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Notes

Chapter 1 Introduction: Against Fate and Ascription

1. “After all, modernity is a rebellion against fate and ascription,”:

Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and Ambivalence, Polity, Cambridge,

1991, p. 68.

2. Simón Bolívar, “Discurso de Angostura” [1819], in J. L. Salcedo-

Bastardo, Bolívar, Academica Venezolana, Editorial Arte, Caracas,

1984, pp. 178–203. The original Spanish is particularly telling:

“mostrar al mundo antiguo la majestad del mundo moderno,” p.

203.

3. Jürgen Habermas, “Modernity: An Unfinished Project” [1980], in

Maurizio Passerin d’Entrèves and Seyla Benhabib, eds., Habermas and the Unfinished Project of Modernity, The MIT Press, Cambridge

MA, 1997, pp. 38–55; Bauman, Modernity and Ambivalence; Marshall

Berman, All That Is Solid Melts into Air, Verso, London, 1983.

4. See, e.g., Alan Knight, “Democratic and Revolutionary Traditions in

Latin America,” Bulletin of Latin American Research, vol. 20, no. 2,

April 2001, pp. 147–86.

5. Jürgen Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve Lectures [1985], trans. Frederick Lawrence, Polity Press, Cambridge,

1987; The Theory of Communicative Action, trans. Thomas McCarthy,

Polity, Cambridge, 1984.

6. Aníbal Quijano, Modernidad, identidad y utopía en América Latina,

Editorial El Conejo, Quito, 1990, p. 62.

7. Julio Ramos, Desencuentros de la modernidad en América Latina. Literatura y política en el siglo XIX, Fondo de Cultura Económica,

Mexico, 1989; trans. by John D. Blanco as Divergent Modernities, Duke University Press, Durham, 2001.

8. For the classic statement of modernization theory, see W. W. Rostow,

Politics and the Stages of Growth, Cambridge University Press,

London, 1971; for Latin American responses, see José Medina

Echavarría, Consideraciones sociológicas sobre el desarrollo económico en América Latina, Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, Montevideo,

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1984; and Joseph A. Kahl, Modernization, Exploitation and Dependency in Latin America: Germani, González Casanova and Cardoso, Transaction Books, New Brunswick NJ, 1976.

9. Aníbal Quijano et al., Imágenes desconocidas: La modernidad en la encrucijada posmoderna, Consejo Latinoamericano de Ciencias

Sociales, Buenos Aires, 1988, p. 17 and pp. 175–8.

10. Mark Thurner and Andrés Guerrero, eds., After Spanish Rule: Postcolonial Predicaments of the Americas, Duke University Press,

Durham, 2003, p. 25.

11. Luis Roniger and Carlos H. Waisman, eds., Globality and Multiple Modernities: Comparative North American and Latin American Perspectives, Sussex University Press, Brighton, 2002; Laurence

Whitehead, Latin America: A New Interpretation, Palgrave, New

York, 2006. See also Manuel A. Garretón, Incomplete Democracy: Political Democratization in Chile and Latin America, trans. R.

Kelly Washbourne with Gregory Horvath, University of North

Carolina Press, Chapel Hill NC, 2003, pp. 14–15.

12. Habermas, Philosophical Discourse, p. 2.

13. Reinhart Koselleck, “ ‘Space of Experience’ and ‘Horizon of

Expectation’: Two Historical Categories,” in his Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time, trans. Keith Tribe, The MIT Press,

Cambridge MA and London, 1985, pp. 267–88.

14. Michel Foucault, “What Is Enlightenment?” [1978] in Paul Rabinow,

ed., The Foucault Reader, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1984, pp. 32–50.

15. Peter Wagner has suggested one general caveat about modernity that

rings particularly true in relation to Latin America, namely that if it

is thought of as “a ‘condition’ or an ‘experience,’ then the qualifica-

tions required to show its existence were largely absent in the alleg-

edly modern societies during the nineteenth century, and for a still

fairly large number of people during the first half of the twentieth

century.” Wagner, A Sociology of Modernity: Liberty and Discipline, Routledge, London, 1994, pp. 3–4.

16. Victor M. Uribe-Uran, ed., State and Society in Spanish America dur-ing the Age of Revolution, Scholarly Resources, Wilmington DE,

2001; see also Anthony McFarlane and Eduardo Posada-Carbó, eds.,

Independence and Revolution in Spanish America: Perspectives and Problems, Institute of Latin American Studies, London, 1999.

17. Beatriz Sarlo, Una modernidad periférica: Buenos Aires 1920 y 1930,

Ediciones Nueva Visión, Buenos Aires, 1988; Néstor García Canclini,

Culturas híbridas: Estrategias para entra y salir de la modernidad,

Editorial Sudamericana, Buenos Aires, 1992; José Joaquín Brunner,

América Latina: cultura y modernidad, Editorial Grijalbo, Mexico,

1992.

18. The term was particularly evident in Mexico, even before the revolu-

tion: there was the famous modernista forum Revista Moderna

(1898–1911); a new generation of intellectuals (including Alfonso

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Reyes) founded Savia Moderna in 1906; later came México Moderno

(1920–1923) and a publishing house called Moderno (founded in

1919 by Manuel Toussaint).

19. Charles Taylor, Modern Social Imaginaries, Duke University Press,

Durham NC, 2004, p. 23.

20. Ibid., quotations on p. 31, p. 33, and p. 31, respectively.

21. The literature on the modernization of Latin American cities has

been growing rapidly. See, in particular, Maurico Tenorio Trillo,

“1910 Mexico City: Space and Nation in the City of the Centenario,”

Journal of Latin American Studies, vol. 28, no. 1, February 1996,

pp. 75–104; Gilbert M. Joseph and Mark Szuchman, eds., I Saw a City Invincible: Urban Portraits of Latin America, Scholarly

Resources Inc., Washington, 1996; Ronn Pineo and James A. Baer,

Cities of Hope: People, Protests, and Progress in Urbanizing Latin America, 1870–1930, Westview Press, Boulder and Oxford, 1998;

and Arturo Almandez, ed., Planning Latin America’s Capital Cities, 1850–1950, Routledge, London, 2002.

22. Angel Rama, Las máscaras democráticas del modernismo, Fundación

Angel Rama, Montevideo, 1985, pp. 28–33.

23. For a good illustrative account, which brings out the effects of mod-

ernization in telling detail, see Karen Remmer, Party Competition in Argentina and Chile, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln NE,

1984.

24. Rama, Las máscaras, p. 33.

25. The classic analysis of the impact of modernization on cultural life is

Angel Rama, La ciudad letrada, Ediciones del Norte, Hanover, NH,

1984. For the Argentine experience, see David Viñas, Apogeo de la oligarquía: Literatura argentina y realidad política, Ediciones Siglo

Veinte, Buenos Aires, 1975. For a more personal account, see Manuel

Gálvez, Recuerdos de la vida literaria, vol. I. Amigos y maestros de mi juventud [1944], Librería Hachette, Buenos Aires, 1961.

26. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, Conflicto y armonía de las razas en América [1883], La Cultura Argentina, Buenos Aires, 1915, p. 456;

José Martí, “Nuestra América” [1891], in Obras escogidas, Editora

Política, La Habana, vol. II, 1979, pp. 519–27, p. 526.

27. Rubén Darío, “Cake-Walk: el baile de moda,” in Revista Moderna de México, I:1, September 1903, pp. 59–61.

28. Krzysztof Pomian, Sur l’histoire, Gallimard, Paris, 1999, p. 180.

29. Roger Chartier, “Intellectual History or Sociocultural History? The

French Trajectories,” in Dominick LaCapra and Steven L. Kaplan,

Modern European Intellectual History: Reappraisals and New Perspectives, Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London, 1982, pp.

13–46, p. 22. Chartier is here discussing the work of Lucien Febvre,

whose use of biography as a way of investigating the articulation

between thought and the social world I have drawn upon for this

book. However, Febvre’s concept of mental equipment (outillage)

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places more emphasis on the outlook of the individual than I wish to

do (likewise Lucien Goldmann’s idea, adopted from Lukács, of world

vision). Bourdieu’s term habitus—defined as the “set of dispositions

which incline agents to act and react in certain ways” (Language and Symbolic Power, ed. John B. Thompson, trans. Gino Raymond and

Matthew Adamson, Polity, Cambridge, 1991, p. 12)—comes closer

to capturing the social context of ideas that I wish to emphasize.

However, my reservation about habitus is that it implies a more

established and consensual situation than existed in early-twentieth-

century Latin America, where cultural producers were obliged to

negotiate precarious, atomized, and rapidly shifting conditions.

I have, therefore, settled upon Pomian’s less precise, but correspond-

ingly more flexible concept of porteurs of ideas, which leaves open the

(undecidable) question of the extent to which the individual outlook

is conditioned by society or vice versa.

30. Chartier, “Intellectual History,” p. 34.

31. Rama, Las máscaras, pp. 28–33.

32. Brunner, Cultura y modernidad, p. 169 ff. For a sample of evidence

for popular interest in the modern, see, from the discipline of history:

Carlos A. Forment, Democracy in Latin America 1760–1900. Vol. I: Civic Selfhood and Public Life in Mexico and Peru, The University of

Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 2003; François-Xavier Guerra,

Annick Lempérière et al., eds., Los espacios públicos en Iberoamérica,

Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 1998; Florencia Mallon,

Peasant and Nation: The Making of Postcolonial Mexico and Peru,

University of California Press, Berkeley, 1994; Thomas O’Brien, The Century of US Capitalism in Latin America, University of New

Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1999; and Guy Thomson, with David

LaFrance, Patriotism, Politics, and Popular Liberalism in Nineteenth-century Mexico: Juan Francisco Lucas and the Puebla Sierra, Scholarly

Resources, Wilmington DE, 1998. From social science, see: Arnold

Bauer, Goods, Power, History: Latin America’s Material Culture, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001; and David Nugent,

Modernity at the Edge of Empire: State, Individual and Nation in the Northern Peruvian Andes 1885–1935, Stanford University Press,

Stanford CA, 1997. For relevant work in Latin American cultural

studies, see note 33; and also William Rowe and Vivian Schelling,

Memory and Modernity: Popular Culture in Latin America, Verso,

London, 1991.

33. Jesús Martín-Barbero, De los medios a las mediaciones: Comunicación, cultura y hegemonía, Ediciones G. Gili, Barcelona, 1991; García

Canclini, Culturas híbridas; Sarlo, Una modernidad periférica.

34. The classic account is E. Bradford Burns and Thomas E. Skidmore,

Elites, Masses, and Modernization in Latin America, 1850–1930,

University of Texas Press, Austin and London, 1979, esp. pp. 27–8.

Carlos Alonso (in his The Burden of Modernity: The Rhetoric of Cultural

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Discourse in Latin America, Oxford University Press, New York, 1998)

basically agrees, although he sees the elites’ ideology of modernization

not as a result of choice but as determined by relations of dependency.

35. Michel De Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life, trans. Stephen

Rendall, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1984; Lucien Febvre, Le problème de l’incroyance au 16e siècle: La religion de Rabelais, Albin

Michel, Paris, 1942; Hans Robert Jauss, “Literary History as a

Challenge to Literary Theory,” in New Literary History, vol. 2, no. 1,

Autumn 1970, pp. 7–37. See also Christophe Charle, Naissance des “intellectuels,” Editions de Minuit, Paris, 1990.

36. The probable exception is that Rodó would have read little, if any, of

Mariátegui’s writing, since Mariátegui was only 23 at the time of

Rodó’s death and his work up to that point had only appeared in

Peruvian newspapers.

37. Rubén Jiménez Ricardez, “Prólogo,” in Mariátegui, Obra política,

Ediciones Era, Mexico, 1979, pp. 9–43, pp. 19–20.

38. Pedro Henríquez Ureña, “La obra de José Enrique Rodó” [1910], in

Ensayos en busca de nuestra expresión, Editorial Raigal, Buenos Aires,

1952, pp. 118–31, p. 119.

39. Ramos, Divergent Modernities, p. 60, original emphasis.

40. Martí is probably best seen as a transitional figure, operating as he did

in the very particular historical circumstances of Cuba’s late struggle

for independence. As a result, he had opportunities both to play the

kind of leading political role more characteristic of his predecessors

and—partly because of his exile in the United States—to earn a living

as a journalist to an extent that only really became possible two decades

or so later elsewhere in Latin America. On Martí’s views about moder-

nity, in which can be identified many elements of the ideas discussed in

this book, see Ramos, Divergent Modernities, esp. Part II; and Susana

Rotker, The American Chronicles of José Martí: Journalism and Modernity in Latin America, trans. Jennifer French and Katherine

Semler, University Press of New England, Hanover NH, 2000. As I

argue in chapter 2, however, Rodó wrote in refutation of Martí’s

approach and elaborated a fundamentally different strategy for Latin

America’s future. It is worth noting that, unlike Rodó, Martí does not

seem to have been widely read (at least outside Cuba) until the 1920s,

which supports the view that the main source of his authority was

political rather than cultural. See the article of 1905 by Pedro

Henríquez Ureña, in which he expressed regret that the consecration

of Martí as an apostle had “eclipsed his greatness as a writer and made

him forgotten as a poet” (Obra crítica, ed. Emma Susana Speratti

Piñero, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 1960, p. 20).

41. Alfonso Reyes, “No hay tal lugar,” in Obras completas, vol. XI, Fondo

de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 1960, p. 373.

42. On macondismo see Brunner, Cultura y modernidad, pp. 37–72; on

“baroque modernity” see Pedro Morandé, Cultura y modernización en

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América Latina: Ensayo sociológico acerca de la crisis del desarrollismo y de su superación, Encuentro, Madrid, 1987; and Claudio Veliz, The New World of the Gothic Fox, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1994.

43. The distinctions between modernism in Europe and Latin America

are helpfully summarized in Santiago Castro-Gómez, Crítica de la razón latinoamericana, Puvill Libros, Barcelona, 1996, Ch. 4. He

draws mainly on Iris M. Zavala, Colonialism and Culture: Hispanic Modernisms and the Social Imaginary, Indiana University Press,

Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1992; and Roberto Fernández

Retamar, in Para el perfil definitive del hombre, Editorial Letras

Cubanas, La Habana, 1981.

44. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party, Progress Publishers, Moscow, n.d. [1848; trans. 1888], p. 48.

45. Pedro Henríquez Ureña, “Palabras en la despedida de un buen amer-

icano” [1940], in Plenitud de América, Del Giudice Editores, Buenos

Aires, 1952, pp. 115–8, p. 117.

46. Octavio Paz, Los hijos del limo. Del romanticismo a la vanguardia,

Editorial Seix Barral, Barcelona, 1974, p. 125.

47. Darío, in El Tiempo (Buenos Aires), May 20, 1898, in Estudios inédi-tos, Instituto de Las Españas, New York, 1938, p. 160.

48. See Darío, “El rey burgués,” in Azul, Espasa-Calpe, Madrid, 14th

edn., 1966.

49. Cathy L. Jrade, “Socio-Political Concerns in the Poetry of Rubén

Darío,” in David William Foster and Daniel Altamira, eds., From Romanticism to Modernismo in Latin America, Garland Publishing,

Inc., New York and London, 1997, pp. 302–15, esp. p. 303. On

imports of consumer items, see Bauer, Goods. 50. Octavio Paz’s ideas on Rubén Darío paved the way for Anglo-American

scholarship: see Paz, The Siren and the Seashell by Lysander Kemp and

Margaret Sayers Peden, University of Texas Press, Austin and London,

1976. For the revisionist case see Zavala, Colonialism and Culture; Richard A. Cardwell and Bernard McGuirk, eds., ¿Qué es el modern-ismo? Nueva encuesta, nuevas lecturas, Society of Spanish and Spanish-

American Studies, Boulder CO, 1993; Gerard Aching, The Politics of Spanish American modernismo, Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge, 1997; Cathy L. Jrade, Modernismo, Modernity and the Development of Spanish American Literature, University of Texas

Press, Austin, 1998; Anthony L. Geist and José B. Monleón, eds.,

Modernism and Its Margins: Reinscribing Cultural Modernity from Spain and Latin America, Garland Publishing, Inc., New York and

London, 1999. For the traditional interpretation see Keith Ellis,

Critical Approaches to Rubén Darío, University of Toronto Press,

Toronto, 1974. For work emphasizing modernismo’s contradictory ten-

dencies, see Noé Jitrik, Las contradicciones del modernismo, El Colegio

de México, Mexico City, 1978; David William Foster and Daniel

Altamira, eds., From Romanticism to Modernismo in Latin America,

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Garland Publishing, Inc., New York and London, 1997. Revisionist

work has also been done on the vanguardista movements: see Saúl

Yurkievich, A través de la trama, Muchnik Editores, Barcelona, 1984.

On novels, see Carlos J. Alonso, The Spanish American Regional Novel: Modernity and Autochthony, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,

1990; and his The Burden of Modernity.51. Aching, Politics, p. 147.

52. Darío, “El Porvenir” (1885).

53. See Rama, Las máscaras, p. 174 on popular speech.

54. Gordon Brotherston, ed., Spanish American Modernista Poets: A Critical Anthology, Bristol Classical Press, London, 2nd edn., 1995,

esp. “Introduction,” pp. vii–xviii.

55. Aníbal González, La crónica modernista hispanoamericana, 1983 and

La novela modernista hispanoamericana, 1987; Cristóbal Pera,

Modernistas en París: El mito de París en la prosa modernista hispano-americana, Peter Lang, Bern, 1997.

56. Paz, Los hijos, pp. 130–1.

57. On the emergence of a cultural sphere, see Rama, La ciudad letrada;

and Ramos, Desencuentros de la modernidad. See also Vivian

Schelling, ed., Through the Kaleidoscope: The Experience of Modernity in Latin America, Verso, London, 2000.

58. Jorge Larraín, Identity and Modernity in Latin America, Polity Press,

Cambridge, 2000.

59. Carlos Alonso, “The Burden of Modernity,” in Doris Sommer, ed.,

The Places of History: Regionalism Revisited, Duke University Press,

Durham and London, 1999, pp. 94–103, p. 94.

60. Thanks to Charles Jones for this metaphor.

61. Vicente F. López, “Clasicismo y romanticismo” [1842], in Norberto

Pinilla, La polémica del romanticismo, Editorial Americalee, Buenos

Aires, 1943, pp. 11–32, esp. p. 23.

62. Juan Bautista Alberdi, “Ideas. Para presidir á la confección del curso de

filosofía contemporánea. En el Colegio de Humanidades Montevideo,

1842,” in Escritos póstumos, vol. XV, Imprenta Juan Bautista Alberdi,

Buenos Aires, 1900, pp. 603–19, esp. 613 and 607.

63. Garretón, Incomplete Democracy, p. 19.

64. Jorge E. Gracia, Hispanic/Latino Identity: A Philosophical Perspective, Blackwell, Malden MA and Oxford, 2000, p. 141.

65. Jürgen Habermas, Postmetaphysical Thinking: Philosophical Essays, trans. William Mark Hohengarten, Polity, Cambridge, 1995, transla-

tor’s introduction, p. xvii. The relevant essay by Habermas is

“Individuation through Socialization: On George Herbert Mead’s

Theory of Subjectivity,” in ibid., pp. 149–204.

66. See the review of debates in Castro-Gómez, Crítica de la razón lati-noamericana, esp. Ch. 2.

67. I regret that there is no specific discussion of Brazil in this book, but

there is a rich existing literature on Brazilian modernity and it was

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not easy to see how to add to it. In English, see, especially, Silviano

Santiago, The Space In-Between, Duke University Press, Durham,

2001; Roberto Schwarz, Misplaced Ideas: Essays on Brazilian Culture, Verso, London, 1992; and José de Souza Martins, “The Hesitations

of the Modern and the Contradictions of Modernity in Brazil,” in

Schelling, ed., Through the Kaleidoscope, pp. 248–74. There is plenty

of evidence that similar themes are to be found in Brazil, perhaps at

an earlier stage than in Spanish America (notably in the work of

Machado de Assis). Nevertheless, one important difference is that no

explicitly political project of an alternative modernity cohered in

Brazil until the Workers’ Party emerged in the 1980s.

