chapter-1 aerospace science and engineering

8/18/2019 Chapter-1 Aerospace Science and Engineering

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Chapter 1

Aerospace Science and Engineering

Institute of Engineering (IOE)Tribhuvan University

December 1, 20141

Sudip BhattraiAssistant Professor

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Aircraft and/or Airplane?

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Aircraft and/or Airplane?

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Spacecraft and/or Spaceplane?

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Elon Musk


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???

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1. History of Aircrafts


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The “Flyer” lifted from level ground, at 10:35 a.m., onDecember 17, 1903 at Kill Devil Hill, North Carolina.

The first successful controlled ,powered and sustained heavier-than-

air flight.

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The Wright Flyer



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Orville piloted the plane which weighed about 270 kg.

The plane used rail tracks for a guided launch, with a 12horsepower piston engine.

The first attempt was made on 14 th December withWilbur willing the toss, but he pulled a sharp pitch whichstalled the aircraft. Only minor damages incurred.

The Orville flight lasted for 12 seconds, covering 36.5 m.

Then they took turns making 4 low-altitude flights.

It is now an exhibit at the National Air and SpaceMuseum in Washington D.C.

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The Wright Flyer



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The Wright brothers tested gliders at Kitty Hawk, NorthCarolina between 1900 and 1902, beginning initially withkites to understand the role that wind flow over the„wing‟ surfaces play in generating lift.

The Wrights chose the area because its frequent windsand soft sandy surfaces were suitable for their glider experiments, which they conducted over the period prior to making the powered flights.

They even build a wind-tunnel to test airfoil shapes thatwould give higher lift.

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The Wright Flyer



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The Wright Gliders

WG 1901



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The Wright Gliders

WG 1902



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The Wright Homemade Wind Tunnel



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The Wright Flyer in a NASA Wind Tunnel



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The Wright Flyer Configuration

Devised an early method of rollcontrol, and a coupled roll andyaw control now widely used asa ‘lateral’ control technique.


Canard stabilizer (pitch)

In 1905, Wilbur Wright piloted

the Flyer III airplane for 39minutes, covering a distance of about 40 km, till the plane ran outof fuel. Man kind could fly!


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Wright Military Flyer



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Founding Father of Modern Rocketry. He designed and built thefirst liquid-fueled rocket, carrying out a successful test on March16, 1926 (US).

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Robert H. Goddard



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Known as Father of Gliders as well as Aerodynamics .

Over the course of fifty years (between 1799 and the1850s) he designed several variations of glider designs,

carrying-out successful gravity assisted flights. Optimized wing shapes to achieve proper flow over it.

Discovered the necessity of a tail for stability andacknowledged the need for carrying a propulsion systemfor power.

Hence, identifying the four main forces acting on a flightvehicle, namely- lift, drag, thrust and weight (bodyforce).

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Gliders- George Cayley

2. Early Pioneers


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Gliders- George Cayley

2. Early Pioneers


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Known as Glider King .

By the time of his death he had achieved an unbeatenflight time of 5 hours with a total of 2500 flights.

Gravity assisted glides against an upwash wind, hisgliders were able to fly long distances (record of 250 m).

He wrote a book on aerodynamics in 1989, which wasused by Wright brothers as a basis for their design.

Died after a glider test gone wrong in 1896. He fell 15 mwith the glider, fracturing a vertebra.

His last words were- Sacrifices must be made!

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Gliders- Otto Lilienthal

2. Early Pioneers


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2. Early Pioneers

Gliders- Otto Lilienthal


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Acknowledged the necessity of generating power toachieve flight, and became the first inventor to use a

propulsion system in a glider.

Launched from a boat with a catapult, his first attempt onOct. 7, 1903 ended with the Aerodome plunging intowater, though an unmanned catapulted test in 1896 was asuccess (sort of; it ran out of fuel within a mile).

His second attempt, on December 8 th 1903, theAerodome crashed again nearly killing the pilot. It wasthe second public crash he faced within a few months.

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Aerodome- Samuel P. Langley

2. Early Pioneers


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2. Early Pioneers


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2. Early Pioneers

He's remembered as one of the most unlucky trail blazers in flight history.


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2. Early Pioneers

1914- Modified Aerodome.


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The French brothers, Joseph Michel and Jacques EtienneMontgolfier, were inventors of the first hot air balloon.

