leads to decline such as in old age is also considered asdevelopment.

•

aturation Development

1.

aturation refers to the changes that follow an orderly se%uence. i. evelopment does not necessarily refer to orderlyse%uence.

2.

aturation is largely dictated by the genetic blueprint which producescommonalities in the growth.

ii.

evelopment need not to be identified with geneticchanges and growth.

Question 2:5escribe the main features of l ife7span perspective on development.

"ns#er : !he main features of life7span perspective on development are as follows%

• 5evelopment is a lifelong process that ta es place across all age groups starting from conception to old age. I t also includes theinteraction between gains and losses2 which is dynamic.

• !he biological2 cognitive2 and socio7emotional processes of human development are interwoven in the development of a personthroughout the life7span.

• 5evelopment is multi7directional as some dimensions or components of a given dimension of development may increase2 whileothers show a decrease.

• 5evelopment is highly plastic since modifiability is found in psychological development within persons2 though flexibility variesamong individuals.

• 5evelopment is influenced by historical conditions.• / number of disciplines li e psychology2 anthropology2 sociology and neuro7sciences are concerned with development.• !he response and actions of individuals are related to contexts2 which include the inherited traits2 the physical environment2 and

social2 historical2 and cultural contexts. !hese contexts vary among individuals.Question 3: What are developmental tas s? :xplain by giving examples."ns#er : 5evelopmental tas s refer to a physical or cognitive s ill that a person must accomplish during a particular age period to continuedevelopment. / developmental tas for infants is wal ing2 which is followed by the development of a sense of autonomy in the toddler period.In the adolescence period2 some of the developmental tas s that the child faces are accepting one,s physical body2 learning to get along withfriends of both sexes2 becoming self sufficient2 preparing for 0ob career etc.Question 4:

@:nvironment of the child has a ma0or role in the development of the child,. $upport your answer with examples.

:nvironment of the child has a ma0or role in the development of the child because it includes the surroundings in which a child develops

various cognitive and motor s ills. It also influences the physical development of the child according to the limits created by genetic

characteristics.

1urther2 the social7economic and cultural environment has a ma0or role in the development of a child,s thought process.

1or example2 a child who is sent to school is able to develop characteristics of confidence and self7reliance more easily than a child who

does not receive education.

In genetic terms2 children having angry genetic disposition learn to calm down if they grow in a stable environment. !herefore2 environment

plays a vital role in the development of a child2 it not only develops a particular s ill but influences the whole personality.


9/12

Question 5:

#ow do socio7cultural factors influence development?

1ollowing are the socio7cultural influences on the development of an individual%• $ocio7cultural factors influence development by providing it with a social context.• !he various socio7cultural conse8uences that a child meets with are learnt by him4her and thus2 a child develops a personality

which is influenced by his4her experiences.• !he socio7cultural bac ground of an individual has an impact over his4her interaction with the rest of the society.• !he variable experiences of individuals during their development are dependent upon their social and cultural bac ground.• !hese factors include the conditions at home2 the 8uality of schooling and interaction with peer groups.• Ahildren growing up in an unsupportive family environment find it hard to learn new things and ma e their own decisions. Ahildren

who are exposed to diverse experiences early in life develop a confident attitude and are more able to face challenges.Question :

5iscuss the cognitive changes ta ing place in a developing child.

!he cognitive changes that ta e place in a developing child are as follows%• 7 2 years: !his is the age of sensory motors whereby2 infant explores the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical

actions.• 2 ! years: In this age2 "reoperational thin ing begins and the child ac8uires the concept of ob0ect permanence that enables

him4her to use mental symbols to represent ob0ects. !he child does not have the ability to 0udge or assume the conse8uences of actions

before performing them.• !he child also ac8uires preoperational thought2 i.e.2 s4he gains the ability to mentally represent an ob0ect that is not physically

present.• !he children are egocentric and develop animist thought• 4 ! years: Ahildren develop intuitive thought. !his enables them to 8uestion the things happening around them.• ! 11 years: !his age is mar ed by the development of concrete operational thought2 whereby a logical thought i s developed and

the child can reason logically about concrete events2 classify ob0ects into sets and perform reversible mathematical operations.• 11 15 years: !he adolescents in this age develop formal operational thought2 which leads to a hypothetical thin ing and are able

to apply logic abstractly. !hey also develop a special ind of egocentrism of imaginary audience and personal fable.Question !:

• /ttachment bonds formed in childhood years have long7term effects. :xplain ta ing examples from dailylife.• "ns#er :• /ttachment bonds formed in childhood years have long7term effects because it is notably developed between the parents and

children. !hese bonds determine the level of trust and the perception of the world during the formative years of a child. 1or

example2 a child growing up in a secure family with sensitive2 responsive and affectionate parents is able to trust them. !he child

is also able to share important decisions with them li e the choice of career and marriage. Cn the other hand2 a child whose

parents are not responsive to his4her emotional needs would not be able to communicate with them as freely. !his pattern may

continue throughout his4her life. 1urthermore2 problems of 0uvenile delin8uency are often related to the lac of attachment of an

individual towards his4her parents.• !hus2 a family which provides love and support to gives rise to a pleasing personality in the child2 whereas a family that does not

inculcate these ideals lead to an aggressive and disturbed personality of the child.Question $:

What is adolescence? :xplain the concept of egocentrism.

/dolescenceis commonly defined as the stage of life that begins at the onset of puberty2 when sexual maturity or the ability to reproduce is

attained. It is a t ransitional period in a person,s life between childhood and adulthood. It is mar ed by rapid biological and psychological

change in the individual. It starts at approximately && to &- years of age and ends at &' to - years of age.

!he concept of egocentrism deals with self focus. I t is a viewpoint of the world that is centred upon the self. It hinders an appreciation of the

viewpoint of others. !his ind of an at titude develops within a child from his4her childhood stage. #owever2 it differs during adolescence. !he

egocentrism in adolescents comprises the following two elements%• Imaginary audience 9 It is the adolescent,s belief that others are as preoccupied about them as they are about themselves. !hey

thin that people are always noticing them and observing their behaviour2 hence2 it leads to self7consciousness.• "ersonal fable 9 !he adolescents, sense of uni8ueness ma es them feel that no one understands them or their feelings.

Question 6:

What are the factors influencing the formation of identity during adolescence? $upport your answer with examples.

!he factors influencing the formation of identity during adolescence are as follows%


10/12

• Cultural bac groun': !he ideas and opinions of adolescents about the world around them are shaped by their cultural

bac ground and the level of their exposure. !hese determine the norms followed by them and hence2 their cultural identity. 1or example2

adolescent behaviour varies among Indian and /merican cultures.• /amily an' societal values: !he values of the society inhabited by an adolescent shape their identity. 1or example2 teenagers in

6$/ are conditioned to a materialistic society in contrast to young adults in !ibet who are more spiritually inclined.• Ethnic bac groun': /dolescents distinguish themselves as members of their ethnic group thus framing their own identity. 1or

example2 expectations of teenage behaviour and responsibilities vary across different ethnicities and tr ibes.• ocio economic status: !he socio7economic bac ground of an adolescent determines the peer group and the extent of their

accessibility to popular lifestyle choices that determine identity. 1or example2 accessibility to expensive gadgets and branded clothing that

are popular among teenagers are determined by their socio7economic bac ground.• 8ocational commitment: /dolescents begin to thin of their career as a component of their identity. 1or example2 adolescents

choose whether to study science or commerce.Question 17:

What are the challenges faced by individuals on entry to adulthood?

!he challenges faced by individuals on entry to adulthood are as follows%

)i* Career an' #or• !he adult gets a new role responsibility at wor .• $4he has to ad0ust with new challenging situations.• !here are apprehensions regarding different ad0ustments2 proving one,s competence and coping with expectations of both

employers and self.

)ii* 0arriage• /dults• have to ma e ad0ustments while entering a marriage relation and to now their spouse2 coping with each other,s li es2 disli es2

tastes and choices.• ;esponsibilities of home have to be shared if both partners are wor ing.