68. See Rama, Las máscaras, p. 37 for an argument about the major role

played in modernization by letrados, especially the Generation of

1880 in Argentina, the Reforma Generation in Mexico, Tobias

Barreto in Brazil, and Eugenio María de Hostos in Puerto Rico.

69. Moreover, stereotypes of Latin America as ineptly and brutally mod-

ern are still ubiquitous in popular literature. To take one random but

influential example, see Hergé’s Tintin and the Picaros [1976], Egmont

UK, London, 2006, in which the Picaros, a guerrilla group dressed in

harlequin costumes (carnival), try to overthrow the “cruel and vain”

tyrant, General Tapioca (p. 1). The leader of the Picaros is equally

bloodthirsty, however, rejecting Tintin’s offer to help in exchange for

a promise to enact a revolution without violence with the rejoinder:

“A revolution without executions? Without reprisals? [ . . . ] It’s

unthinkable! [ . . . ] And anyway, what about tradition? [ . . . ] Tapioca

and his ministers are bloody tyrants and villains. They must be shot!”

(p. 44). When the Picaros finally triumph, aided by Tintin and the

Professor (respectively the incorruptible and the inventive—both

civilizing Europeans), they force General Tapioca at gunpoint to

declare, in a speech that “we shall, of course, be recording [ . . . ] on

tape,” that he is handing over power to their own leader who “will

lead our beloved country forward along the road of [ . . . ] progress”

(p. 56). There are many other representations throughout the text of

Latin American modernity as technocratic and authoritarian.

70 Alain Touraine, Critique of Modernity, trans. David Macey, Blackwell,

Oxford, 1995, p. 201.

71. Manifesto of the Argentine periodical Martín Fierro, May 15, 1924,

in Oliverio Girondo, Obras completas, ed. Raúl Antelo, Galaxia

Gutenberg, Madrid, 1999, pp. lxv–lxvi.

Chapter 2 Mapping Out the Modern: Rodó’s Critique of Pure Reason

1. Quijano, Modernidad, p. 62.

2. Rodó emphasized the phrase “the four winds of the spirit” in “Lema”

[1896], Obras completas, ed. Emir Rodríguez Monegal, Editorial

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Aguilar, Madrid, 1957, p. 145. The same phrase occurs, along with

“fully human,” in Pedro Henríquez Ureña’s classic americanista essay,

“La Utopía de América” [1925], in his Plenitud de América, pp. 11–19.

References in this chapter are to works by Rodó unless otherwise

stated; most are cited from the Rodríguez Monegal edition, hereafter

OC. The exception is Ariel [1900], for which I have used Gordon

Brotherston’s edition, published by Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge, 1967. Ariel is also in OC, pp. 202–44.

3. José Vasconcelos, The Cosmic Race: A Bilingual Edition, trans. Didier

T. Jaén, The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London,

1997, p. 48. My translation.

4. See, e.g., Augusto Salazar Bondy, Existe una filosofía en nuestra América?, Siglo XXI, Mexico City, 1968; Enrique Dussel, Filosofía de la liberación, Edicol, Mexico City, 1977.

5. Rubén Darío, “Cabezas: José Enrique Rodó” [1909], in Hugo

Barbagelata, ed., Rodó y sus críticos, Biblioteca Latino-Americana,

Paris, 1920, pp. 105–7, p. 105.

6. Gonzalo Zaldumbide, José Enrique Rodó, Editorial América, Madrid,

1919, p. 47.

7. Ariel, ed. Brotherston, p. 65.

8. Aníbal Ponce, Humanismo burgués y humanismo proletario [1935],

Imprenta Nacional de Cuba, Havana, 1962; Alberto Zum Felde,

Proceso intelectual del Uruguay y crítica de su literatura, Editorial

Claridad, Montevideo, 1941, esp. pp. 242–3; Luis Alberto Sánchez,

Balance y liquidación del novecientos [1939], Editorial Universo, Lima,

4th edn., 1973, pp. 71–89.

9. Revisionist interpretations include Arturo Ardao, ed., Rodó: Su americanismo, Biblioteca de Marcha, Montevideo, 1970; Jorge A.

Silva Cencio, Rodó y la legislación social, Biblioteca de Marcha,

Montevideo, 1973; Nicola Miller, In the Shadow of the State: Intellectuals and the Quest for National Identity in Twentieth-Century Spanish America, Verso, London, 1999, esp. pp. 108–113; and

Ottmar Ette and Titus Heydenreich, eds., José Enrique Rodó y su tiempo, Cien años de Ariel, Vervuert/Iberoamericana, Frankfurt and

Madrid, 2000. The stimulating centenary volume edited by Gustavo

San Román, This America We Dream Of: Rodó and Ariel One Hundred Years On, Institute of Latin American Studies, London,

2001, contains both revisionist and non-revisionist views.

10. Emilio Frugoni, “La orientación espiritual de Rodó,” in Frugoni, La sensibilidad americana, Editor Maximino García, Montevideo, 1929,

pp. 171–85, esp. p. 177.

11. For anthologies of Rodó’s reception by his contemporaries, see

Barbagelata, Rodó y sus críticos; Revista Ariel (Montevideo),

“Homenaje a José Enrique Rodó,” Centro de Estudiantes “Ariel,”

Montevideo, 1920; and Nosotros [Buenos Aires], “Homenaje a

Rodó,” vol. XI, no. 97, May 1917.

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12. Eduardo Mendieta, ed., Latin American Philosophy, Indiana

University Press, Bloomington, 2003, p. 13; Eduardo Devés Valdés,

Del Ariel de Rodó a la CEPAL (1900–1950), vol. I of El pensamiento latinoamericano en el siglo XX: Entre la modernización y la identi-dad, Editorial Biblos, Argentina, 2000, p. 29.

13. Devés Valdés, Del Ariel, p. 35.

14. José Miguel Oviedo, Breve historia del ensayo hispano-americano,

Alianza Editorial, Madrid, 1990, p. 46.

15. The extravagant welcome extended to Waldo Frank, who went on a

lecture tour of Latin America in 1929–1930, is revealing about

how few eminent U.S. visitors Latin Americans encountered. See

M. J. Benardete, ed., Waldo Frank in America Hispana, Instituto de

las Españas, New York, 1930. On ambassadors, see C. Neale Ronning

and Albert P. Vannucci, eds., Ambassadors in Foreign Policy: The Influence of Individuals on US-Latin American Policy, Praeger,

New York, 1987.

16. Rodó wrote to Alcides Arguedas, author of the classic text of racial

pessimism, Pueblo enfermo (Barcelona, no publisher stated, 1909),

arguing that Latin Americans had to see their ills as “transitory” and

had “to struggle against them animated by the spirit of hope and

faith in the future”; he recommended that Arguedas retitle his book

Pueblo niño. “Carta a Alcides Arguedas,” 1909, OC, p. 1344. See

also Carlos Octavio Bunge’s Nuestra América [1903], Ministerio de

Cultura y Educación de la Nación, Fraterna, Buenos Aires, 1994.

17. Gwen Kirkpatrick, “The Aesthetics of the Avant-garde,” in Schelling,

Through the Kaleidoscope, pp. 177–98, esp. p. 189.

18. Claudio Lomnitz, “Passion and Banality in Mexican History: The

Presidential Persona,” in Luis Roniger and Tamar Herzog, eds., The Collective and the Public in Latin America: Cultural Identities and Political Order, Sussex Academic Press, Brighton UK and Portland

OR, 2000, pp. 238–56, esp. p. 252 ff.

19. Veliz, The New World of the Gothic Fox, p. 6.

20. Ramos, Divergent Modernities, pp. 233–4.

21. Alfonso Reyes, “Rodó” [1917], in Reyes, Obras completas, vol. III,

Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico City, 1956, pp. 134–7, esp.

p. 135.

22. Ramos, Divergent Modernities, p. 232.

23. Juan Zorrilla de San Martín [leading Uruguayan poet], “Discurso

pronunciado en el pórtico de la Universidad,” in Revista Ariel, “Homenaje,” pp. 151–61, esp. p. 155.

24. Ibid., p. 157.

25. Both the leader of the Uruguayan Socialist Party, Emilio Frugoni,

and the Argentine Socialist Alfredo Palacios were staunch defenders

of Rodó. See Frugoni, El libro de los elogios, Editorial Afirmación,

Montevideo, 1953; and Palacios, Estadistas y poetas, Editorial

Claridad, Buenos Aires, 1952. Two famous British left-wing admirers

NOT ES 207

were Havelock Ellis, who wrote an introduction to The Motives of Proteus, trans. Angel Flores, George Allen and Unwin, London,

1929 and Aneurin Bevan, as discussed in Michael Foot, Aneurin Bevan, Paladin, St. Albans, 1975, vol. 1, p. 195. See also Gustavo San

Román’s survey of Rodó’s reception in the United Kingdom, in San

Román, This America, pp. 68–91. Conservative Latin American crit-

ics included Francisco García Calderón, La creación de un continente, Librería Ollendorf, Paris, 1912, p. 98; and José de la Riva Aguero,

Carácter de la literatura del Perú independiente, Librería Francesa

Científica Galland, Lima, 1905, p. 263.

26. Rodó stated: “I wanted to propose [ . . . ] to the youth of Latin America

a ‘profession of faith’ that they could make their own.” Letter to

Enrique José Varona, May 7, 1900, OC, p. 1265.

27. Ariel, ed. Brotherston, p. 57. This quotation (actually from Charles

Morice, not Rodó himself, although he evidently introduced it in sup-

port of his argument) is often cited by those who dismiss Rodó as a

reactionary. See, e.g., Mary Kay Vaughan, The State, Education, and Social Class in Mexico, 1880–1928, Northern Illinois University Press,

DeKalb IL, 1982, p. 245.

28. Gordon Brotherston, “Rodó Views His Continent,” in San Román,

This America, pp. 35–49. Rodó did not at any point define explicitly

what he meant by the term “culture” or how it differed from “tradi-

tion,” which he seemed to use to evoke the wider anthropological

meaning of culture. Part of the explanation for this omission must lie

in the difficulties of envisaging any kind of homogeneous culture

given the social and political realities of Latin America at the begin-

ning of the twentieth century. As González Echevarría has argued,

the region’s intellectuals wrote about “culture” as “part of a process of

literary self-constitution” (Roberto González Echevarría, The Voice of the Masters: Writing and Authority in Modern Latin American Literature, University of Texas Press, Austin, 1985, p. 11). For further

discussion of what Latin American intellectuals meant by “culture,”

see chapter 4 on Alfonso Reyes.

29. See, e.g., “Maris Stella” [1912], OC, pp. 1132–4.

30. Michael Aronna, “Pueblos enfermos”: The Discourse of Illness in the Turn-of-the-Century Spanish and Latin American Essay, University of

North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill NC, 1999, pp. 87–134, esp. p. 99.

31. “Rubén Darío” [1899], OC, pp. 165–87, esp. p. 187.

32. “Darío,” OC, p. 187.

33. Ariel, ed. Brotherston, p. 62

34. “Motivos de Proteo,” OC, p. 397.

35. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party, Progress Publishers, Moscow, n.d. [1848; trans. 1888], p. 49. A

Spanish version was published in Madrid in 1886; Rodó could equally

well have read the French version, translated by Marx’s daughter,

Laura Lafargue, in 1885.

NOT ES208


37. “Las ‘Moralidades,’ de Barrett” [1910], El Mirador de Próspero, OC,

pp. 635–6, p. 636.

38. Motivos de Proteo was not widely reviewed when it first came out, but

its reputation steadily grew, and by the time of his death it was men-

tioned alongside Ariel in many of the eulogies. See Nosotros, “Homenaje a Rodó.”

39. Enrique Mendez Vives, El Uruguay de la modernización, vol. V

(1876–1904) of Historia Uruguaya, Ediciones de la Banda Oriental,

Montevideo, 1975, p. 38. On Uruguay’s modernization, see also

M. H. J. Finch, A Political Economy of Uruguay since 1870, The

Macmillan Press, London and Basingstoke, 1981; and Fernando

López-Alves, “Between the Economy and the Polity in the River

Plate: Uruguay, 1811–1890,” Research Paper no. 33, Institute of

Latin American Studies, London, 1993.

40. Eduardo de León, “Uruguay ¿en el espejo de Morse?: La generación

del 900,” in Felipe Arocena and Eduardo de León, El complejo de Próspero: Ensayos sobre cultura, modernidad y modernización en América Latina, Vintén Editor, Montevideo, 1993, pp. 243–95, esp.

p. 256.

41. El libro del centenario del Uruguay 1825–1925, Editores Agencia

Publicidad, Montevideo, 1925, p. 615.

42. Josefina Lereda Acevedo de Blixen, Novecientos, Ediciones del Río de

la Plata, Montevideo, 3rd edn., 1967, p. 37.

43. Section on “Montevideo hoy” in the lavishly illustrated and officially

endorsed El libro del centenario, p. 695.

44. “El ejército y el ciudadano” [1910], OC, p. 1129.

45. De León, “Uruguay,” pp. 248–9.

46. See George Pendle, Uruguay: South America’s First Welfare State, Royal Institute of International Affairs, London and New York,

1952; Milton Vanger, The Model Country: José Batlle y Ordóñez of Uruguay 1907–1915, Brandeis University Press, Hanover NH, and

London, 1980; and Francisco Panizza, Uruguay, Batllismo y después, Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, Montevideo, 1990.

47. Tulio Halperín Donghi, “Uruguay in the Nineteenth Century,” in

Roniger and Herzog, The Collective and the Public in Latin America,

pp. 158–73.

48. Alberto Zum Felde, Proceso histórico del Uruguay: Esquema de una sociología nacional, Editor Maximino García, Montevideo, 1919,

pp. 224–5.

49. De León, “Uruguay,” p. 251.

50. Ibid., p. 256.

51. The ideas of Karl Christian Krause (1871–1832) were developed by

his Spanish student, Julián Sanz del Río (1814–1869), and the concept

of “racionalismo armónico” became influential in late-nineteenth-

century Spain and in parts of Latin America.

NOT ES 209

52. For details of all these cultural institutions, see Apuntes para una historia de las ideas en el Uruguay, Departamento de Cultura

CAUSA-URUGUAY, Montevideo, April 1990.

53. “Una carta anticolegialista” [1916], in OC, pp. 1039–42.

54. Letter to Juan Francisco Piquet, March 6, 1904, OC, p. 1275.

55. Letter to Rafael Altamira, 1900, OC, p. 1286; letter to Unamuno,

March 20, 1904, OC, pp. 1317–8.

56. Julio Herrera y Reissig (1899), cited in Pablo Rocca, ed., Montevideo: Altillos, cafés, literatura 1849–1986, Editorial Arca, Montevideo,

1992, p. 15.

57. In Uruguay, El Día was founded by Batlle in 1886; Diario del Plata,

which Rodó edited for the first two years, in 1912. In Argentina, the

two national dailies were relatively long established: La Prensa (1869)

and La Nación (1870).

58. De León, “Uruguay,” p. 253.

59. See Carlos Real de Azúa, “Prólogo a Ariel,” in Rodó, Ariel: Motivos de Proteo, ed. Angel Rama, Biblioteca Ayacucho, Caracas, 1976, pp.

ix–xxxi, esp. p. xx. Ariel was evidently well known at least in

Mexican student circles by 1908, or the young Alfonso Reyes would

not have felt moved to persuade his father to finance the first

Mexican edition. Spanish poet Juan Ramón Jiménez remembered it

creating a stir in Spain in 1900 (see his Españoles de tres mundos, Editorial Losada, Buenos Aires, 1942, p. 62). By 1911, nine edi-

tions had been published in total: four in Montevideo, one in

Valencia, one in Santo Domingo, one in Havana, and two in Mexico.

In 1910 Pedro Henríquez Ureña noted that even though Rodó’s

books were difficult to obtain in many parts of the region, his inf lu-

ence was still detectable everywhere, suggesting that the informal

routes had been effective. Henríquez Ureña, Ensayos en busca de nuestra expresión, p. 119

60. Lereda Acevedo de Blixen, Novocientos, p. 67.

61. José Sienra y Carranza, “El el café se vive realmente” [1882], in

Rocca, Montevideo, Editorial Arca, Montevideo, 1992, pp. 75–8,

esp. p. 76.

62. Lereda Acevedo de Blixen, Novecientos, p. 72.

63. Carlos Real de Azúa, “Ambiente espiritual del novecientos,” in

Arturo Ardao et al., La literatura del 900, special issue of Número

[Montevideo], Año 2, no. 6–7–8, 1950, pp. 15–36.

64. Emilio Frugoni, “A los obreros,” Pro-Zola. Número Unico, Imprenta

La Razón, Montevideo, 1902, pp. 5–7.

65. Revista Nacional de Literatura y Ciencias Sociales, I:1, March 5,

1895, cited in Rodríguez Monegal, “Introducción,” OC, p. 25.

66. Rodríguez Monegal, “Introducción,” OC, p. 25. Rodó’s essays for

the Revista Nacional de Literatura y Ciencias Sociales are collected in

OC, pp. 738–857.

67. Zum Felde, Proceso intelectual, p. 214.

NOT ES210

68. See Glicerio Albarrán Puente, El pensamiento de José Enrique Rodó,

Ediciones Cultura Hispánica, Madrid, 1953, pp. 71–93 and pp. 371–

449; Gordon Brotherston, “Introduction,” Ariel, pp. 1–19; Carlos

Real de Azúa, “Prólogo a Motivos de Proteo,” in José Enrique Rodó,

Ariel, pp. xxxvii–civ; and Belén Castro Morales, J. E. Rodó moderni-sta: Utopía y regeneración, Univ. de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de

Tenerife, 1992, pp. 25–33. See also Rodó’s own sonnet, “Lecturas”

[1896], OC, p. 863, in which he mentioned Perrault, Lamartine,

Hugo, Cervantes, and Balzac, and his notes on a university literature

course outline, in the appendix to Pablo Rocca, Enseñanza y teoría de la literatura en José Enrique Rodó, Ediciones de la Banda Oriental,

Montevideo, 2001.

69. These were posthumously published as El Camino de Paros, available

in OC.

70. “Cielo y agua,” OC, p. 1185.

71. “En Barcelona,” OC, p. 1191.

72. “Recuerdos de Pisa,” OC, p. 1207.

73. “En Barcelona,” OC, p. 1193.

74. Ibid.

75. “Ciudades con alma,” OC, pp. 1232–4.

76. “Anécdotas de la guerra,” OC, p. 1220.

77. “Una impresión de Roma,” OC, p. 1234.

78. “[Palermo],” OC, p. 1251.

79. “El que vendrá” [1896], OC, p. 150 [last ellipsis in original].


81. Ibid., p. 66. See also “Rumbos nuevos,” OC, p. 503.

82. “Rumbos nuevos,” OC, pp. 497–8.


84. “Rumbos nuevos,” OC, p. 503. His contemporary Carlos Vaz Farreira

was well acquainted with the works of John Stuart Mill, so Rodó may

well have learnt from discussions with him.

85. “Sobre Harpas en el silencio por Eugenio Díaz Romero” [1900],

OC, p. 972.

86. “Motivos,” OC, p. 412. The Wealth of Nations was, as is well known,

a treatise in favor of laissez-faire capitalism, but Smith, who is not

usually identified as a utilitarian thinker, did not see people only as

economic agents. His work overall raised important questions about

the relationship between economics and ethics.

87. Ariel, ed. Brotherston, pp. 68–70.

88. For a contemporary account, see Vicente F. López, “Clasicismo y roman-

ticismo” [1842], in Pinilla, La polémica del romanticismo, pp. 11–32.

89. “Nueva Antología Americana” [1907], OC, pp. 614–20, p. 618.

Rocca, Enseñanza, p. 11.

90. “Nueva Antología,” OC, p. 618.

91. “La novela nueva. A propósito de ‘Academias,’ de Carlos Reyles”

[1896], OC, pp. 151–9, p. 154.

NOT ES 211

92. “El que vendrá,” OC, p. 147.

93. “Motivos,” OC, p. 445 and p. 389; “Liberalismo y jacobinismo”

[1906], OC, p. 282.

94. “Rumbos nuevos,” OC, p. 505.

95. “El que vendrá,” OC, p. 146 (original emphasis).

96. Pedro Henríquez Ureña, “El positivismo de Comte” [1909], in his

Obra crítica, ed. Emma Susan Speratti Piñero, Fondo de Cultura

Económica, Mexico, 1960, pp. 52–63, both makes a critique and

includes an account of the broader context of the attack on positiv-

ism in Mexico led by Antonio Caso. Other major philosophers to

criticize positivism included Alejandro Korn in Argentina;

Alejandro Deustua in Peru; and Carlos Vaz Farreira in Uruguay.

97. See, esp., “Rumbos nuevos,” OC, pp. 504–5.


99. “El centenario de Chile” [1910], OC, p. 553.

100. “La novela nueva,” OC, p. 153.

101. Ibid., p. 154.

102. Ibid., p. 154.

103. Ibid., p. 159.

104. There is no firm evidence about exactly what Rodó read of Nietzsche’s

work, apart from Thus Spake Zarathustra. Zarathustra is in many

ways an atypical Nietzschean text, far less playful in tone than some

of his other works, and most readers of Nietzsche have found his

more subtle ideas in other works. Ecce homo, in which Nietzsche tried

to correct what he saw as misunderstandings of his idea of the

übermensch, was translated (from a French version) by the Argentine

journal Nosotros in 1909–1910 (see vol. III, nos. 18–19, 20–21,

22–23, 24; and vol. IV, 25 and 26), so it is very likely that Rodó

would have seen this. Rodó’s Motivos de Proteo (1909) drew substan-

tially on Henri Bergson, who in turn had drawn upon Nietzsche.

When he wrote Ariel, however, Rodó seems to have been mainly con-

cerned to refute a crude version of Nietzsche’s ideas, which he may

well have gleaned in part from Max Nordau, who saw Nietzscheanism

as the unchaining of the bestial in humanity, and whose writings were

easily available in Latin America during the 1890s.

105. Rodó, letter to Ramón Catalá, January 10, 1911, OC, p. 1415.

106. Ramos, Divergent Modernities, p. 264 and p. xxxix.


108. Zygmunt Bauman, Legislators and Interpreters: On Modernity, Post-modernity and Intellectuals, Cornell University Press, Ithaca NY,

1987.

109. Ignacio Zuleta, La polémica modernista: El modernismo de mar a mar (1898–1907), Instituto Caro y Cuervo, Bogotá, 1988, p. 31.

110. Draft letter, cited OC, p. 135.

111. As Jason Wilson has suggested in an article comparing Rodó and

Darío, the austere Rodó appeared to experience a frisson of horror in

NOT ES212

the face of so much uninhibited sensuality. Jason Wilson, “Replay of

Plato: Rodó, Darío and Poetry,” in San Ramón, Rodó, pp. 23–34.

112. “Prólogo a Juan C. Blanco Acevedo, Narraciones” [1898], OC,

p. 963.

113. Ramos, Divergent Modernities, p. 58, and Oviedo, Breve historia del ensayo hispano-americano, p. 46.

114. “Rubén Darío,” OC, p. 168.

115. Ibid., p. 153.

116. “La novela nueva,” OC, pp. 156–7.

117. Letter to Ramón A. Catalá, January 10, 1911, OC, pp. 1414–15.

118. “Rubén Darío,” OC, p. 167.

119. Ibid., p. 187.

120. Rodó in conversation with Victor Pérez Petit, 1900, in Victor Pérez

Petit, Rodó—su vida, su obra, Editorial Claudio García, Montevideo,

1967, p. 161.

121. Ariel, ed. Brotherston, p. 73; on Socrates, OC, “Liberalismo,” p. 265


123. Ariel, ed. Brotherston, p. 33. Alfonso Reyes also cited this phrase of

Guyau’s in “Homilio por la cultura,” in Universidad, política y pueblo, ed. Jose Emilio Pacheco, UNAM, Mexico, 1967, p. 100.


125. Ibid., p. 36.

126. Letter to Francisco García Calderón, August 2, 1904, OC, p. 1354

(original emphasis).

127. Bernard Williams, Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy, Fontana Press,

London, 1985, p. 18.

128. “In a soul that has been the object of harmonious and perfect stim-

ulation, the intimate grace and delicacy of its sense of beauty will be

one and the same as the strength and rectitude of its reason.” “Ariel,”

OC, p. 216.

129. “El que vendrá,” OC, p. 148.

130. “Darío,” OC, p. 167.

131. Ibid., p. 168.


133. Williams, Ethics, p. 15.

134 Ariel, ed. Brotherston, p. 44.

135. Ibid., p. 46.

136. Habermas, Philosophical Discourse, p. 46. Rodó made frequent refer-

ences to Schiller: see, esp., “Lema,” OC, p. 146 (the “ideal city”)

and Ariel, ed. Brotherston, p. 43 (“a more extensive and complete

culture, in the sense of lending oneself to a stimulation of all the

faculties of the soul,” original emphasis).

137. “Liberalismo,” OC, pp. 249–91, p. 275.

138. “Ariel,” OC, pp. 202–3.

139. Herbert Spencer, The Study of Sociology, C. Kegan Paul & Co.,

London, 8th edn., 1880, p. 403.

NOT ES 213

140. Barbagelata, Rodó y sus críticos, p. 6.

141. Notebooks for Proteo, cited in OC, p. 113.

142. Letter to Sr. D. R. Scafarelli, 1906, OC, p. 289.

143. “Liberalismo y jacobinismo,” OC, p. 255 ff.

144. “Sobre Alberto Nin Frías” [1906], OC, p. 978.


146. “Liberalismo y jacobinismo,” OC, p. 290.

147. Ibid., p. 280.


149. Ibid., p. 506.

150. “Liberalismo y jacobinismo,” OC, pp. 250–51.

151. Ibid., p. 282.



154. Ibid., pp. 283–4.

155. Letter to Alejandro Andrade Coello, January 21, 1910, OC,

p. 1367.


157. Ibid., p. 286.



160. Apart from González Echevarría, Voice of the Masters, see Aching,

The Politics of Spanish American Modernismo, pp. 80–114.


162. Ibid., p. 319.

163. Ibid., p. 330.

164. Ibid., p. 327 and pp. 393–4.

165. Ibid., p. 303.

166. Ibid., p. 304.

167. Ibid., pp. 352–3 and 357.

168. Ibid., p. 371.

169. Ibid., p. 373.

170. Devés Valdés, Del Ariel de Rodó, p. 40.

171. Henri Bergson, L’évolution créatrice [1907], Presses Universitaires de

France, Paris, 10th edn., 2003.

172. Pedro Henríquez Ureña, “La obra de José Enrique Rodó,” in Siete ensayos en busca de nuestra expresión, pp. 118–31, p. 125.

173. Alvaro Melian Lafinur, in Nosotros, III:22–3, July–August 1909,

pp. 351–6, esp. p. 352.

174. “Motivos de Proteo,” OC, pp. 471–2.

175. Barbagelata, Rodó y sus críticos, p. 33.

176. “La vida nueva—Lema,” OC, p. 145 (original emphasis).

177. “Lema,” OC, p. 145.

178. “De mi cartera” [1907], OC, p. 1411.

179. “Obra póstuma—Proteo,” OC, p. 947.

180. Ibid., p. 944.

NOT ES214

181. Pedro Henríquez Ureña argued thus in Siete ensayos en busca de nuestra expresión, p. 120.

182. Walter Benjamin, “Analogy and Relationship,” Selected Writings, vol. I: 1913–1926, ed. Marcus Bullock and Michael W. Jennings,

Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA, 1996, pp. 207–9.

183. Darío, “El hierro” [1893], in Obras completas, vol. 4, Afrodisio

Aguado, Madrid, 1955, p. 613. See Ramos, Divergent Modernities, p. 165.

184. Mikhail Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination, ed. Michael Holquist,

trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist, University of Texas

Press, Austin, 1981, p. 39.

185. Nicola Miller, “ ‘The Immoral Educator’ ”: Race, Gender and

Citizenship in Simón Rodríguez’s Programme for Popular Education,”

Hispanic Research Journal, 7:1, March 2006, pp. 11–20.

186. For a short introduction to this topic, on which there is a burgeon-

ing literature, see Catherine Davies, “On Englishmen, Women,

Indians and Slaves: Modernity in the Nineteenth-Century Spanish-

American Novel,” Bulletin of Spanish Studies, LXXXII: 3–4, 2005,

pp. 313–33.

187. On metaphors of knowledge in Martí’s work, see Ramos, Divergent Modernities, pp. 259–60.



190. Antonio Gómez Restrepo, “José Enrique Rodó,” Nosotros, II:15,

October 1908, pp. 137–47, p. 138.

191. Mario Benedetti, Genio y figura, p. 94.

192. Ramos, Divergent Modernities, p. 232.

193. Johannes Fabian, Anthropology with an Attitude: Critical Essays, Stanford Univ. Press, Stanford, CA, 2001, p. 2.

194. Oviedo, Breve historia, p. 53.


196. González Echevarría, Voice of the Masters, esp. pp. 25–7.

197. John R. Searle, Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1969.

198. Roy Rappoport, Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999, p. 124.

199. Ramos, Divergent Modernities, pp. 214–5.

200. Hans Kellner, “Triangular Anxieties: The Present State of European

Intellectual History,” in Dominick LaCapra and Steven L. Caplan,

Modern European Intellectual History: Reappraisals and New Perspectives, Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London, 1982,

pp. 111–36, esp. pp. 130 and 132.

201. Alfonso Reyes, “Apuntes sobre la ciencia de la literatura” [1940], in

Obras completas, vol. XIV, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico

City, 1962, p. 356.

NOT ES 215

202. Reyes, “El suicida” [1917], in Obras completas, vol. III, Fondo de

Cultura Económica, Mexico, 1956, p. 294.

203. “Motivos,” OC, p. 301.

204. Reyes, “Sobre Rodó” [1918], in Obras completas, vol. VII, Fondo de

Cultura Económica, Mexico City, 1958, p. 378.

205. “Prólogo a Juan C. Blanco Acevedo,” OC, pp. 968–9.

206. Theodor Adorno, “The Essay as Form,” New German Critique, no.

32, Spring–Summer 1984, pp. 151–71.

207. Adorno, “The Essay as Form,” p. 151.

208. Barbagelata, Rodó y sus críticos, p. 16. For collections of his parables,

most of which were extracts from other works, see Rodó, Parábolas y otras lecturas, Claudio García and Cía, Montevideo, 4th edn.,

1943; and Rodó, Parábolas: Cuentos simbólicos, Contribuciones

Americanas de Cultura, Montevideo, 1953.

209. Gonzalo Zaldumbide, Parábolas, Editorial Bouret, Paris, 1949,

cited in José Pereira Rodríguez, “Prólogo,” in Rodó, Parábolas y otras lecturas, p. ix.

210. Robert Alter and Frank Kermode, eds., Literary Guide to the Bible, Collins, London, 1987, p. 199.

211. Alter and Kermode, Literary Guide to the Bible, p. 428.


213. Ibid.

214. Ibid., p. 40.

215. Plato, Gorgias, trans. Walter Hamilton, Penguin Books,

Harmondsworth, 1960. Agathon’s speech in Plato’s Symposium is a

parody of Gorgias’s style.

216. Silviano Santiago, The Space In-Between, Duke University Press,

Durham, 2001, p. 37.

217. Ariel, ed. Brotherston, Goethe: pp. 24, 29, 76, 92; Renan: pp. 24,

27, 33, 45, 61–2, 88; Carlyle: 56–7, 60, 92.

218. Ariel, ed. Brotherston, pp. 45, 59, 61, and 61, respectively.

219. Walter Benjamin, “Eduard Fuchs, Collector and Historian,” in One Way Street and Other Writings, Verso, London, 1979, pp. 349–86.

220. Ariel, ed. Brotherston, p. 96. The full quotation is as follows:

El pasado perteneció todo entero al brazo que combate; el pre-

sente pertenece, casi por completo también, al tosco brazo que

nivela y construye; el porvenir—un porvenir tanto más cercano

cuanto más enérgicos sean la voluntad y el pensamiento de los

que le ansían—ofrecerá, para el desenvolvimiento de superiores

facultades del alma, la estabilidad, el escenario y el ambiente.

221. Reinhart Koselleck, The Practice of Conceptual History. Timing History, Spacing Concepts, trans. Todd Samuel Presner and Others,

Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA, 2002, esp. “The Eighteenth

Century as the Beginning of Modernity,” pp. 154–69.

222. Pérez Petit, Rodó, p. 26.

NOT ES216

223. For a recent version of this claim, see Castro Morales, J. E. Rodó modernista.

224. “Rumbos nuevos,” pp. 499–501.

225. “El centenario de Chile,” OC, p. 554.

226. “La tradición en los pueblos hispanoamericanos,” OC, pp. 1149–52,

esp. p. 1150.

227. For an early elaboration of this point, see Havelock Ellis,

“Introduction” to The Motives of Proteus, p. xi.


229. Ibid., p. 31.

230. Ibid., p. 55 for Alberdi citation; p. 95 for reference to the Argentine

liberals.

231. Ottmar Ette, “ ‘La modernidad hospitalaria’: Santa Teresa, Rubén

Darío y las dimensiones del espacio en Ariel de José Enrique Rodó,”

in Ette and Heydenreich, José Enrique Rodó y su tiempo, pp. 73–93,

p. 91.

232. Ariel, ed. Brotherston, pp. 23–4.

233. Ibid., p. 96.

234. Ibid., p. 103 (my emphasis).

235. Ibid., p. 32. The image of “deep horizons” is a further example of

Rodó’s reworking of conventional spatial metaphors.

236. Ibid., p. 65; see also p. 70: “the limits that reason and feeling signal

with one accord” (los límites que la razón y el sentimiento señalan de consuno).

237. “La tradición en los pueblos hispanoamericanos,” OC, p. 1150.


239. “La tradición en los pueblos hispanoamericanos,” OC, p. 1150.


241. “La tradición en los pueblos hispanoamericanos,” OC, pp. 1149–52,

quotations pp. 1150–1.


243. “Al concluir el año,” OC, p. 1225.

244. Leopoldo Zea, “1898, Latinoamérica y la reconciliación iberoamer-

icana,” Cuadernos Americanos (Nueva época), Year XII, vol. 6,

no. 72, pp. 11–25, esp. p. 13.

245. “Ariel,” OC, p. 210.

246. Beatriz González Stephan, “Economías fundacionales: Diseño del

campo ciudadano,” in Beatriz González Stephan, ed., Cultura y tercer mundo: Nuevas identidades y ciudadanías, Nueva Sociedad,

Caracas, 1996, pp. 17–47. On manuals of conduct in Uruguay, see

José Pedro Barrán, Historia de la sensibilidad en el Uruguay. Vol. I: La cultura “bárbara” (1800–1860) and Vol. II: El disciplinamiento (1860–1920), Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, Montevideo, 1990,

esp. vol. II, pp. 34–6 and p. 53.


248. Ibid.

NOT ES 217

249. “Al concluir el año,” OC, p. 1226.

250. “Letter to Joaquín de Salterain,” June 12, 1911, OC, p. 1267.

251. “Ariel,” OC, p. 32.

252. Carlos Fuentes, “Prologue,” in Ariel, trans. Margaret Sayers Peden,

University of Texas Press, Austin, 1988, pp. 13–28.

253. “De la enseñanza constitucional y cívica en los estudios secundar-

ios” [1902], OC, p. 1403.

254. See Silva Cencio, Rodó y la legislación social.255. See Philip Oxhorn, “From Controlled Inclusion to Coerced

Marginalization: The Struggle for Civil Society in Latin America,”

in John A. Hall, ed., Civil Society: Theory, History, Comparison,

Polity Press, Cambridge, 1995, pp. 250–77, esp. p. 256.

256. Hugo Barbagelata, “A manera de Prólogo,” in Rodó y sus críticos, pp. 5–6 and p. 12.

257. See Nosotros, “Homenaje.”

258. Angel de Estrada (hijo), in Nosotros, “Homenaje,” p. 89.

259. As Claudio Veliz has noted (The New World of the Gothic Fox, p. 6),

many twentieth-century Latin American political leaders “unknow-

ingly derived nourishment from Rodó’s slim volume.” In 1968,

Cuban critic Roberto Fernández Retamar published Calibán (in

Calibán y otros ensayos, Arte y Literatura, Havana, 1979), an essay

written in reply to Ariel. U.S. historian Richard Morse also picked

up Rodó’s themes in New World Soundings: Culture and Ideology in the Americas, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1989. As

late as the mid-1990s, with the revival of interest in cultural identity

stimulated by being on the receiving end of “capitalist trium-

phalism,” it was thought worthwhile “to remember Rodó,” for pos-

ing the fundamental question of how to become modern while

preserving a distinctive identity. Arocena and De León, El complejo de Próspero, p. 11. Works from the early 1990s on Uruguayan iden-

tity, which made the well-nigh obligatory reference to Rodó, include

Hugo Achugar and Gerardo Caetano, Identidad uruguaya: ¿mito, crisis o afirmación?, Trilce, Montevideo, 1992; Hugo Achugar, La balsa de la medusa: Ensayos sobre identidad, cultura y fin de siglo en Uruguay, Trilce, Montevideo, 1993; and Fernando Andacht, Signos reales del Uruguay imaginario, Trilce, Montevideo, 1993.


Chapter 3 Creating a Workers’ Public Sphere: Juan B. Justo’s Analysis of State and Society


2. See, especially, Guerra, Lempérière et al., Los espacios públicos en Iberoamérica; Hilda Sábato, ed., Ciudadanía política y formación de las naciones: Perspectivas históricas de América Latina, Fondo de

NOT ES218

Cultura Económica, Mexico, 1999; and Forment, Democracy in Latin America.

3. Alfred Stepan, Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1988, p. 5.

4. Forment, Democracy, p. xv.

5. Statutes of Universidad Popular José Martí, 1923, cited in Ana Núñez

Machín, Rubén Martínez Villena, UNEAC, Havana, 1971, p. 163.

See also Jeffrey L. Klaiber, “The Popular Universities and the Origins

of Aprismo, 1921–1924,” Hispanic American Historical Review, vol.

55, no. 4, November 1975, pp. 693–715.

6. See, e.g., Sonia E. Alvarez, Evelina Dagnino, and Arturo Escobar,

eds., Cultures of Politics, Politics of Cultures: Re-Visioning Latin American Social Movements, Westview Press, Boulder, CO, 1998.

7. For an explicit reply to the criticism that socialism was irrelevant to

Argentina, see Juan B. Justo, “El Profesor Ferri y el Partido Socialista

Argentino” [1909], in his La realización del socialismo, Obras de Juan B. Justo, vol. VI, Editorial La Vanguardia, Buenos Aires, 1947,

pp. 240–9. Henceforth all references in this chapter are to works by

Juan B. Justo unless stated otherwise.