)iii* &arenthoo'• It is a difficult and stressful transition in young adults.• It depends on factors such as number of children in the family2 the availability of social support and the happiness and

unhappiness of the couple.• $ometimes single parents have to ta e the responsibility of bringing up the child.

Question 1: :xplain the functional limitations of sense organs.

!he functional limitations of sense organs of human beings refer to their limited range of stimulation. In order to be noticed2 a stimulus has to

be of an optimal intensity and magnitude. !hus2 the stimulus has to carry a minimum value or weight. 1or example2 our ears cannot hear very

faint or loud sounds. $imilarly2 our eyes cannot see ob0ects in very dim or very bright light.Question 2:

What is meant by light and dar adaptation? #ow do they ta e place?

*ight adaptation is the process of ad0usting to bright light after exposure to dim light. !his process often ta es a minute or two to be

completed. 5ar adaptation2 on the other hand2 refers to the process of ad0usting to dim light after exposure to bright light. It may ta e half an

hour or longer depending upon the level of exposure.

*ight and dar adaptation ta es place due to photochemical processes. *ight adaptation ta es place when the molecules of rhodopsin or

visual purple in the rods of the eye get bleached or bro en down2 as a result of the action of light. 5ar adaptation ta es place when the l ight

is removed allowing for restorative processes that regenerate the pigment in the rods wi th the help of vitamin /.Question 3:

What is colour vision and what are the dimensions of colour?

Aolour vision is the ability of the eyes to see and distinguish between colours based upon their varying wavelengths in the visible spectrum of

light. !he vision of colours depends on the visible spectrum2 which includes the range of energy detected by the photoreceptors. 1urther2 the

colours are a psychological property of human sensory experience. !hey are created by the interpretation of the information received by the

brain.

!he dimensions of colour are as follows%

)i* .ue 9It is a property of chromatic colours. #ue varies with wavelength and each colour carries a specific wavelength. /chromatic colours

li e blac 2 white and grey do not have hues.


11/12

)ii* aturation 9It is a psychological attribute that refers to the relative amount of hue of a surface or ob0ect. !he light of a single wavelength

appears to be saturated2 while the mixtures of different wavelengths cause decrease in saturation.

)iii* >rightness 9It refers to the perceived intensity of light and varies across both chromatic and achromatic colours. White is the brightest

colour2 whereas blac is the least bright colour.Question 4:

#ow does auditory sensation ta e place?

/uditory sensation ta es place when sound enters the ear and stimulates the chief organs of hearing. !his involves the production of cyclical

displacements of molecules in the air. /uditory sensation refers to a sub0ective hearing of something2 and audition is an important sense

modality2 as it provides spatial information and plays an important role in spo en communication.Question 5:

5efine attention. :xplain its properties.

/ttention refers to the process through which certain stimuli are selected from a group of others. It re8uires an allocation of effort. !he ob0ects

that are at the centre are the focus of attention while ob0ects that are away from the centre are at the fringe.

/ttention has following properties%

)i* "lertness: It refers to the individual,s readiness to deal with stimulus that they experience. 1or instance2 the situations where people are

alert while crossing the road in order to avoid mishaps.

)ii* Concentration: It refers to the focus of awareness on specific ob0ects while excluding others in that period of time. 1or instance2 the

executives in a meeting concentrate upon their wor while ignoring other activities outside.

)iii* earch: It ta es place when an observer loo s for specific subset of ob0ects among a set of ob0ects. 1or example2 the historians searchfor sites to gain information about events within a particular time period.

)iv* election: It refers to the focus of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus2 upon which the attention is gained.Question :

$tate the determinants of selective attention. #ow does selective attention differ from sustained attention?

!he determinants of selective attention are following%

)i* ,he external factors: !hese are the features of stimuli such as si+e2 intensity2 shape etc.