8. The main biographies are Dardo Cúneo, Juan Bautista Justo y las luchas sociales en la Argentina, Editorial ALPE, Buenos Aires, 1956,

new edn. Editorial Solar, Buenos Aires, 1997; Nicolás Repetto [fel-

low-socialist], Juan Bautista Justo y el movimiento político social argentino, Ediciones Montserrat, Buenos Aires, 1964; Luis Pan,

Juan B. Justo y su tiempo, Editorial Planeta, Buenos Aires, 1991; and

Carlos J. Rocca, Juan B. Justo y su entorno, Editorial Universitaria de

La Plata, La Plata, 1998.

9. Socialist success in 1932 was partly attributable to the Radicals’ deci-

sion to abstain in protest against the military coup of 1930.

10. Key sources include Jacinto Oddone, Historia del socialismo argen-tino, Editorial La Vanguardia, Buenos Aires, 2 vols., 1934; Richard J.

Walter, The Socialist Party of Argentina 1890–1930, University of

Texas Press, Austin, 1977; Hernán Camarero and Carlos Miguel

Herrera, eds., El Partido Socialista en Argentina: Sociedad, política e ideas a través de un siglo, Prometeo Libros, Buenos Aires, 2005, which

contains a review of the historiography of the PSA, pp. 38–73.

11. Américo Ghioldi, Juan B. Justo. Sus ideas históricas, socialistas, filosó-ficas [1933], Ediciones Monserrat, Buenos Aires, 1964, p. 9.

12. José Aricó, La hipótesis de Justo: Escritos sobre el socialismo en América Latina, Editorial Sudamericana, Buenos Aires, 1999, p. 81.

13. Jorge Abelardo Ramos, Revolución y contra-revolución en la Argentina: Historia de la Argentina en el siglo XIX, 3a edición, corregida y ampli-ada, Editorial Plus Ultra, Buenos Aires, 2 vols., 1965, vol. 2, p. 80;

Rodolfo Puiggrós, Historia crítica de los partidos políticos argentinos, Editorial Argumentos, Buenos Aires, 1956; Jorge Spilimbergo, El socialismo en la Argentina, no publisher stated, Buenos Aires, 1969.

NOT ES 219

14. Jeremy Adelman, “Socialism and Democracy in Argentina in the Age of

the Second International,” Hispanic American Historical Review,

vol. 72, no. 2, May 1992, pp. 211–38; and Adelman, “The Political

Economy of Labour in Argentina 1870–1930,” in his edited collection,

Essays in Argentine Labour History 1870–1930, Macmillan/St. Antony’s,

Basingstoke, 1992, pp. 1–34, esp. p. 24.

15. Aricó, La hipótesis; Juan Carlos Portantiero, “Gramsci en clave lati-

noamericana: La categoría ‘nacional-popular,’ ” La Ciudad Futura

[Buenos Aires], no. 6, Aug. 1987, pp. 12–13; and Juan Carlos

Portantiero, Juan B. Justo: Un fundador de la Argentina moderna,

Fondo de Cultura Económica, Buenos Aires and Mexico City, 1999.

On pluralism and authoritarianism, see Bauman, Modernity and Ambivalence, p. 51.

16. See Waldo Ansaldi and José Luis Moreno, Estado y sociedad en el pensamiento nacional, Cántaro Editores, Buenos Aires, 1989.

17. See Eduardo A. Zimmermann, Los liberales reformistas: La cuestión social en la Argentina, 1890–1916, Editorial Sudamericana, Buenos

Aires, 1995; and Eduardo A. Zimmerman, “Intellectuals, Universities

and the Social Question: Argentina, 1898–1916,” in Adelman,

Essays, pp. 199–216. For a discussion of the role of liberalism in Justo’s

thought, see Carlos Rodríguez Braun, Orígenes del socialismo liberal: El caso de Juan B. Justo, IUDEM, Documentos de Trabajo 2000–2005,

2000, available at http://www.ucm.es/info/iudem [accessed November

2, 2006].

18. Zimmerman, “Intellectuals,” p. 207.

19. Ideario de Juan B. Justo, ed. Celso Tíndaro, Editorial La Vanguardia,

2 vols., 1939, vol. I, p. 217.

20. Leandro H. Gutiérrez and Luis Alberto Romero, “Barrio Societies,

Libraries and Culture in the Popular Sectors of Buenos Aires in the

Inter-War Period,” in Adelman, Essays, pp. 217–34, esp. p. 232, fn. 2,

and p. 218.

21. For a summary of views, see the tributes paid at his death, which are

collected in Acción Socialista (Buenos Aires), V:15, “Número

extraordinario de Homenaje a Juan B. Justo,” February 15, 1928.

See also La Vanguardia, January 9, 1928 and “Boletín

Extraordinario,” January 13, 1928; La Nación, January 9, 1928, pp.

5–6; La Prensa, January 9, 1928; Claridad [Buenos Aires], vol. 6,

no. 150, 1928 and vol. 7, no. 174, 1929, both issues a “Homenaje”

to Justo.

22. Dardo Cúneo, El periodismo de la disidencia social (1858–1900), Centro Editor de América Latina, Buenos Aires, 1994; Dardo Cúneo,

El primer periodismo obrero y socialista en la Argentina, Editorial La

Vanguardia, Buenos Aires, 1945.

23. See, e.g., “Discursos en el homenaje al doctor Justo en Mendoza,” La Vanguardia, January 12, 1929, p. 9; “Rindióse homenaje a Juan B.

Justo en Córdoba,” La Vanguardia, January 15, 1935, p. 7; and

NOT ES220

“Homenajes populares: Juan B. Justo, figura nacional,” La Vanguardia, February 16, 1936, p. 1.

24. La Nación, January 9, 1928.

25. Repetto, Justo, p. 27.

26. Cited in Dardo Cúneo, ed., Juan B. Justo: La lucha social en el Parlamento, Círculo de Legisladores de la Nación Argentina,

Ediciones Los Laureles, Buenos Aires, 1998, p. 6.

27. Cúneo, Justo: La lucha social, p. 7.

28. Ibid., p. 10.

29. Ibid., p. 13.

30. José Rodríguez Tarditi, Semblanza de tres lideres: Teoría y Acción en la Política Argentina, Editorial Bases, Buenos Aires, 1960, p. 57; and

Repetto, Justo, p. 28.

31. “Valuación Nacional del Suelo,” cited in Cúneo, Justo: La lucha social, pp. 72–93.



34. Cited in Juan Antonio Solari, Recordación de Juan B. Justo, Editorial

Bases, Buenos Aires, 1965, p. 9.

35. Manuel V. Besasso, “El genio de la síntesis,” Acción Socialista, V:15,

February 15, 1928, pp. 493–4.

36. “Como me hice socialista,” in Ideario, vol. II, pp. 7–8; and “El

momento actual del socialismo” [1920], in La realización, pp. 303–34,

p. 318.

37. For a detailed analysis of Justo’s critique of Marx, see Luis Pan, Justo y Marx, Ediciones Monserrat, Buenos Aires, 1964.

38. “La teoría científica de la Historia y la política argentina” [1898], in

La realización, pp. 153–74, p. 153 and p. 174.

39. Pan, Justo, pp. 170 and 203.

40. Ibid., p. 139.

41. “Del método científico” [1894], in La realización, p. 65.

42. Oscar Terán, Positivismo y nación en la Argentina, Puntosur, Buenos

Aires, 1987.

43. Alfredo L. Palacios, “Juan B. Justo. El fundador ilustre,” in Palacios,

Estadistas y poetas, p. 17.

44. “El momento actual del socialismo,” in La realización, p. 319.

45. Ideario, vol. I, p. 59; see also Teoría y práctica de la historia [1909],

Ediciones Libera, Buenos Aires, 2nd edn., 1915, p. 510.

46. “Sobre Alberdi” [1910], in La realización, pp. 270–2, esp. p. 271.

47. “El socialismo y Max Nordau” [1896], in La realización, pp. 141–7,

esp. p. 145.

48. “La teoría científica de la historia y la política argentina” [1898], in

La realización, pp. 153–74, esp. p. 154.

49. Justo, 1921, cited in Portantiero, Justo, pp. 21–2.

50. “El realismo ingenuo” [1903], cited in Ideario, vol. I., p. 156.

NOT ES 221

51. Juan Bautista Alberdi, “Ideas. Para presidir á la confección del curso

de filosofía contemporánea. En el Colegio de Humanidades,

Montevideo, 1842,” in Escritos póstumos, vol. XV, Imprenta Juan

Bautista Alberdi, Buenos Aires, 1900, pp. 603–19, esp. p. 613.

52. El “realismo ingenuo” [1903], Editorial La Vanguardia, Buenos Aires,

1914, esp. p. 20.

53. “Cooperación obrera,” Conferencia, December 30, 1897, Biblioteca

La Vanguardia, Buenos Aires, 1906, p. 14.

54. Ideario, vol. I, p. 47.

55. Ibid., vol. II, p. 216.

56. El “realismo ingenuo.” In this essay, which is a comprehensive attack

on metaphysics, Justo rejected Engels’s claim that the German labor

movement was the heir of German idealist philosophy.

57. El “realismo ingenuo,” p. 20.

58. Teoría y práctica, p. 516.

59. Ibid., p. 58.

60. Ideario, vol. II, p. 162.

61. Alicia Moreau de Justo, Juan B. Justo y el socialismo, Centro Editor de

América Latina, Buenos Aires, 1984.

62. “El Socialismo” [1902], in Discursos y escritos políticos, El Ateneo,

Buenos Aires, 1933, pp. 90–139, p. 113.

63. Teoría y Práctica, p. 64.


65. “El socialismo y Max Nordau,” in La realización, pp. 141–7, esp.

p. 147.



68. Ibid., p. 193.

69. Moreau de Justo, Justo, p. 69.

70. On the development of Buenos Aires, see José L. Romero and Luis

A. Romero, eds., Buenos Aires: Historia de cuatro siglos, Editorial

Altamira, Buenos Aires, 2 vols., 2000, esp. vol. II, Desde la ciudad burguesa hasta la ciudad de masas [1983]; Juan Alvarez, Buenos Aires, Editorial Cooperativa, Buenos Aires, 1918, a translated extract

of which is available in, “Buenos Aires in the Early Twentieth

Century,” in Joseph and Szuchman, eds., I Saw A City Invincible, pp. 133–47; James Scobie, Buenos Aires: Plaza to Suburb, 1870–1910,

Oxford University Press, New York, 1974; and Jorge E. Hardoy,

“Teorías y prácticas urbanísticas en Europa entre 1850 y 1930. Su

traslado a América Latina,” in Jorge E. Hardoy and Richard M.

Morse, eds., Repensando la ciudad de América Latina, Grupo Editor

Latinoamericano, Buenos Aires, 1988, pp. 97–126.

71. Pan, Justo, p. 29.

72. Ibid., p. 128.

73. Ibid.

NOT ES222

74. La Vanguardia, April 7, 1894, p. 1. Reproduced in Roberto Reinoso,

ed., La Vanguardia: selección de textos (1894–1955), Centro Editor

de América Latina, Buenos Aires, 1985, pp. 13–16; and in La real-

ización, pp. 21–5.

75. Roberto J. Payró, extract from Nosotros [novel], cited in Darío,

“Introducción a Nosotros por Roberto J. Payró” [1896], in Nosotros

[periodical, Buenos Aires], I:1, August 1907, pp. 7–12, pp. 13–14.

76. José L. Romero, “La ciudad burguesa,” in Romero and Romero,

Buenos Aires, pp. 9–17, pp. 9–10.

77. Juan Carlos Portantiero, cited in Ansaldi and Moreno, Estado y

sociedad, p. 11.

78. Pan, Justo, p. 29; Leandro H. Gutiérrez, “Los trabajadores y sus

luchas,” in Romero and Romero, Buenos Aires, pp. 65–81.

79. Pan, Justo, p. 110; Solari, Recordación, p. 40.

80. Romero, “La ciudad burguesa.” See also Sarlo, Una modernidad

periférica; and Diego Armus, ed., Mundo urbano y cultura popular:

Estudios de historia social argentina, Editorial Sudamericana, Buenos

Aires, 1990.

81. Romero, “La ciudad burguesa,” p. 16.

82. Darío, “Introducción a Nosotros,” p. 11.

83. Adolfo Dickmann, “Rasgos íntimos de la personalidad del Dr. Juan

B. Justo,” Acción Socialista, V:15, pp. 497–8.

84. Repetto, Justo, p. 44; Enrique Dickmann, Recuerdos de un militante

socialista, Editorial La Vanguardia, Buenos Aires, 1949, p. 474.

85. Gutiérrez and Romero, “Barrio Societies,” pp. 218–19.

86. Ibid., p. 229.

87. Ibid., p. 219.

88. Beatriz Sarlo, La imaginación técnica: Sueños modernos de la cultura

argentina, Ediciones Nueva Visión, Buenos Aires, 1992, p. 70 and p.

16.

89. Justo, Programa de Acción para las Juventudes Socialistas [posthu-

mously published, not known when written, although probably

toward the end of his life], Editorial La Vanguardia, Buenos Aires,

1940, pp. 10–14.

90. Ghioldi, Juan B. Justo, pp. 16–17.

91. Justo’s reminiscences about his education are in Programa de Acción,

pp. 4–7.

92. Tulio Halperín Donghi, Historia de la Universidad de Buenos Aires, Eudeba, Buenos Aires, 2nd edn., 2002 [1962], pp. 66–8. A cam-

paign led by José Maria Ramos Mejía, while a student in the early

1870s, had resulted in the Faculty of Medicine revising its syllabus

earlier than did other sectors of the UBA.




NOT ES 223

96. La realizacion, p. 170.

97. “El momento actual del socialismo,” p. 317.

98. Programa de Acción, pp. 8–9.

99. The doctors: Enrique Dickmann (a Russian Jew); Nicolás Repetto

(second-generation Italian); Angel Jiménez (Argentine); Augusto

Bunge (elite Argentine); the lawyers: Mario Bravo (from Tucumán);

Enrique del Valle Iberlucea (parents immigrated from Spain);

Antonio de Tomaso (second-generation Italian); Alfredo Palacios

(Argentine/Uruguayan).

100. Roberto Payró, José Ingenieros, and Leopoldo Lugones.

101. Emilio Frugoni, “Juan B. Justo” [eulogy, February 15, 1928], in

El libro de los elogios, Editorial Afirmación, Montevideo, 1953,

pp. 147–59, p. 153.

102. Javier Franzé, El concepto de política en Juan B. Justo, Centro Editor

de América Latina, Buenos Aires, 2 vols., 1993, vol. II, p. 155.

103. “El socialismo,” in Discursos, p. 129.

104. Ibid., p. 130.

105. Ibid.

106. Justo, speech in the Chamber of Deputies, June 19, 1912, cited in

Cúneo, Justo: La lucha social, p. 9. See also Ideario, vol. II, p. 63.

107. Ideario, vol. II, pp. 253–4

108. Walter, The Socialist Party of Argentina, p. 7.

109. Portantiero, Juan B. Justo, p. 23; Justo, “El socialismo argentino”

[1910], in La realización, pp. 208–36, esp. pp. 227–31.

110. En los Estados Unidos: Apuntes escritos en 1895 para un periódico obrero, Imprenta Litografía y Encuadernación de Jacobo Peuser,

Buenos Aires, 1898, pp. 77–8.

111. “La Iglesia y el Estado” [1926], Discursos, pp. 190–272, esp.

p. 231.

112. Portantiero, Justo, p. 19.

113. Editorial of f irst edition of short-lived El Diario del Pueblo,

October 1, 1899, in La realización, p. 47.

114. Ideario, vol. II, p. 96. See also “¿Por qué los estancieros y agricultores

deben ser librecambistas?” [1896] and “Los estancieros y agricultores

deben ser librecambistas” [1896], in La realización, pp. 132–5 and

pp. 135–7.

115. “Los estancieros,” p. 135.


117. “Rapport du délégué J. B. Justo,” in L’Internationale à Berne et Amsterdam, Edition du Comité Exécutif du Parti Socialiste, Section

Argentine, Buenos Aires, 1919, pp. 3–23, esp. p. 6.

118. Ideario, vol. II, pp. 181–2.

119. Ibid., p. 104 (original emphasis).


121. See Adelman, “The Political Economy,” pp. 23–6.

NOT ES224

122. La realización, pp. 172–3.

123. Juan B. Justo, Programa Socialista del Campo, Lecture to the Club

Vorwärts, April 21, 1901, Cooperativa Tipográfica, PSA, Buenos

Aires, 1901, pp. 5–6.

124. Justo, speech in the Chamber of Deputies, May 15, 1913, cited in

Cúneo, Justo: La lucha social, p. 7.

125. Programa Socialista del Campo, pp. 7–8.

126. “La ciudad y el campo,” El Pensamiento Argentino, I:1, August 17,

1918, p. 23.

127. El impuesto sobre el privilegio, Editorial La Vanguardia, Buenos

Aires, 2nd edn., 1928.

128. “La ciudad y el campo,” p. 24.



131. Ernest Gellner, Conditions of Liberty: Civil Society and Its Rivals, Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1996, esp. pp. 1–3; Antonio Gramsci,

Selections from the Prison Notebooks, ed. and trans. Quintin Hoare

and Geoffrey Nowell Smith, Lawrence and Wishart, London, 1971,

esp. pp. 12, 52, 160, 238, and 263.

132. En los Estados Unidos, p. 5.

133. Ibid., p. 15.

134. Ibid., pp. 16–17.

135. Ibid., p. 29.

136. Ibid., p. 45.

137. Ibid., p. 63.

138. Ibid., p. 71.

139. Ideario, vol. I, pp. 266–7. “Self-help” is in English in the original.

See also “¿Por qué somos fuertes?” [1897], in La realización,

pp. 36–41, esp. p. 39.

140. Portantiero, “Gramsci,” p. 13.



143. Pan, Justo, p. 17.



146. “Rapport,” p. 19.

147. Ibid., p. 20.

148. Programa Socialista del Campo, pp. 11–28.

149. “La cuestión agraria,” in Discursos, pp. 140–89, p. 155.

150. Programa Socialista del Campo, p. 14.

151. Cúneo, Juan B. Justo y las luchas sociales en la Argentina, 1997 edn.,

p. 420.


153. Ibid., p. 6.

154. Ibid.


NOT ES 225

156. Ibid., vol. II, p. 106.

157. Ibid., p. 180.

158. “Capital y trabajo” [1902], in La realización, pp. 51–3.

159. Día internacional de la cooperación, Sociedad “Luz” (Universidad

Popular), Buenos Aires, 1930, pp. 3–4.

160. “Cooperación obrera,” p. 5.

161. Ibid., pp. 6–8.

162. Ibid., p. 9.

163. Ibid., p. 13.

164. Ideario, vol. II, p. 20; and “La cooperación libre” [1909], in

Discursos, pp. 47–89, esp. p. 47.

165. “La cooperación libre,” in Discursos, pp. 47–8.

166. Ibid., p. 85.


168. Ibid., pp. 46–7.

169 The phrase is Frugoni’s, in “Juan B. Justo,” El libro de los elogios, p. 157.

170. “¿Por qué somos fuertes?” p. 40; Palacios, Justo, p. 21.

171. Jeremy Adelman has compared their attitudes thus: “Like Sarmiento,

Justo was unkind to backward criollo elements from the interior,” in

his “Socialism and Democracy,” p. 218; see also Walter, The Socialist Party, p. 230.


173. Ibid., pp. 24–5.

174. Programme for International Socialist Action [1921], cited in

Palacios, “Juan B. Justo,” p. 25.

175. Justo, “Por qué no me gusta escribir para una hoja que se dice isra-

elita,” cited in Pan, Justo, p. 116.

176. Pan, Justo, pp. 113–5.


178. Pan, Justo, p. 16, citing La Vanguardia.

179. “¿Por qué somos fuertes?” p. 39; and “La fiesta del trabajo” [1899],

in La realización, p. 456.


181. Justo, “Proyecto sobre creación de escuelas,” 1915, cited in Palacios,

“Juan B. Justo: El fundador ilustre,” pp. 21–2.

182. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, Educación popular [1849], Librería

de la Facultad de Juan Roldán, 1915.

183. José S. Campobassi, “La preocupación de Justo por la instrucción

primaria,” Acción Socialista, V:15, pp. 522–4, esp. p. 524.

184. “El socialismo” [1902], in Discursos, p. 128; see also Teoría y práctica,

p. 489.



187. Día internacional de la cooperación, p. 3.


NOT ES226

189. En los Estados Unidos, pp. 58–9 and p. 77.

190. Ibid., p. 59.

191. Ibid., p. 61. A frangollo is a stew made of meat and maize.


193. Ibid., vol. I, p. 177.

194. Ibid., vol. II, p. 62.

195. Ibid., vol. I, p. 178. See also El Socialismo, p. 137.

196. Aricó, La hipótesis, p. 76.


198. “Primer editorial de La Vanguardia,” April 7, 1894; reproduced in

La realización, pp. 21–5, quotation pp. 24–5.

199. For a selection, see Reinoso, La Vanguardia.

200. Pan, Justo, p. 97.

201. Ibid.

202. First editorial of El Diario del Pueblo, October 1, 1899, cited in

Solari, Recordación, p. 46.

203. “Recuerdos de El Diario del Pueblo,” La Vanguardia, March 16,

1909.

204. Germinal (Junín), January–June 1928.

205. Pan, Justo, p. 197.

206. “El individuo y el partido” [1898], in La realización, pp. 43–5, esp.

p. 44.

207. Pan, Justo, p. 16.

208. El realismo ingenuo, p. 20.

209. Frugoni, “Juan B. Justo,” El libro de los elogios, p. 159.

210. Besasso, “El genio de la síntesis,” p. 493; Manuel Palacín, “El estilo

en la prosa de Juan B. Justo,” Acción Socialista, V:20, April 28,

1928, pp. 674–6.


212. Besasso, “El genio,” p. 493. See also Ghioldi, Juan B. Justo.213. “La teoría científica,” p. 166, citing Vicente F. López, Historia de la

Argentina, Carlos Casavalle, Buenos Aires, 1883.

214. “Sobre Alberdi,” p. 270.

215. Cited in Frugoni, El libro de los elogios, p. 159.

216. La realización, esp. pp. 146–7.

217. Cited in Solari, Recordación, p. 21.



220. Cited in Solari, Recordación, pp. 21–2.

221. Ricardo Rojas, La argentinidad, no publisher stated, Buenos Aires,

1916; Leopoldo Lugones, El payador, no publisher stated, Buenos

Aires, 1916.


223. Ibid., p. 271.

224. Ibid., vol. II, p. 78. Modern commentators tend to agree that the

law brought about no fundamental change in Argentina’s ruling

structure. See, e.g., Ansaldi and Moreno, Estado y sociedad, p. 11.

NOT ES 227

225. “El socialismo,” p. 139.


227. Portantiero, “Gramsci en clave latinoamericana,” p. 13.

228. Ibid.


Chapter 4 Translating the Past into the Present: The Synthesizing Modernity of Alfonso Reyes


2. Fidel Castro, “History Will Absolve Me” [1953], in Fidel Castro

and Regis Debray, On Trial, Lorrimer Publishing, London, 1968,

pp. 62–5.

3. Arnaldo Córdova, Ideología de la Revolución Mexicana, Ediciones

Era, Mexico City, 1973, p. 87.

4. Carlos Fuentes, Machado de La Mancha, Fondo de Cultura

Económica, Mexico City, 2001, p. 10.

5. Homer, La Iliada. Primera parte: Aquiles agraviada, trans. Alfonso

Reyes, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 1951.

6. Alberto Gerchunoff, “Prólogo” to Alfonso Reyes, Aquellos días [1938], in Reyes, Obras completas, vol. III, p. 310. References in

this chapter are to works by Alfonso Reyes unless otherwise stated.

Most are taken from the 26-volume edition of his Obras completas published by Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 1956–1993,

hereafter OC.

7. José Emilio Pacheco, “Nota preliminar,” in Reyes, Universidad, política y pueblo, 1967, pp. 7–17, p. 8.

8. Rafael Moreno, El humanismo mexicano, líneas y tendencies, UNAM,

Mexico, 1999, p. 160.

9. Vocación de América (Antología), ed. Víctor Díaz Arciniega, Fondo

de Cultura Económica, Mexico, 1989. A similar collection is Alfonso Reyes, ed. Antonio Lago Carballo, Ediciones de Cultura Hispánica,

Madrid, 1992.

10. Robert Conn, The Politics of Philology: Alfonso Reyes and the Invention of a Latin American Literary Tradition, Associated University Presses,

Cranbury NJ, 2002; Margarita Vera Cuspinera, ed., Alfonso Reyes. Homenaje de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, UNAM, Mexico, 1981; and

Pol Popovic Karic and Fidel Chávez Pérez, eds., Alfonso Reyes: Perspectivas críticas, Tecnológico de Monterrey/Editorial Plaza y Valdés, Mexico,

2004.

11. “Un propósito” [1924], in Universidad, política y pueblo, pp. 21–2.

12. Alfonso Reyes, “Prólogo,” in Jacob Burckhardt, Reflexiones sobre la historia universal, trans. Wenceslao Roces, Fondo de Cultura

Económica, Mexico, 1943, pp. 7–39, esp. p. 17.

13. “Un propósito,” pp. 21–2.

14. No hay tal lugar, in OC, vol. XI, 1960, p. 340.

NOT ES228

15. Pedro Henríquez Ureña, “Alfonso Reyes” [1927], in Universidad de

Nuevo León, Páginas sobre Alfonso Reyes (1911–1945). Edición de Homenaje, Monterrey, 2 vols., 1955, vol. I, pp. 146–55, esp.

p. 155.

16. “Ciencia social y deber social,” OC, XI, pp. 106–25, esp. p. 114.

17. Henríquez Ureña, “Alfonso Reyes,” in Universidad de Nuevo León,

Páginas sobre Alfonso Reyes, p. 154. Also in Henríquez Ureña, Seis ensayos en busca de nuestra expresión.

18. Adolfo Castañón, Alfonso Reyes: Caballero de la voz errante, Editores

Joan Boldó i Climent, Mexico, 1988, p. 17.

19. See Simpatías y diferencias, OC, vol. IV, 1956.

20. “Kant” [1954], OC, vol. XXII, 1989, pp. 456–7.

21. “Ciencia social y deber social,” OC, XI, p. 107.

22. Octavio Paz, “The Rider of the Air” [1960], in The Siren and the Seashell, pp. 113–22, esp. p. 120.

23. Reyes mocked individualism in “Del último individualista” and “Las

parábolas del individualista,” Calendario y Tren de Ondas, Edición

Tezontle, Mexico, 1945, pp. 64–5 and pp. 65–8, respectively.

24. “El rescate de la persona” [1959], in Marginalia, tercera serie: 1940–1959, El Cerro de la Silla, Mexico, 1959, pp. 65–9, esp. pp. 66–7.

25. Anecdotario, Ediciones Era, Mexico, 1968, p. 119.

26. Alicia Reyes [granddaughter], Genio y figura de Alfonso Reyes, Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires, 1976, pp. 10–11.

27. Crónica de Monterrey, Albores, Segundo Libro de Recuerdos, El Cerro

de la Silla, Mexico, 1960, p. 85.

28. Alicia Reyes, Genio, p. 27.


Páginas sobre Alfonso Reyes, p. 150.

30. Boyd G. Carter, Las revistas literarias de Hispanoamérica: Breve his-toria y contenido, Ediciones de Andrea, Mexico City, 1959, p. 19.

During the 1920s, there were 12 in the capital and 10 elsewhere

(declining to only 10 throughout Mexico during the 1930s).

31. Pedro Henríquez Ureña, cited in Cuspinera, Reyes: Homenaje, p. 16.

32. “Discurso por Virgilio” [1930], in Vocación, pp. 199–216, p. 199.

33. Marginalia, tercera serie, p. 55.

34. “La crítica en la edad ateniense,” in OC, vol. XIII, 1961, pp. 13–345,

esp. p. 168.

35. Pasado inmediato y otros ensayos, El Colegio de México, Mexico,

1941, p. 22.

36. Ibid., pp. 32–3.

37. Ibid., p. 46.

38. Ibid., p. 52.

39. Alicia Reyes, Genio, p. 47.

40. Pasado inmediato, pp. 46–60.

41. Ibid., p. 51, citing an article by Lombardo Toledano, “El sentimiento

humanista de la Revolución Mexicana,” 1930.

NOT ES 229

42. Pasado inmediato, p. 56, citing his own essay El suicida (1917).

43. “Atenea política” [1932], in Universidad, pp. 70–98, esp. p. 97. In his

diary he noted that in September 1911, a time when he had to guard

his house with firearms, a letter had arrived from the philosopher

Boutroux in Paris, asking him when he could go over to discuss his

book: “!Si supieran, si supieran los europeos!” (If they only knew . . .).

Diario 1911–1930, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato, 1969.

44. Diario, p. 32.

45. This idea was suggested to me by a presentation by Dragana

Obradovic, “Chaos and Cosmos: The Structure of War in the

Literature of Former Yugoslavia, 1990–95,” given at the “Extreme

History” seminar, Centre for Intercultural Studies, University

College London, May 11–12, 2006.

46. Francisco Valdés Treviño, Alfonso Reyes, diplomático, Universidad

Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, 1997, p. 25. See also Reyes’s

letter to Rafael Cabrera, April 22, 1933, in Alfonsadas, Correspondencia entre Alfonso Reyes y Rafael Cabrera 1911–1938, ed. Sergio Zaitzeff,

El Colegio Nacional, Mexico, 1994, pp. 122–3.

47. See Valdés Treviño, Alfonso Reyes, diplomático; and Reyes, letter to

Martín Luis Guzmán, May 17, 1930, in Martín Luis Guzmán and

Alfonso Reyes, Medias palabras: Correspondencia 1913–1959, ed.

Fernando Curiel, UNAM, Mexico, 1991, p. 138.

48. Valdés Treviño, Alfonso Reyes, diplomático, pp. 31–2.

49. “París cubista (Film de ‘Avant-Guerre’)” [1914], in OC, III, all quo-

tations in this paragraph, p. 103.

50. Letter to Martín Luis Guzmán, March 12, 1914, Paris, in Guzmán

and Reyes, Medias palabras, p. 84.

51. Ibid., p. 83.

52. Letter to Guzmán, May 17, 1930, Rio de Janeiro, in Guzmán and

Reyes, Medias palabras, pp. 134–41, p. 137. See also Paulette Patout,

Alfonso Reyes et la France, Klincksieck, Paris, 1978, pp. 102–7.

53. Darío, Autobiografía [1912], Ediciones Distribuidora Cultural,

Managua, 1986, p. 73 and p. 123.

54. For details, see Emir Rodríguez Monegal, “Alfonso Reyes, crítico y

erudito,” Marcha [Montevideo], March 30, 1948, reproduced in

Universidad de Nuevo León, Páginas, pp. 26–30.

55. Carlos Fuentes, in Presencia de Alfonso Reyes: Homenaje en el X aniversario de su muerte (1959–1969), Fondo de Cultura Económica,

Mexico, 1969, pp. 25–8, esp. p. 26.

56. See discussion in Ultima Tule, relating to G. W. F. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of World History, trans. H. B. Nisbet, Cambridge

University Press, Cambridge, 1975, pp. 162–71; and José Ortega y

Gasset, “Hegel y América” [1928], in his Obras completas, vol. II,

Revista de Occidente, Madrid, 1946, pp. 557–70. For discussion of

Reyes’s views on Hegel, see Rafael Gutiérrez Girardot, “La imagen de

América en Alfonso Reyes,” in Vocación, pp. 32–53, esp. pp. 36–8.

NOT ES230

57. Hegel, Lectures on the Philosophy of World History, p. 163 and p. 170.

58. Ultima Tule, Imprenta Universitaria, Mexico, 1942, pp. 90–5.

Enrique Dussel, The Invention of the Americas: Eclipse of “the Other” and the Myth of Modernity, trans. Michael D. Barber,

Continuum, New York, 1995. Mariátegui made the same point:

“The discovery of America is the beginning of modernity: the

greatest and most fruitful of the crusades. All modern thought is

inf luenced by this event” [El descubrimiento de América es el prin-cipio de la modernidad: la más grande y fructuosa de las cruzadas. Todo el pensamiento de la modernidad está influída por este acontec-imiento]. “El el Día de la Raza” 1928], in José Carlos Mariátegui,

La novela y la vida, Obras completas, vol. 4, Editorial Amauta,

Lima, 1955, p. 163.

59. “El héroe y la historia” [1943], in OC, IX, pp. 349–55.

60. Ibid., p. 351.

61. “La historia y la mente” [1941], OC, IX, pp. 240–46, esp. pp. 244–6.

62. Ibid., p. 244.

63. “El héroe y la historia,” OC, IX, p. 351.

64. “El presagio de América” [1942], in Vocación, pp. 349–92, esp. p. 354.

65. Pasado inmediato, p. 7.

66. Reyes translated three works by Chesterton: a short social history of

England, Pequeña historia de Inglaterra, Editorial Calleja, Madrid,

1920; the first collection of Father Brown stories, El candor del Padre Brown, Editorial Calleja, Madrid, 1921; and the novel El hombre que fue jueves, Editorial Calleja, Madrid, 1922.

67. “Mi idea de la historia,” OC, IX, p. 64.

68. “La historia y la mente,” OC, IX, esp. p. 245.

69. Ibid., p. 240.

70. “Prólogo,” in Burckhardt, Reflexiones sobre la historia universal, p. 28. 71. Margarita Vera Cuspinera, “Los ateneístas, críticos de su tiempo,” in

Cuspinera, ed., Alfonso Reyes, pp. 11–26, esp. p. 11.

72. Pasado inmediato, p. 6.

73. No hay tal lugar, in OC, XI, pp. 335–89.

74. Marginalia, tercera serie, p. 57.

75. “Prologo” to Burckhardt, Reflexiones sobre la historia universal, p. 28.

76. Anecdotario, p. 85.

77. “En torno a la epopeya de Jerusalén” [?1919], in OC, IV, 1956,

pp. 143–6, esp. p. 146.

78. “Mi idea de la historia,” pp. 67–8.

79. “Sobre el escepticismo histórico” [1944], OC, IX, pp. 363–7, esp.

p. 367.


81. “Sobre el escepticismo,” OC, IX, p. 366.


83. Ibid., p. 62.

84. “El héroe y la historia,” OC, IX, p. 353.

NOT ES 231

85. “Prólogo” to Burckhardt, Reflexiones sobre la historia universal. 86. Ibid., p. 38.

87. “La pasión de Servia” [1919], in OC, IV, pp. 127–38, esp. p. 131.

88. “Atenea política,” in Universidad, pp. 87–8.


90. “Entrevista en torno a lo mexicano” [1953], Marginalia, segunda serie (1909–1954), Tezontle, Mexico, 1954, pp. 44–5, esp. p. 45.

91. Henri Lefebvre, The Production of Space, trans. Donald Nicholson-

Smith, Blackwell, Oxford, 1991, esp. pp. 21–4.

92. Doreen Massey, For Space, Sage, London, 2005, quotations, p. 5.

See also Ed Soja, Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory, Verso, London, 1989; and—the inspira-

tion for much of this work—Michel Foucault, “Questions on

Geography,” in Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings, 1972–1977, ed. and trans. Colin Gordon, Longman,

Harlow, 1980.

93. Massey, For Space, p. 7 and p. 9.

94. “Una mirada a San Cristobalón” [1943], in OC, IX, pp. 321–3, esp.

pp. 321–2. See also “Einstein en Madrid” (n.d., 1918?), OC, IV,

p. 296.

95. Walter Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History” [1940],

in Illuminations, ed. Hannah Arendt, Fontana, London, 1973,

pp. 255–66; Reyes, “La voz solidaria” [1922], in Universidad, p. 23.

96. “Visión de Anáhuac,” Vocación, p. 98.

97. Pedro Henríquez Ureña, “Miniaturas mexicanas,” Nosotros [Buenos

Aires], April 1922.

98. “Discurso por Virgilio” [1930], OC, XI, p. 174.

99. Diario, November 30, 1929, p. 294.

100. “Valor de la literatura hispanoamericana” [1941], in Vocación,

pp. 305–12, esp. p. 312.

101. “Sobre una epidemia retórica” [1919], in Vocación, pp. 132–4, esp.

p. 133.

102. “España y América” [1920] and “La ventana abierta hacia América”

[1921], in Vocación, pp. 141–5 and pp. 135–6, quotation on p. 135.

103. “La ventana abierta hacia América”; “Entre España y América”; “Un

paso de América” [1930], also in Vocación, pp. 275–80.


105. “México en una nuez” [1930], in Vocación, p. 153.

106. Ibid., p. 154.

107. Ultima Tule, p. 95.

108. “Valor de la literatura hispanoamericana,” in Vocación, p. 311.

109. “Posición de América” [1942], in Tentativas y orientaciones, Editorial

Nuevo Mundo, Mexico, 1944, pp. 127–46, esp. p. 141.

110. “Posición de América,” Tentativas y orientaciones, p. 144.

111. “Discurso por Virgilio,” OC, XI, pp. 157–77, esp. p. 172.

112. “Posición de América,” Tentativas y orientaciones, p. 146.

NOT ES232

113. Ibid., p. 140.

114. Guy Thomson, “Mid-Nineteenth-Century Modernities in the

Hispanic World,” in Nicola Miller and Stephen Hart, eds., When Was Latin America Modern?, Palgrave, New York, 2007, pp. 69–90.

115. There is no work I know of that directly addresses this issue. The

following are suggestive, however: Samuel Ramos, El perfil del hom-bre y de la cultura en México, P. Robredo, Mexico, 2nd edn., 1938; Leopoldo Zea, La cultura y el hombre de nuestros días, UNAM,

Mexico, 1959; and his Conciencia y posibilidad del mexicano,

Editorial Porrúa, Mexico, 1974.

116. “Homilía por la cultura” [?1935], in Universidad, pp. 99–122, p. 103.

117. Cuestiones estéticas [1911], OC, vol. I, 1955.

118. “Glorieta de Rubén Darío,” Simpatías y diferencias, OC, IV, p. 316.

119. “Cuestiones gongorinas” [1927] and “Tres alcances a Góngora”

[1928, 1938 and 1954], in Obras completas, vol. VII, 1958,

pp. 10–167 and 171–232.

120. Alicia Reyes, “Prólogo,” in Alfonso Reyes, Anecdotario, pp. 9–14,

esp. p. 9.

121. “El índice de un libro” [?1919], OC, IV, pp. 53–7, quotation on p. 56.

122. “Atenea política,” in Universidad, p. 73.

123. “Para inaugurar Los Cuadernos Americanos,” in Ultima Tule, pp. 246–7.

124. Reyes, cited in Jesús Silva Herzog, “Alfonso Reyes: Un gran human-

ista con preocupaciones económico-sociales,” in Silva Herzog,

Antología: Conferencias, ensayos y discursos, UNAM, Mexico City,

1981, p. 276.

125. “Posición de América,” p. 131.

126. Pacheco, “Nota preliminar,” p. 9.

127. “Atenea política,” in Universidad, p. 87.

128. “Hombres del siglo XIX,” in Marginalia, tercera serie, pp. 55–60,

esp. p. 55.