)ii* ,he internal factors: !hese are present within the individual and can be divided into motivational factors and cognitive factors.• =otivational factors represent our biological and social needs. Instances of the same are the drivers strictly following all the t raffic

rules.• Aognitive factors represent interests2 attitude and preparatory set. 1or instance2 an average teenager would be more interested in

watching a cric et match than reading a novel.

$elective attention differs from sustained attention as sustained attention is primarily concerned with concentration and refers to the ability to

maintain attention on an ob0ect for even for long duration. Aontrary to this2 selective attention is related to the selection of a limited number of

stimuli from a larger group of stimuli.Question !:

What is the main proposition of Gestalt psychologists with respect to perception of the visual field?

!he main proposition of Gestalt psychologists with respect to perception of the visual field is that humans perceive different stimuli as an

organised DwholeE2 which carries a definite form. /ccording to them2 the form of ob0ect lies in its whole that is different from the discrete parts.

!he Gestalt psychologist also believes that human perceive everything in an organised form because of the orientation of cerebral processes

towards a pragnan+.Question $:

#ow does perception of space ta e place?

$pace is perceived in three dimensions. !his is because of the ability to transfer a two7dimensional retinal vision into a three dimensional

perception. $patial attributes of ob0ects li e si+e2 shape and direction2 and the distance between ob0ects also contribute towards theperception of space. While the images of ob0ects pro0ected on the retina are fl at and two dimensional2 it is possible to perceive them in three

dimensions by transferring the two7dimensional retinal vision into a three7dimensional perception.Question 6:

What are the monocular cues of depth perception? :xplain the role of binocular cues in the perception of depth?

!he monocular cues of depth perception induce depth in ob0ects when viewed through a single eye. !hey are also nown as pictorial cues as

they are used by artists to induce depth in two dimensional paintings. Important monocular cues are relative si+e and height2 interposition2

linear and aerial perspective2 light and shade2 t exture gradient and motion parallax.


12/12

!he binocular cues of depth perception are provided by both the eyes in three dimensional spaces. !heir role in the perception of depth are

as follows%

)i* +etinal or >inocular 'isparity: It occurs when the two eyes have different locations in the head and are separated hori+ontally wi th a

difference of F. centimetres. !he difference in the images formed by the eyes is due to retinal disparity. *arge retinal disparity means a close

ob0ect and small retinal disparity means a distant ob0ect.

)ii* Convergence: When the eyes converge inward to bring the image on the fovea of each eye2 a group of muscles send messages to the

brain which are interpreted as cues to the perception of depth. !he degree of convergence decreases with increase in distance of the ob0ect.)iii* "ccommo'ation: It is the process through which image is focussed on the retina with the help of ciliary muscle. !hese muscles change

the thic ness of the eye lens. !he degree of contraction of the muscles provides a cue to distance. !he muscles relax when the ob0ect is

distant and contract when the ob0ect is near.Question 17:

Why do illusions occur?

Illusions occur because of a result of a mismatch between the physical stimuli and its perception by the individual. !he mismatch is caused

by incorrect interpretation of information received by sensory organs. Illusions are called primitive organisations as they are generated by an

external stimulus situation that generates the same ind of experience in all the individuals. $ome illusions are universal in nature as they are

found in all individuals. !hey are also nown as universal illusions or permanent illusions because they do not change with experience and

practice. Aontrary to this2 illusions that vary in different individuals are nown as personal illusions.Question 11:

#ow do socio7cultural factors influence our perceptions?

$ocio7cultural factors influence our perceptions by generating differential familiarity and salience of stimuli as well as certain habits of

perception. "eople living in different cultural settings have varying perceptions li e identification of ob0ects and interpretation of depth. 1or

example2 in the study carried out by psychologists in /frica and :urope2 it was observed that the /fricans have greater susceptibility to

hori+ontal7vertical illusions as they live in dense forests and regularly experience verticality which overestimated.

:uropeans on the other hand2 have greater susceptibility to =uller7*yer illusion as they live in an environment that has right angles. #ence2

they underestimate the length of lines characterised by enclosure.

chapter 1 n 2 ncert solnts pyschology

Documents