129. “Atenea politica,” in Universidad, pp. 88–9.

130. Anecdotario, p. 22. For a short account of his interest in Greek cul-

ture, see Ingemar Düring, Alfonso Reyes helenista, Instituto Ibero-

Americano, Gotemburg/Insula, Madrid, 1955.


132. “La estrategia del ‘gaucho’ Aquiles” [1943], Junta de sombras. Estudios helénicos, Edición de El Colegio Nacional, 1949, pp. 39–44,

esp. pp. 40–41.

133. Ibid., p. 44.

134. “Moctezuma y la ‘eneida mexicana’” [1957], Vocación de América,

pp. 100–5, esp. p. 102.

135. Prologue to José López Bermúdez, Canto a Cuauhtémoc, Edición

de la UNAM, Mexico, 1950, no numbered pages.

136. “Discurso por Virgilio,” OC, XI, p. 158.

137. Ibid.

NOT ES 233

138. Ibid., p. 160.

139. Ibid., p. 159.

140. Vaughan, The State, Education, and Social Class in Mexico, pp. 140–1

and p. 252.

141. Alfonso Reyes and Héctor Pérez Martínez, A vuelta de correo: una polémica sobre literatura nacional, ed. Silvia Molina, UNAM and

Universidad de Colima, Mexico, 1988, p. 15.

142. “A vuelta de correo” [1932], in Reyes and Pérez Martínez, A vuelta de correo, pp. 21–48, esp. p. 39.

143. Parentalia: Primer capítulo de mis recuerdos, Los Presentes, Mexico,

1954, p. 17.

144. Ibid., p. 26.

145. “Discurso por Virgilio,” OC, XI, pp. 169–70.

146. Ibid., p. 170.

147. “Nación y universidad,” in Universidad, pp. 18–28, esp. pp. 18–19.

148. “A vuelta de correo,” A vuelta de correo, p. 38.

149. He originally intended it to be the first chapter of a planned book

on Mexico, which he never completed. “Carta a Antonio Mediz-

Bolio” [1922], in OC, vol. IV, 1956, p. 421.

150. Cited in Alicia Reyes, Genio, p. 80.

151. “Visión de Anáhuac” [1917], in Vocación, pp. 82–99.

152. “Discurso por Virgilio,” Vocación, pp. 202–3.

153. “Carta a Max Daireaux” [1930], in Vocación, p. 273. See also

“Visión de Anáhuac,” Vocación, p. 98.

154. Parentalia, pp. 16–17.

155. Adolfo Castañón argued that what Reyes taught was “the modest

but difficult art of walking in language” [el modesto si difícil arte de caminar en el lenguaje]. Alfonso Reyes, p. 61.

156. Rodríguez Monegal, “Alfonso Reyes,” in Universidad de Nuevo

León, Páginas, p. 27.

157. “México en una nuez,” Vocación, p. 156.

158. “Atenea política” [1932], in Universidad, p. 70.

159. “El criticón,” part of El suicida, OC, III, pp. 280–3, quotation on

p. 283.

160. Ibid., p. 287.

161. Ibid., p. 289.

162. “La estrategia del ‘gaucho’ Aquiles,” Junta de sombras, p. 40.

163. Castañón, Alfonso Reyes, p. 18.

164. Cited in Alicia Reyes, Genio, p. 82.

165. “Posición de América” [1942], in Tentativas y orientaciones, pp. 127–8.

166. Pasado inmediato, pp. 28–9. See also “Discurso por la lengua”

[1943], in OC, XI, pp. 312–26.

167. El plano oblicuo (Cuentos y diálogos), Tipográfica Europa, Madrid,

1920.

NOT ES234

168. “La estrategia del ‘gaucho’ Aquiles,” Junta de sombras, p. 39.

169. Clara Lida, José Antonio Matesanz, and Josefina Zoraida Vásquez,

La Casa de España y el Colegio de México. Memoria, 1938–2000, El

Colegio de México, Mexico, 2000, p. 305.


Páginas, p. 154.

171. José Luis Martínez, “La obra de Alfonso Reyes: La empresa de su

generación literaria,” in Universidad de Nuevo León, Páginas, pp. 580–606, esp. pp. 589–93.

172. “El presagio de América,” in Vocación, p. 370.

173. OC, IV, p. 359. For many more examples of anecdotes, see

Marginalia, 3 vols., Editorial Tezontle, Mexico, 1952, 1954, and

1959.

174. Borges, “Alfonso Reyes,” esp. p. 130.

175. Octavio Paz, “The Rider of the Air” [1960], in The Siren and the Seashell, p. 116.

176. “La Atlántida castigada” [1932], in Vocación, pp. 61–73, esp. p. 61.

177. Massey, For Space, p. 21, drawing on C. V. Boundas, “Deleuze-

Bergson: An Ontology of the Virtual,” in P. Patton, ed., Deleuze: A Critical Reader, 1996.

178. Carmen Galindo, “El cazador,” in Presencia de Alfonso Reyes, pp. 29–36, esp. p. 34.

179. “Epílogos de 1953,” in Universidad, p. 28.

180. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination, p. 7.

181. Fuentes, in Presencia de Alfonso Reyes, p. 26.

182. “Palabras sobre la nación argentina,” Vocación, pp. 181–91, esp. p. 181.

183. “Ciencia social y deber social,” OC, XI, p. 186.

184. “España y América,” Vocación, p. 144.

185. Fuentes, in Presencia de Alfonso Reyes, p. 27.

186. “El sentido de América,” Vocación, p. 265.

187. Koselleck, The Practice of Conceptual History, p. 41.

188. Gutiérrez Girardot, La imagen de América, p. 52.

189. “El sentido de América” [1936], Vocación, p. 265.

190. “Discurso por Virgilo,” OC, XI, p. 176.

191. “Dos viejas discusiones” [1920], OC, IV, pp. 561–71, esp. p. 568.

192. “Alfabeto, pan y jabón” [1944], Universidad, pp. 24–6, esp. p. 26.

193. Ibid., p. 25.

194. “Montaigne y la mujer” [n.d.], OC, III, p. 179.

195. “Moctezuma y la ‘Eneida mexicana,’” Vocación, p. 104.

196. Castañón, Alfonso Reyes, p. 18. Castañón refers to Reyes as a “post-

modernist” writer in the sense that he distrusted the idea of the

prophetic vanguard.

197. “El rescate de la persona,” Marginalia, tercera serie, pp. 68–9.

198. OC, IV, p. 491 and p. 435.

199. For his elaboration of these ideas, see “Atenea política,”

Universidad.

NOT ES 235

200. Jiménez, Españoles de tres mundos, p. 91.

Chapter 5 A Vital Form of Public Space: Mariátegui’s Revolution in Modernity

1. Alberto Flores Galindo, La agonía de Mariátegui, Editorial

Revolución, Madrid, 1991, p. 221.

2. Evelina Dagnino, “Culture, Citizenship, and Democracy: Changing

Discourses and Practices of the Latin American Left,” in Alvarez,

Dagnino and Escobar, Cultures of Politics, Politics of Cultures, p. 37.

3. The most comprehensive survey is still José Aricó, ed., Mariátegui y los orígenes del marxismo latinoamericano, Siglo XXI, Mexico, 1978. See also Marc Becker, Mariátegui and Latin American Marxist Theory, Ohio University Center for International Studies, Athens,

Ohio, 1993. On Argentina, see Horacio Tarcus, Mariátegui en la Argentina o las políticas culturales de Samuel Glusberg, Ediciones El

Cielo por Asalto, Buenos Aires, 2001.

4. Oscar Terán, “Mariátegui: el destino sudamericano de un moderno

extremista,” Punto de Vista (Buenos Aires), no. 51, April 1995,

pp. 25–8, esp. p. 25. On the conference, see Oscar Terán, Discutir Mariátegui, Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Mexico, 1985.

5. See, e.g., “¿Quiénes continúan el camino de Mariátegui?” Amauta

(new version), no. 193, October 5, 1978, pp. 4–5.

6. José Carlos Mariátegui, Siete ensayos de interpretación de la realidad peruana, Editorial Universitaria, Santiago de Chile, 1955; trans.

Marjory Urquidi as Seven Interpretative Essays on Peruvian Reality, University of Texas Press, Austin, 1971. All works cited in this chap-

ter are by Mariátegui unless otherwise stated. Many are from the

series of his Obras completas published by Editorial Amauta, Lima,

hereafter OC.

7. See, e.g., Université de Pau et des pays de l’Adour, Encuentro Internacional: José Carlos Mariátegui y Europa. El otro aspecto del descubrimiento, Editorial Amauta, Lima, 1993; Héctor Béjar,

“Vigencia y cambio: ensayando una interpretación de José Carlos

Mariátegui,” Socialismo y Participación (Lima), no. 68, December

1994, pp. 19–38; David Sobrevilla, ed., El marxismo de José Carlos Mariátegui [Congreso Nacional de Filosofía, 1994], Universidad

de Lima, Lima, 1994; Casa de las Américas, Mariátegui en el pensamiento actual de nuestra América [Colloquium, Havana,

July 1994], Editorial Amauta, Lima/Casa de las Américas,

Havana, 1996; Mario Alderete et al., Mariátegui. Historia y pre-sente del marxismo en América Latina, Fundación de Investigaciones

Sociales y Políticas, Buenos Aires, 1997; Liliana Irene Weinberg

and Ricardo Melgar Bao, Mariátegui ante la memoria y el futuro de América Latina [conference in Mexico City, September

1994], UNAM, Mexico City, 2000; Ariel Bignami, “Prólogo,” in

NOT ES236

José Carlos Mariátegui, La imaginación subversiva, Selección de tex-tos, Editorial Quipo, Buenos Aires, 2001, pp. 5–9.

8. Cited in Flores Galindo, La agonía de Mariátegui, p. 242.

9. Temas de Educación, OC, vol. 14, Editorial Amauta, Lima, 1970, p. 19.

10. Berman, All that Is Solid, p. 34.

11. The best account of the Comintern dispute is in Flores Galindo, La agonía; for Haya de la Torre’s views, see his Obras completas, Editorial

Juan Mejía Baca, Lima, 1976, esp. vol. V, p. 253; for a survey of both

debates, with documentary sources, see Aricó, Mariátegui.12. Haya de la Torre, El antimperialismo y el Apra, Ediciones Ercilla,

Santiago, 1936; Mariátegui, “Punto de vista anti-imperialista”

[Thesis presented to the First Latin American Communist

Conference, May 1929], in Ideología y política, OC, vol. 13, Editorial

Amauta, Lima, 1969, pp. 87–95. For an analysis, see Miller, In the Shadow of the State, pp. 191–5.

13. Most of the debates are reproduced in Manuel Aquézolo Castro, ed., La polémica del indigenismo, Mosca Azul Editores, Lima, 1976. See also

José Deustua and José Luis Reñique, Intelectuales, indigenismo y descen-tralismo en el Perú 1897–1931, Centro de Estudios Rurales Andinos

Bartolomé de Las Casas, Cuzco, 1984; and Mirko Lauer, Andes imagi-narios. Discursos del indigenismo-2, Centro de Estudios Rurales Andinos

Bartolomé de Las Casas, Cuzco/Casa de Estudios del Socialismo, Lima,

1997. For summary and analysis, see Eugenio Chang-Rodríguez, Poética e ideología en José Carlos Mariátegui, Ediciones José Porrúa Turanzas,

Madrid, 1983; and Miller, In the Shadow of the State, pp. 153–7.

14. Sánchez, “ ‘Ismos’ contra ‘ismos’ ”, in Aquézolo Castro, La polémica,

p. 100.

15. “Réplica a Luis Alberto Sánchez,” in Aquézolo Castro, La polémica,

p. 84.

16. Flores Galindo, La agonía, p. 252.

17. The most thorough biography available in English is Jesús Chavarría,

José Carlos Mariátegui and the Rise of Modern Peru 1890–1930,

University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, 1979. Jorge Basadre’s

introduction to Seven Interpretative Essays on Peruvian Reality includes

a useful short summary of Mariátegui’s life. Editorial Amauta’s Obras completas includes two biographies by people who knew him: María

Wiesse, José Carlos Mariátegui, Etapas de su vida, Lima, 1959; and

Armando Bazán, Biografía de José Carlos Mariátegui, Lima, 1969. Two

good critical studies of his work are Antonio Melis, Leyendo Mariátegui 1967–1998, Editorial Amauta, Lima, 1999; and Roland Forgues,

Mariátegui. La utopía realizable, Editorial Amauta, Lima, 1995.

18. There is a controversy about when and where Mariátegui was born.

He himself thought that it was in Lima in 1895, where his birth was

registered, but after his death the family revealed another certificate,

from 1894 in Moquegua, in the far south. He spent his childhood in

Sayán and Huacho, towns a short distance to the north of Lima, and

NOT ES 237

his adolescence in a modest district of the city itself. See Javier

Mariátegui, “Un autodidacto imaginativo,” in Université de Pau,

Encuentro Internacional, pp. 23–43, esp. pp. 25–9.

19. Javier Mariátegui, “Un autodidacto imaginativo,” p. 25.

20. Chavarría, Mariátegui, p. 46; Javier Mariátegui, “Un autodidacto

imaginativo,” p. 27.

21. Chavarría, Mariátegui, p. 46.

22. Ibid., p. 48.

23. Charles Walker, “Lima de Mariátegui: los intelectuales y la Capital

durante el oncenio,” Socialismo y Participación [Lima], no. 35,

September 1986, pp. 71–88, esp. pp. 78–9.


25. Temístocles Bejarano I., “Mariátegui en Huancayo,” Anuario Mariáteguiano, II:2 (1990), pp. 89–102, esp. p. 90. The story must

be read with caution, because Bejarano is drawing on recollections of

a conversation he had in 1962 with Oswaldo Aguirre Morales, sena-

tor for Junín, whom Mariátegui visited in Huancayo.

26. Bejarano, “Mariátegui en Huancayo,” p. 93.

27. Ibid., p. 98.

28 “Otra vez,” “Voces” column, El Tiempo, August 15, 1918, in

Mariátegui Total, vol. II, Escritos juveniles, Editorial Amauta, Lima,

1994, pp. 3194–5.

29. Bazán, Biografía, p. 64.

30. Cartas de Italia, OC, vol. 15, Editorial Amauta, Lima, 1969.

31. Peruanicemos al Perú, OC, vol. 11, Editorial Amauta, Lima, 1970,

p. 146.


33. Cartas de Italia; “Valores de la cultura italiana moderna,” El alma matinal y otras estaciones del hombre de hoy, OC, Vol. 3, Editorial

Amauta, Lima, 4th edn., 1970 [1950], pp. 90–2.

34. Ibid.

35. “Roma, polis moderna” [1925], El alma matinal.36. “El paisaje italiano” [1925], El alma matinal, p. 64 and p. 66.

37. Ibid., p. 68.


39. In September 1924, as he was convalescing, he wrote to his col-

leagues at the magazine Claridad, of which he was the editor, “It is

essential to me that my writing should retain the optimistic note it

had before [my illness].” Correspondencia (1915–1930), ed. Antonio

Melis, Editorial Amauta, Lima, 2 vols., 1984, vol. I, p. 55.

40. See the inventory of Mariátegui’s library in Harry E. Vanden,

National Marxism in Latin America: José Carlos Mariátegui’s Thought and Politics, Lynne Rienner, Boulder, CO, 1986, pp. 127–52.

Further information can be found in Chavarría, Mariátegui; Aricó,

Mariátegui; César Miró, Testimonio y recaudo de José Carlos

NOT ES238

Mariátegui, Editorial Amauta, Lima, 1994; and Estuardo Núñez, La experiencia europea de Mariátegui [1978], Editorial Amauta, Lima,

2nd edn., 1994.

41. From Arequipa, a bookseller friend wrote to tell Mariátegui that he

had sold 15 copies of one of his books, but only with great difficulty,

and that Mariátegui should not count on selling books by subscrip-

tion because his customers would not risk even 10 cents on an unseen

publication. César Atahualpa Rodríguez to Mariátegui, Arequipa,

April 5, 1926, in Mariátegui, Correspondencia, vol. I, p. 145.

42. Most of the relevant articles can be found in Figuras y aspectos de la vida mundial, OC, vols. 16–18, Editorial Amauta, Lima, 1970.

43. Signos y obras, OC, vol. 7, Editorial Amauta, Lima, 1959, p. 154.

44. Chavarría, Mariátegui, pp. 71–2.

45. El alma matinal, p. 115. There are three articles on Gobetti, all writ-

ten in 1929, El alma matinal, pp. 110–20. For Gobetti’s own work in

translation, see On Liberal Revolution, ed. Nadia Urbinati, trans.

William McCuaig, Yale University Press, New Haven and London,

2000.

46. “Piero Gobetti,” El alma matinal, p. 113.

47. Ibid.

48. Nikolai Bukharin, Historical Materialism: A System of Sociology [1921], George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London, 1926, pp. 126–8,

esp. p. 127.

49. Ibid., p. 127.

50. Georg Simmel, “Sociology of the Meal” and “On the Psychology of

Money,” in Simmel on Culture, ed. David Frisby and Mike

Featherstone, Sage Publications, London, 1997, pp. 130–7 and

pp. 233–43.

51. Mariátegui mentioned this essay specifically in El artista y la época,

p. 68.

52. Simmel, “The Conflict in Modern Culture,” in Simmel on Culture, pp. 75–90, esp. p. 85.

53. Frank Lechner, “Simmel on Social Space,” Theory, Culture and Society, vol. 8, no. 3, 1991, pp. 192–202, esp. p. 196.

54. El alma matinal, pp. 98–9.

55. Ibid., p. 102.

56. On Joyce, see El alma matinal, pp. 147–50; on Proust, p. 158.

57. Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents, in Peter Gay, ed.,

The Freud Reader, Vintage, London, pp. 722–72, esp. p. 723.

58. “Romain Rolland” [1926], El alma matinal, pp. 131–6 for all quota-

tions in the rest of this paragraph.

59. See note 2 earlier.

60. Siete ensayos, p. 236.

61. El alma matinal, p.18.


NOT ES 239

63. “El factor religioso,” Siete ensayos, pp. 120–43, esp. p. 142. The rest

of the argument recapitulated in this paragraph can be found in these

pages.

64. El alma matinal, p. 22.


66. Ibid., p. 143.

67. Aníbal Quijano, “El marxismo de Mariátegui: Una propuesta de

racionalidad alternativa,” in Alderete, Mariátegui, pp. 43–5.


69. See Flores Galindo, La agonía, p. 222.


71. Ibid., p. 1.

72. Ibid., p. 1. Mariátegui cited in German Nietzsche’s epigraph to this

effect from The Wanderer and the Shadow.

73. See his reproaches against André Breton for saying that life had to be

deciphered like a cryptogram, in Signos y obras, pp. 181–2.


75. Signos y obras, pp. 143–4.

76. Siete ensayos, pp. 194–5.


78. Temas de nuestra América, OC, vol. 12, Editorial Amauta, Lima,

1960, p. 81.




82. For a discussion of these issues in the specific context of the history of

Marxism, see Quijano, “El marxismo de Mariátegui,” pp. 37–45.

83. La escena contemporánea [1925], OC, vol. 1, Editorial Amauta, Lima,

2nd edn., 1959, p. 158.

84. La escena contemporánea, p. 155.

85. John Kraniauskas, “Critical Closeness: The Chronicle-Essays of

Carlos Monsiváis,” in Carlos Monsiváis, Mexican Postcards, ed. and

trans. John Kraniauskas, Verso, London, 1997, pp. ix–xxii.

86. Temas de nuestra América, p. 103.

87. Ibid., pp. 74–5.

88. Bakhtin, The Dialogic Imagination, p. 23.

89. El artista y la época, OC, vol. 6, Editorial Amauta, Lima, 1959, p. 65.

90. See Winston Orillo et al., Mariátegui juvenil: el cronista, Editorial

San Marcos, Lima, 2003.


92. Estuardo Núñez, “Prólogo: La cultura italiana en el Perú del siglo

XX,” in Mariátegui, Cartas de Italia, p. 25.

93. La novela y la vida, p. 144.

94. Letter to Eudocio Ravines, December 31, 1928, in Correspondencia,

vol. I, p. 491.


NOT ES240


97. Ibid.

98. El alma matinal, p. 99. Mariátegui was writing specifically about the

Italian Futurist Marinetti, comparing him unfavorably with Pirandello.

See also his comments on the Peruvian poet José María Eguren, in

Siete ensayos, p. 226.


100. Ibid., p. 21 and pp. 24–5.

101. Ibid., p. 26.


103. El artista y la época, p. 31. See also El alma matinal, p. 21.


105. Ibid., p. 64.

106. La novela y la vida, pp. 128–9.

107. “Aniversario y balance,” Amauta, Year II, no. 17, September 1928.


109. Ibid.

110. It has been argued, with some justification, that Mariátegui himself

had a somewhat idealized view of Inca society. However, he explic-

itly rejected any attempt to revive the Inca past, approaching it only

as a historical topic, not as a guide to the present. In any case, it

must be remembered how little information was available to him; at

that time, very little archaeological or ethnographic research had

been done in Peru.

111. For example, see Antenor Orrego, letter to Mariátegui, Trujillo,

December 29, 1925, in Correspondencia, vol. I, p. 116.


113. “Regionalismo y Centralismo,” Siete ensayos, pp. 144–69.

114. Benjamin, “Theses on the Philosophy of History,” p. 259. A pas-

sage from Benjamin’s essay reminded me of Mariátegui’s analysis

of carnival (discussed earlier, p. 166): “The true picture of the past

f lits by. The past can be seized only as an image which f lashes up

at the instant when it can be recognized and is never seen again.

[ . . . ] For every image of the past that is not recognized by the

present as one of its concerns threatens to disappear irretrievably”

(p. 257). There is no evidence that either of these men read each

other’s work, but they observed much the same European world

during the 1920s and their views of history seem remarkably close.

Aníbal Quijano has also identified a similar attitude toward reason

in the two writers, both of whom rejected reductionist rationalism.

See Quijano’s “Prólogo” to Mariátegui, Textos básicos, ed. Aníbal

Quijano, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Lima and Mexico, 1991,

pp. vii–xvi, p. x.

115. Peruanicemos al Perú, p. 117.

116. Ibid., p. 118.

NOT ES 241

117. Ibid., p. 118 and p. 155.

118. Ibid., pp. 122–3.

119. Ibid., p. 122.

120. Ibid., p. 119.

121. José de la Riva Agüero’s works were typical, and continued to be

used as textbooks in Peruvian schools for several decades. See, e.g.,

his La historia en el Perú, Imprenta Nacional de Federico Barrionueva,

Lima, 1910.


123. Ibid., p. 171.

124. Ibid., p. 175.

125. Ibid., pp. 201–4 and pp. 231–7, esp. p. 231; Peruanicemos al Perú,

p. 79.

126. El artista y la época, p. 29.

127. Jorge Basadre, La vida y la historia. Ensayo sobre personas, lugares y problemas, no publisher given, Lima, 2nd edn., 1981 [1975], p. 162.


129. Chavarría, Mariátegui, p. 175.

130. Recollection of Jorge Basadre, cited in Javier Mariátegui Chiappe,

“Preámbulo,” in Miró, Testimonio, pp. 5–9, p. 6.

131. Interview with Eliseo García, “Yo conocí a Mariátegui,” Amauta

(Lima), no. 172, April 13, 1978, pp. 4–5.

132. Mariano Larico Yujra, interviewed by José Luis Ayala, “Mariátegui

periodista: Ternura de la señora Amalia La Chira [Mariátegui’s

mother],” Anuario Mariáteguiano, II:2 (1990), pp. 103–5.

133. Larico Yujra, “Yo fui canillita de José Carlos Mariátegui,” Ibid.,

pp. 105–8. There is also a book of his testimony: José Luis Ayala, Yo fui canillita de José Carlos Mariátegui (Auto) biografía de Mariano Larico Yujra, Editorial Periodística, Lima, 1990.

134. [No author named], “Mariátegui en lenguas vernaculares,” Anuario Mariáteguiano, I:1 (1989), pp. 187–9.

135. Apart from the biographies and historical studies mentioned earlier,

see Wilfredo Kapsoli, Mariátegui y los congresos obreros, Editorial

Amauta, Lima, 1980, which contains documents from congresses in

1921, 1927, and 1929.

136. Fascismo sudamericano, Los intelectuales y la revolución y otros artícu-los inéditos (1923–1924), Centro de Trabajo Intelectual Mariátegui,

Lima, 1975, p. 29.

137. Flores Galindo, La agonía, pp. 215–6.

138. See Mariátegui total, vol. II, Escritos juveniles. 139. El alma matinal, p. 117 and p. 120.

140. Temas de educación, p. 19.


142. Temas de educación, p. 23 and Temas de nuestra América, p. 110.

143. Temas de educación, pp. 19–20.

NOT ES242

144. Ibid., pp. 20–1.

145. Ibid., p. 23.


147. Ibid., p. 117.

148. Ibid., p. 78.

149. Ibid., p. 118.


151. Ibid., p. 75.



154. Ibid.

155. Ibid., p. 91.

156. Ibid.

157. Ricardo Portacarrero, “Introducción a Claridad,” in Claridad: Edición en facsímile, Editorial Amauta, Lima 1994, pp. 7–18.

158. Enrique Cornejo Koster, “Crónica del movimiento estudiantil peru-

ano (1919–26),” in Gabriel del Mazo, ed., La Reforma Universitaria,

Edición del Centro Estudiantes de Ingeniería, La Plata, 3 vols., 1941,

vol. II, pp. 15–31.

159. Portacarrero, “Introducción a Claridad,” p. 11.

160. Historia de la crisis mundial, OC, vol. 8, Editorial Amauta, Lima,

1959.

161. “Proyecto de Estatuto de la Editorial Obrera Claridad,” in Claridad: Edición en facsímile, pp. 207–10.


163. El alma matinal, pp. 106–7.

164. On these dilemmas, see his discussion of José Ingenieros, whom he

thought resolved them better than most, in Temas de nuestra América, pp. 103–6.

165. “El comentario,” El Tiempo, I:158, December 19, 1916.

166. See, e.g., “Presagios,” El Tiempo, I:13, July 30, 1916; “Antes del

preludio,” El Tiempo, I:151, December 12, 1916, for positive images

of crowds; on the regime, “El regimen y la opereta,” El Tiempo, I:98, October 23, 1916. See also Flores Galindo, La agonía,

pp. 193–6.

167. El Tiempo, “Discursos, discursos, discursos,” I:80, October 5, 1916;

“Antes del preludio,” I:151, December 12, 1916; and “Oratoria fes-

tiva,” I:142, December 3, 1916.

168. “La procesión tradicional,” La Prensa, October 20, 1914, p. 3; also

“La procesión tradicional,” in La Crónica, April 10, 1917, pp. 12–13.

Flores Galindo first drew attention to these articles, La agonía, p. 217.

See also “Motivos de carnaval” [1928], in La novela y la vida,

pp. 120–5.

169. La Crónica, April 10, 1917.

170. El Tiempo, “Marcha triunfal,” I:150, December 11, 1916; and

“Duende, para bloque,” III:598, February 28, 1918.

NOT ES 243


172. Ibid., p. 221.

173. La novela y la vida, p. 141

174. Fascismo sudamericano, p. 61.

175. Aricó, Mariátegui, p. xiv.


177. Ibid., p. 10.

178. Ibid., p. 77.

179. Ibid.

180. El alma matinal, p. 51. See also Peruanicemos al Perú, esp. pp. 25–9

and pp. 72–9.


182. Defensa del marxismo, OC, vol. 5, Editorial Amauta, Lima, 1959.

183. Ibid., p. 80.

184. Temas de educación, pp. 134–6.


186. La novela y la vida, p. 159.


188. Ibid.

189. Ibid.

190. Ibid.


192. Ibid., p. 58.

193. Ibid., p. 37.

194. Ibid., p. 38.

195. La novela y la vida, pp. 15–82.

196. Ibid., pp. 19–20.

197. Ibid., p. 85.

198. Ibid., p. 41.

199. Ibid., p. 32.

200. Ibid., p. 86.

201. Labor. Quincenario de información e ideas, nos. 1–10, Facsimile edi-

tion, Editorial Amauta, Lima, 1974. Although it was intended to

appear fortnightly, Labor’s publication was much disrupted, mostly

by financial difficulties. It was finally stopped by a government ban.

The contents of its articles did not differ greatly from Amauta’s,

although there was more material specifically on workers’ struggles.

The most striking difference between the two publications is that

Labor’s articles were presented as dense text in columns, with far

fewer illustrations than in Amauta.

202. María Fernanda Beigel, “Una aproximación al Perú vanguardista:

entre la totalidad y la fragmentación,” Anuario Mariáteguiano,

1999, pp. 26–37.

203. Letter to Mario Nerval, January 14, 1927; and letter to Esteban

Pavletich, March 8, 1927, in Correspondencia, vol. I, p. 221 and

pp. 242–3.

NOT ES244

204. “Presentación de Amauta,” Amauta, I, no. 1, 1926, p. 3.

205. “Aniversario y balance,” Amauta, September 1928, p. 1, Amauta: Edición en facsímile, Editorial Amauta, Lima, 1976.


207. See his articles “La mujer y la politica” [1924] and “Las reivindica-

ciones feministas” [1924], in Temas de educación, pp. 123–33. Some

of his early articles on women’s issues took a frivolous tone. See, e.g.,

“La señora Lloyd George, la justicia y la mujer” [1920] and “El

divorcio en Italia” [1920], in Cartas de Italia.


209. The Letters of Virginia Woolf, ed. Nigel Nicolson and Joanne Trautmann,

6 vols., Hogarth Press, London, 1975–1984, vol. I, p. 438.


211. Signos y obras, p. 167.

Chapter 6 Conclusion: A Distinctively Latin American Modernity

1. Habermas, Philosophical Discourse, p. 302. He illustrates his argu-

ment with evidence of a counterdiscourse against modernity’s

homogenizing drive in early Hegel, Marx, early Nietzsche, Lukacs,

Sartre, and the Frankfurt School.

2. The diversity is abundantly displayed in Vassiliki Kolocotroni, Jane

Goldman, and Olga Taxidou, eds., Modernism: An Anthology of Sources and Documents, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh,

1998. For a critical study designed to counter the caricature of

“monolithic modernism,” see Peter Nicholls, Modernisms: A Literary Guide, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, 1995. His analysis is highly

suggestive overall, but it is regrettable that the only Latin American

to be mentioned, Rubén Darío, is described as “Spanish” (p. 70).

3. Cited in Santiago, The Space In-Between, p. 162.

4. For example, Ramos, Divergent Modernities, p. 224. Writing about

Rodó, Ramos argues: “The emphasis on rationality betrays Rodó’s

attempt to separate any conception of ‘the rational’ from its previous

(Enlightenment) identification with bourgeois, utilitarian

rationalization [ . . . ].” I agree that Rodó is trying to resist the idea that

reason can only be utilitarian, but not that the Enlightenment can be

bracketed with utilitarian rationalization. Recent work has begun to

revise the conventional European interpretation, which is basically

derived from Ernst Cassirer’s work in the 1930s, of the Enlightenment

as committed to abstract universalism, individualism, and rationalism.

See Norman Geras and Robert Wokler, eds., The Enlightenment and Modernity, Macmillan, Basingstoke, 2000, especially chapters by

Ursula Vogel (on abstract universalism); Geraint Parry (on instrumen-

tal reason and pluralism); and Andrea Baumeister (on subjectivity and

NOT ES 245

community). Their readings are intriguingly close to those offered by

Latin Americans during the early twentieth century. See also Sankar

Muthu, Enlightenment against Empire, Princeton University Press,

Princeton, 2003.

5. G. W. F. Hegel, Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art, trans. T. M. Knox,

vol. I, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1975, p. 48.

6. Alfonso Reyes, “Un propósito” [1924], in his Universidad, política y pueblo, p. 21.

7. Edouard Glissant, Poetics of Relation, trans. Betsy Wing, University

of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1997, p. 32.

8. Mikhail Bakhtin, “Epic and Novel,” in his The Dialogic Imagination,

pp. 3–40.

9. Mariátegui, writing about the Argentine surrealist poet Oliverio

Girondo, who was well known at the time for his “Veinte poemas

para ser leídas en el tranvía” [Twenty Poems to Read on the Tram],

cited in Oliverio Girondo, Obras completas, ed. Raúl Antelo, Galaxia

Gutenberg, Madrid, 1999, p. 615; also in Mariátegui, Crítica literaria,

Editorial Jorge Alvarez, Buenos Aires, 1969.

10. Rodó, Motivos de Proteo, OC, p. 398.

11. Bauman, Modernity and Ambivalence, p. 7.

12. Ibid., pp. 14 and 56, drawing on Derrida.

13. Jacques Le Rider, Modernity and Crises of Identity: Culture and Society in Fin-de-siècle Vienna, trans. Rosemary Morris, Polity,

Cambridge, 1993, p. 301. See also Allan Janik and Stephen Toulmin,

Wittgenstein’s Vienna, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1973; and

Carl E. Schorske, Fin-de-Siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture, Knopf,

New York, 1979.

14. Jonathan Monroe’s work comparing Walter Benjamin and Edouard

Glissant was very suggestive here: “Composite Cultures, Chaos

World,” paper given at the SOAS/UCL Centre for Asian and African

Literatures workshop, What Price the Modern?, London, May 4,

2005.


16. Zea, Leopoldo, The Latin American Mind [1949], trans. James H.

Abbott and Lowell Dunham, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman

OH, 1963, p. 18.

17. Bernhard Rieger, “Envisioning the Future: British and German

Reactions to the Paris World Fair in 1900,” in Martin Daunton and

Bernhard Rieger, eds., Meanings of Modernity: Britain from the Late-Victorian Era to World War II, Berg, Oxford and New York, 2001,

pp. 145–64, esp. p. 157.

18. Quotation (not claim that Latin America is deficient), García Canclini,

Culturas híbridas, p. 13.

19. Max Horkheimer, “Reason against Itself: Some Remarks on

Enlightenment,” in James Schmidt, ed., What Is Enlightenment? Eighteenth-Century Answers and Twentieth-Century Questions,

NOT ES246

University of California Press, Berkeley, 1996, pp. 359–67, esp.

pp. 359–60. See also Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA,

1989.

20. Alfonso Reyes, “Discurso por Virgilio” [1930], in his Vocación de América, p. 212.

21. Berman, All That Is Solid, p. 27.

22. Seyla Benhabib, “Models of Public Space: Hannah Arendt, the

Liberal Tradition, and Jürgen Habermas,” in Craig Calhoun, ed.,

Habermas and the Public Sphere, MIT Press, Cambridge MA and

London, 1992, pp. 73–98.


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Index

accountability, 17, 28, 34, 176

Aching, Gerard, 13

Adorno, Theodor, 57, 170

Aeneid, The, compared to conquest

of the Americas, 131

aesthetics, 2, 47, 49, 67, 169, 190

agency, 4, 7, 15, 45, 66, 74, 98,

120, 170, 188, 189, 191–2,

195

Alberdi, Juan Bautista, 16, 18, 57,

62, 76, 78, 105

Alem, Leandro, 86, 87

Alexander the Great, 120

Alonso, Carlos, 15

Amazonia, 152

ambivalence, about modernity,

14–15, 25, 29, 45, 188, 190

Andrade, Mário de, 187

anecdote, as genre, 137–8

anti-imperialism, 25, 26, 146

anti-Semitism, 99

APRA (American Popular

Revolutionary Alliance), 26,

145

Arendt, Hannah, 195

Argentina, 32, 61, 72, 113, 116,

143, 149

Generation of 1837, 16–17, 18,

37, 42, 58, 68, 74

Generation of 1880, 74

immigration, 82

labor movement in, 87

population, 6

Sáenz Peña Law (1912), 89, 106

Argentine Socialist Party (PSA),

73, 87–8, 92, 95, 102–3

Arguedas, Alcides, 206 n. 16

Aricó, José, 179

Aristocratic Republic (Peru), 148,

150, 178

Aronna, Michael, 28

Artigas, José, 33

associational life, 2, 71–2, 107,

154, 191

Augustine, Saint, 119

Australia, 85, 100

Australian Labor Party, 85–6, 99

authenticity, 1, 9, 18, 46, 68, 69,

133, 144, 165–71, 179, 190,

191, 193, 194, 195

authoritarianism, 6, 17, 19

autodidacticism, 36, 65, 115, 147

autonomy, 7, 9, 14, 45, 67–8, 69,

86, 89, 93, 106, 111, 127,

139, 162, 170–1, 178, 179,

189, 191, 194

avant-garde, 12, 203 n. 50

Bachelet, Michelle, 19

Bakhtin, Mikhail, 4, 55, 138, 163,

190

Balzac, Honoré de, 37

Barbusse, Henri, 151

Barreda, Gabino, 114, 115

Batlle, José Ordóñez, 11, 31, 32,

33–4

Baudelaire, Charles, 4, 12, 13, 37,

48, 49

INDEX272

Bauman, Zygmunt, 1, 190–1

Belaúnde, Víctor Andrés, 146

Benjamin, Walter, 4, 54, 60, 61,

63, 124, 167, 192, 240 n. 114

Bentham, Jeremy, 41, 42

Bergson, Henri, 37, 53, 123, 138,

154

Berlin, 85, 152

Berman, Marshall, 1, 109, 145,

195

Bernstein, Eduard, 77

Bilbao, Francisco, 41

binary oppositions, 68, 130, 166,

190

Bismarck, Otto von, 82

Bolívar, Simón, 1, 37, 65

Borges, Jorge Luis, 63, 110, 138

Bossuet, Jacques Bénigne, 119

Bourdieu, Pierre, habitus, 200 n. 29

Bravo, Mario, 98

Brazil, 20, 32, 116, 203–4 n. 67

Brazil, Rodó’s impressions of, 37–8

Britain, 97, 101, 148, 192

Brotherston, Gordon, 28

Buckle, Henry Thomas, 119

Buenos Aires, 6, 20, 30, 34, 66,

72, 73, 75, 80, 81–4

Bukharin, Nikolai, 155

Burckhardt, Jacob, Reyes’s

admiration for, 122

Byron, Lord George Gordon, 37

café society, in Mexico City, 113

in Montevideo, 35

Camus, Albert, 23

Canada, illiteracy rate, 100

capitalism, 29

Caras y Caretas (Buenos Aires), 37

Cárdenas, Lázaro, 116

Carlyle, Thomas, 37, 51, 60, 119

Carranza, Venustiano, 117

Caruso, Enrico, 81

Caso, Antonio, 113, 115,

211 n. 96

Castro, Fidel, 109

Catholic Church, the, 49–50

Catholic thought, in Uruguay, 33

Catholic traditionalism, 18

Centenary Generation of Mexico,

113–14, 115

Centenary Generation of Peru,

153–4

Cervantes, Miguel de, 36

Chaplin, Charlie, 111

Chartier, Roger, 8

Chávez, Hugo, 19

Chertkoff, Mariana (first wife of

Justo), 99

Chesterton, G. K., 119

Chile, 179

civil society, 71, 92, 94

Claridad (Lima), 177

classicism, 43, 64–5, 130

Colegio de México, 110, 116, 136

Columbus, Christopher, 119, 137

communications, 28–9

Communist International, the

(Comintern), 143, 145, 151,

157

Communist Manifesto, The, 29, 78

Comte, Auguste, 37, 43, 51, 77,

114, 120

Condillac, Etienne Bonnot de, 51

Congress of Livorno, 151

cosmopolitanism, 14, 65, 125, 129,

150

Crítica (Buenos Aires), 84

critical closeness, 24, 163, 165,

189

criticism, 54, 55, 134–5, 163

Croce, Benedetto, 61, 121, 154,

168

Cuba, 72

Cuban Communist Party, 26

Cuban Revolution, 109, 143–4

cultural nationalism, 65, 106, 125,

132–3, 139, 146, 179

cultural studies, in Latin America,

18

culture, role in modernity, 12, 68,

144, 174, 194

INDEX 273

D’Annunzio, Gabriel, 36, 37

Dante, 37

Darío, Rubén, 12, 13, 24, 25, 27,

28, 30, 37, 46, 48, 55, 83,

117

Darwin, Charles, 37, 77

Davies, Catherine, 15

De Certeau, Michel, 9

De Staël, Madame Anne Louise

Germaine, 37

Deleuze, Gilles, 138

democracy, 2, 17, 27, 28, 33, 69,

71, 80, 84, 88–96, 98, 105,

106, 107, 113, 139, 143, 144,

154, 192

Descartes, René, 51, 57

Deustua, Alejandro, 211 n. 96

Diario del Pueblo, El (Argentina),

103

Díaz, Porfirio, 112, 113, 116, 120,

128

Dickens, Charles, 37

Diderot, Denis, 54

difference, Latin American

approach to, 3, 21, 66, 69,

190

dogmatism, 51, 89, 112, 134, 143

Dussel, Enrique, 118

education, 32, 67, 79, 174, 175–6

Einstein, Albert, 111, 124

Eliot, George, 37

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 37, 57, 119

empathy, 137, 163, 187, 189, 194

Engels, Friedrich, 37, 78

Enlightenment, the, 11, 15, 28,

40, 47, 67, 79, 111, 112, 167,

188, 194

ephemerality, 4, 48, 116

epistemology, 43, 187–91

Escuela Nacional Preparatoria

(ENP), 113, 115

essay, genre of, 57–8, 136–7

essentialism, 2, 15, 17–18, 125

ethics, 2, 14, 46, 53, 67, 79, 190,

193–6

Ette, Ottmar, 62

Eurocentrism, 3, 20–1

Fabian, Johannes, 55

Febvre, Lucien, 9, 199–200 n. 29

Fernández de Lizardi, José

Joaquín, 115

Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 120

Flaubert, Gustave, 37, 60

Flores Galindo, Alberto, 143, 147,

163

Forment, Carlos, 72

Foucault, Michel, 4

Fouillée, Alfred, 37

France, Anatole, 76

France, urbanization in, 30

Frank, Waldo, 206 n. 15

Frankfurt School, the, 8, 40–1,

166–7, 189, 193

Franzé, Javier, 88

Fray Bentos, 30

Freire, Paulo, 19, 24

French Revolution, 109

Freud, Sigmund, 37, 53, 156

Frugoni, Emilio, 88, 103

Fuentes, Carlos, 67, 109, 139, 187

Futurism, 166, 176 see also

Marinetti

García, Eliseo, 173

García Canclini, Néstor, 21

García Márquez, Gabriel, 11, 124

Garretón, Manuel, 18, 71, 107, 195

Germany, urbanization in, 30

Germinal (Argentina), 103

Glissant, Edouard, 189

Gobetti, Piero, 154–5

Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 23,

37, 51, 54, 60, 115, 135

Gómez de Avellaneda, Gertrudis,

55

Góngora y Argote, Luis de, 118,

128

González Echevarría, Roberto, 56

González Prada, Manuel, 153–4,

162

INDEX274

Gorgias, 59–60

Gramsci, Antonio, 92, 144, 174

guerrilla warfare, 143–4

Guevara, Ernesto “Che”, 24

Gutiérrez Nájera, Manuel, 115

Guyau, Jean-Marie, 37, 41

Habermas, Jürgen, 1, 2, 18, 75,

187, 195

Harrods, 81, 83

Haya de la Torre, Víctor Raúl, 145,

146, 164, 177

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich,

78, 118, 119, 120, 123, 170,

189, 195

Helvetius, Claude Adrien, 51

Henríquez Ureña, Pedro, 111, 113,

115, 125, 136

Herder, Johann Gottfried von, 42,

120, 170

Hergé (Georges Remi), Tintin and the Picaros [1976], 204 n. 69

heterogeneity, 2, 186, 192

hispanoamericanismo, 126

Horkheimer, Max, 193

hospitality, 9, 19, 58, 64, 67, 124,

171, 194

Hostos, Eugenio María de, 115

Huancayo, 150

Huerta, Victoriano, 116

Hugo, Victor, 37

humanism, 26, 65, 77, 110, 127,

128–9

Husserl, Edmund, 123

hybridity, 192, 193

Ibsen, Henrik, 36, 37, 60

idealism (philosophical), 33,

42–3

identity, 15, 191–2

Iliad, The, 126, 130

imperialism, 18, 146, 179, 194

indigenismo, 146–7, 179

individualism, 2, 74, 194

Ingenieros, José, 242 n. 164

instrumentalism, 194

intellectuals, role of, 6–9, 46, 141,

161, 178

Italy, 20, 38, 49, 66, 101, 151–2,

153, 154, 166, 174, 175, 182

Jacobinism, 51, 64, 175

Japan, as model of modernity, 20,

128, 153, 192

Jaurès, Jean, 75

Jauss, Hans Robert, 9

Jiménez, Juan Ramón, 141

Johnson, Samuel, 129

Joyce, James, 37, 156

Juárez, Benito, 134

justice, 4, 7, 76–8, 80, 106, 107,

120, 121, 124, 139, 140,

144, 155, 164, 195

Justo, Juan Bautista, 8, 9, 20, 111,

112, 141, 145, 147, 191, 195

career, 72, 84–5

experiences of modern life, 80–8

on cooperativism, 96–9

on education, 99–105

on foreign investment, 91

on free trade, 90–1

on property, 94–6

on religion, 101–2

on taxation, 92, 95

on the state, 88–92

political activity, 72–3

rural policies , 91–2, 95, 96

style, 104–5

travel, 8, 93

use of language, 104–5

Kant, Immanuel, 37, 47, 48–9, 60,

67, 78, 111, 119, 120, 141,

170

Klee, Paul, 138

Korn, Alejandro, 76, 211 n. 96

Koselleck, Reinhart, 4, 61, 124, 140

Krausism, in Uruguay, 33

Kühn, Augusto, 102

Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 37

Larico Yujra, Mariano, 173

INDEX 275

Larraín, Jorge, 15

Latin, 131–2

Latinity, 26, 65, 166

Lefebvre, Henri, 123

Leguía, Augusto, 11, 150, 151

Lenin, Vladimir Illich, 153

liberalism, 61, 64, 65, 71, 107,

175

Liberation Theology, 19, 24

Lima, 148, 149, 172, 178

literary “Boom”, 13, 19

London, 77

Lugones, Leopoldo, 55, 106

Lula (Luiz Inácio da Silva), 19

Macaulay, Thomas Babington, 37

Machado de Assis, Joaquim Maria,

110

macondismo, 11

Madero, Francisco, 116

Madrid, 117, 118

magical realism, 19–20

Mallarmé, Stéphane, 36

manuals of good conduct, 65

Marcuse, Herbert, 49

Mariátegui, José Carlos, 8, 27, 79,

105, 191, 195

connections with indigenous

leaders, 173

experiences of modernity,

147–58

formal experimentation, 163

on myth, 159–60, 164–5

politics, 9, 20, 174

response to modernity, 145

Siete ensayos de interpretación de la realidad peruana (1928),

144, 155, 160–1, 168–70

style, 145

travel, 150–2

use of language, 163–4

Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso, 37,

154, 156

Marquis de Sade, 119

Martí, José, 7, 10, 24, 25, 26, 37,

42, 45, 57, 65, 201 n. 40

‘Nuestra América’ (1891), 44,

45, 46, 55, 56

marvellous real, the, 19–20, 24

Marx, Karl, 12, 37, 76, 102, 123,

153, 170

Das Kapital, 72, 78, 119, 162

Marxism, 144

Justo on, 72, 76, 77, 78, 88

Mariátegui on, 165, 172, 179

Rodó on, 29

Massey, Doreen, 123–4

Matto de Turner, Clorinda, 55

Mella, Julio Antonio, 27

mestizaje, 24

Mexican Revolution, 109, 112,

116, 136, 193

Mexico City, 20, 124–5

Mexico, 72, 132, 149, 175, 178

Michelet, Jules, 37

military authoritarianism, and

modernity, 17, 19

Mill, John Stuart, 41

Mitre, Bartolomé, 16, 86

modernism, 12, 187

in Europe, 12, 61

in Latin America, 21

modernismo, 12, 13, 14, 46, 83,

115, 176

modernity

and discovery of the Americas,

118–9, 230 n. 58

conceptualizations of, 5

in relation to modernism, 12

in relation to modernization,

3–6

promise of, 4

technocratic, 1–2, 13, 15, 68,

146, 148

modernity in Latin America

alleged deficiencies of, 2

alternative, 9, 18, 19

baroque, 11

distinctiveness of, 1–3, 9, 16,

195

Latin American useage of term, 5

technocraticica, 16–17

INDEX276

modernization theory, 3

modernization, 3

as Americanization, 11

definition of, 4

in Argentina, 6, 80–8, 91–2

in Latin America, 6, 8, 21, 194

in Mexico, 112–15

in Peru, 147–50

in Uruguay, 30–4

of intellectual life, 7, 10, 14,

34–6

Monsiváis, Carlos, 24

Montaigne, Michel de, 37, 140

Montalvo, Juan, 37, 57

Montevideo, 30–1, 35, 66, 68

Montevideo, University of, 35, 36

Morales, Evo, 19

Morandé, Pedro, 11

Moreau de Justo, Alicia, 79

Moreno, Manuel, 62

multiple modernities, 3

Mundo ilustrado, El (Mexico),

113

Nación, La, 83, 84

nationalism, 5, 11, 65, 120, 132–3,

170 see also cultural

nationalism

naturalism, 28, 43

neoliberalism, 17

New Left in Latin America, 2

New York, 30, 151

New Zealand, 86, 92, 95, 100

Nicaraguan Revolution, 109, 143

Nietzsche, Friedrich, 23, 37, 40,

44, 53, 54, 74, 113, 114, 119,

123, 154, 160–1, 194, 195

Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra,

44, 46

nihilism, 11, 40

Nordau, Max, 211 n. 104

Obregón, Alvaro, 116

Olmedo, José Joaquín de, 62

optimism, 11, 26, 68, 79, 89, 99,

150, 162, 194

Organisation of American States, 117

Orosio, Paulo, 119

Ortega y Gasset, José, 112, 118,

126, 159

Owen, Robert, 97

Paine, Thomas, 109

Palacios, Alfredo, 83

Palermo, 39

Pan, Luis (biographer of Justo), 99

parable, as genre, 58

Paris Commune, 82

Paris, 14, 30, 63, 81, 83, 116, 117,

151

Partido Autonomista Nacional

(PAN, Argentina), 86

Paz, Octavio, 13, 14, 21, 112, 133,

138, 193

Pellegrini, Carlos, 90

Perón, Juan Domingo, 102, 106

Peronism, 73

Peru, 71, 72

photography, 113

Pirandello, Luigi, 156

Plato, 37, 59, 140

Pomian, Krzysztof, 7

popular universities, 72

populism, 17, 19, 68, 71

positivism, 11, 12, 14, 25, 26, 28,

33, 43, 57, 77, 111, 113, 128,

131, 154, 160, 188

postmodernism, 187, 194–5

postmodernity, 5

Prensa, La (Buenos Aires), 83, 84

Prensa, La (Lima), 149

Prisma (Lima), 149

progress, 9, 11, 15, 28, 63, 64, 67,

79–80, 120, 122, 128, 165,

192, 193

property, 94–6

Proust, Marcel, 37, 156

PSA, see Argentine Socialist Party

public libraries, 83–4

public space, in Latin America, 6,

72, 74, 145, 171–85

public sphere, 75

INDEX 277

Quesada, Ernesto, 74

Quijano, Aníbal, 23, 109, 123

Quispe, Felipe, 18

quotation, as discursive strategy,

60

race, 155, 195 see also indigenismoracial pessimism, 99

Ramos, Julio, 2, 10, 45, 55

rationalism, 158–65, 187, 189

Razón, La (Lima), 162

reason, 2, 15, 23–4, 47–54, 111,

158–65, 188, 189

reception theory, 9

Reformation, the, 175

relativism, 11, 68, 80, 161–2

religion, 10, 159, 174

Renan, Ernest, 37, 41, 44, 46, 51,

60

Republic of Letters, 7, 45, 55

republicanism, 5, 16

Revista de Occidente (Madrid), 118

Revista Nacional de Literatura y Ciencias Sociales (Uruguay),

36

revolution

and modernity, 157, 191

in Bolivia, 19

in Cuba, 19

in Mexico, 20

in Nicaragua, 19

Reyes, Alfonso, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,

20, 57, 79, 144, 147, 191, 195

attitudes towards modern life,

111–12

challenge to ideology of

progress, 122–5

critique of European theories of

history, 118–22

experiences of the modern,

112–18

formal experimentation, 136–8

on ancient Greece, 130–1

on criticism, 134–5

on culture, 122–33

on language, 118, 135–9

on indigenous peoples, 133

on Romanticism, 11

style, 136

Reyes, General Bernardo (father),

113, 116

rhetoric, 55, 59, 135

Ricardo, David, 77, 102

Rimbaud, Arthur, 37, 179

Riva Agüero, José de la, 169,

241 n. 121

Rivadavia, Bernardino, 62

Rivera, Diego, 115

Rodó, José Enrique, 8, 9, 10, 14,

20, 24–69, 72, 73, 77, 79, 80,

84, 105, 110, 111, 112, 113,

114, 115, 124, 126, 127, 128,

139, 141, 145, 147, 163, 166,

190, 191, 193, 244 n. 4

Rodó, José Enrique, Ariel (1900),

24, 25, 26, 29, 35, 44, 56, 57,

58, 61, 62, 67, 153, 209 n. 59,

217 n. 259

critique of European thought,

39–44

education, 36

formal experimentation, 57–60

impressions of Barcelona, 38

impressions of Brazil, 37–8

impressions of Italy, 38–9

language, 27, 55

Motivos de Proteo (1909), 29,

52–4, 57, 59, 135

on indigenous peoples, 28, 133

politics, 9, 33, 34

reading matter, 36–7

reputation, 25, 27

Rodríguez, Simón, 55

Rojas, Ricardo, 106

Rolland, Romain, 152, 156–7,

159

Romanticism, 11, 14, 16, 42, 43,

57, 111, 128, 166, 167

Romero, José Luis, 82

root metaphors, 56, 136

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 42, 60,

109, 170

INDEX278

rupture and continuity, 2, 109,

192–3

Russia, 82, 175

Soviet Revolution, 94, 101, 103,

109, 143, 152, 153, 158

urbanization in, 30

Sánchez, Luis Alberto, 146

Sand, George, 37

Santiago de Chile, 30, 66

Santos Chocano, José, 169

Sarmiento, Domingo Faustino, 7,

10, 16, 42, 45, 62, 68, 84, 99,

100, 128

Sartre, Jean-Paul, 23

Savia Moderna (Mexico City), 115

Scheler, Max, 127

Schiller, Friedrich, 37, 49, 54

Schoenberg, Arnold, 37

scholasticism, 114, 159

Schopenhauer, Arthur, 37

science, 28, 78, 80, 112, 114, 132,

158, 162, 187

Searle, John, speech acts, 56

Second International, the, 73, 154

secularization, 50

secularization, in Argentina, 89

secularization, in Uruguay, 32, 89

Shakespeare, William, 37, 52

Shakespeare, William, The Tempest, 25

Shaw, George Bernard, 37, 76

Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 83

Shining Path, 144

Simmel, Georg, 4, 155–6

skepticism, 11, 26, 45, 80, 134,

159, 161

Smith, Adam, 41, 77, 102

Social Darwinism, 13, 26, 99, 128

social imaginary, 5–6

social movements, 72

socialism, 73, 77, 145

Socialist International, 85, 90

solidarity, 9, 19, 43, 52, 63, 79, 90,

94, 96, 98, 140, 191, 192,

193, 194

Sontag, Susan, 192

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, 115

Sorel, Georges, 154, 160

sovereignty, popular, 2, 11, 71

Spain, 64, 65, 126–7

Spain, Generation of 1898, 37, 154

Spanish-Cuban-American War

(1898), 7, 25

speech acts, 56

Spencer, Herbert, 37, 49, 51, 77

Spengler, Oswald, 158

spirituality, 9, 10, 19, 49, 51

Strindberg, August, 37

subjectivity, 3, 4, 15, 40, 43, 47,

52, 78–9, 155, 162, 170, 171,

181, 186, 189, 195

surrealism, 4, 12, 63

synthesis, 2, 48, 58, 61, 66, 76, 79,

124, 125–31, 137, 138, 139,

163, 167, 189, 190, 193, 195

Taine, Hippolyte, 37, 51, 119

Taylor, Charles, 5

technology, 79, 96–7

teleology, 3

Thurner, Mark, 3

Tolstoy, Leo, 23, 36, 37, 50

Touraine, Alain, 21

tradition, 2, 5, 13, 14, 16, 17–18,

21, 34, 36, 63–4, 65, 67, 69,

110–11, 124, 129–30, 143,

164–5, 167–8, 190, 192, 193

transculturation, 110, 131, 192

translation, 136

Trotsky, Leon, 153

UCR (Unión Cívica Radical, aka

the Radical Party), 11, 73,

87, 89

Ugarte, Manuel, 26

Unamuno, Miguel de, 76

United States

as model of modernity, 14, 17,

81, 89, 93, 99, 100, 101,

192

cultural imperialism, 7

INDEX 279

in Latin America, 6, 7, 25,

116–17, 139, 148, 153

urbanization in, 30

universalism, 9, 20, 111, 127, 132,

190, 194

Universities, Popular, 115, 177

University of Buenos Aires, 74, 84

University of San Marcos, 148

University Reform Movement, 26,

84, 176–7

Uruguay, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35

intellectual life in, 34–6

political history, 31–4

population, 30 see also

modernization

utilitarianism, 40, 47, 58, 111, 188

Vallejo, César, 110, 169

Vanguardia, La (newspaper of the

PSA), 75, 81, 85, 102–3

Varela, José Pedro, 32

Vasconcelos, José, 10, 23–4, 26,

113, 115, 126, 132, 158, 162

Vásquez Acevedo, Alfredo, 32

Vásquez y Vega, Prudencio, 33

Vaz Farreira, Carlos, 210 n. 84,

211 n. 96

Verlaine, Paul, 36, 37

Vico, Giambattista, 120

Vienna, 85, 191

Virgil, 131, 140

Voltaire (François Marie Arouet),

120

Wagner, Richard, 23, 37, 39

War of the Desert (Argentina), 86

War of the Pacific (1879–83),

147

War of the Triple Alliance

(1865–70), 31, 86

Wars of Independence, ideology of,

1, 5, 15, 61–2, 168

Weber, Max, 37

Whitman, Walt, 37

Wilde, Oscar, 128, 129

women, and modernity, 140, 195

World Social Forum, 20

Yrigoyen, Hipólito, 87, 89, 106

Zapatistas, the (EZLN), 19, 20

Zea, Leopoldo, 65

Zola, Emile, 35, 37

Zorrilla de San Martín, Juan, 33