The public demonstration was made on June 4 th, 1783. It

climbed to a height of about 1600-2000 m and traveledfor about 10 minutes covering 2 km.

In 1783, On the 19th of September 1783, the Aérostat Réveillon was flown with living beings on it as a public

demonstration. The first passengers in the colorful balloon were a sheep, rooster and duck. It covered about3 km in in 8 minutes, raising to an altitude of 460 m.

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Hot-Air Balloons- Montgolfier Brothers

2. Early Pioneers


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2. Early Pioneers



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2. Early Pioneers



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The concept has been around for long, since the 1670„flying boat‟ concept of Francesco Lana de Terzi(Italian), but the German Zeppelin company pioneeredthe use of very large airships in the early 20 th century.

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Airships- Zeppelin Company

2. Early Pioneers


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2. Early Pioneers

Graf Zeppelin Intercontinental PassangerAirship.



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The Hindenburg disaster on May 6, 1937.

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2. Early Pioneers


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2. Early Pioneers

Good Year Blimp



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2. Early Pioneers

Lockheed-Martin Hybrid Airship



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The Ornithopter- Leonardo Da-Vinci

2. Early Pioneers

Da- Vinci’s OrnithopterPlan from 1490


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2. Early Pioneers

The Ornithopter- Leonardo Da-Vinci

Otto Lilienthal


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The Aerial Steam Carriage, conceived by WilliamHenson in 1843, was the first aircraft design to show

propellers.

In 1874, Felix du Temple made the first attempt atmanned flight in a powered aircraft. He was notsuccessful.

Thomas Walker, a portrait-painter from Hull, England

publishes a pamphlet on the possibilities of fixed-wingaviation.

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Other Honorable Attempts

2. Early Pioneers

A single wing was composed of 8 long slender wings that overlap one another. Thecontrol system adjusts the angle of attack of the winglets. This, in turn, varied the lift and caused the airplane to ascend or descend. Or so Walker hypothesized.


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The oldest known attempt to describe a parachute is found in ananonymous depiction from 1470s Italy.

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2. Early Pioneers


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Franz Reichelt, a French tailor and inventor, designed a wearable parachute. With his parachute on, in February 4 th 1912, he jumped from Eifel tower for a test and died.

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2. Early Pioneers

The Flying Taylor


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2. Early Pioneers

Timeline of Pioneering Developments in Flight.


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The first commercial flight took place on January 1, 1914 aboarda Benoist XIV through a 21 km journey between two cities in US.

The first commercial airliner was the Chalk‟s InternationalAirline in US. Founded in 1917, It ceased operation in 2007.

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Commercial Developments

3. Modern Aircrafts

First commercial flight aboardBenoist XIV.


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First commercial jetliner was the 40-seater De Havilland DH 106Comet, first flown on 27 th June, 1949.

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3. Modern Aircrafts

Boeing 707 first flew in 1957,while Airbus 300 first flew on28 October 1972.


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Currently the world‟s biggest passenger airliner is the AirbusA380, introduced in 2007, with up to 850 seating capacity. Whilethe largest cargo aircraft is the Antonov An-225 “ Mriya ”, whichis the longest and heaviest aircraft ever built.

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3. Modern Aircrafts


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The world‟s first aircraft to fly with a jet engine was the HeinkelHe 178 experimental aircraft, built in Nazi Germany. It first flewon August 27, 1939.

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Military Developments

3. Modern Aircrafts


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3. Modern Aircrafts

“I have very deep and sincere regret for the victims of the V-2 rockets, but there were victims on both sides...A war is a war, and when my country is at war, myduty is to help win that war. ”

Wernher VonBraun


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The first aircraft to achieve flight at level supersonic speed wasthe rocket-powered Bell-X1 experimental aircraft. The record of fastest air-breathing manned aircraft is held by Lockheed SR-71.

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3. Modern Aircrafts

Bell X-1


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The official record for the highest speed achieved by a mannedaircraft is held by the North American X-15 rocket-poweredexperimental aircraft at 7,271 km/hr (31.1 km). It also achievedtwo suborbital flights. It achieved hypersonic speed.

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3. Modern Aircrafts


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The NASA X-43 experimental hypersonic aircraft (scramjet) hasthe highest speed record in horizontal flight at Mach 9.8 (Nov.16, 2004). It had a „burn time‟ of approximately 10 seconds at analtitude of ~33.5 km.

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3. Modern Aircrafts

The record for longest airbreathinghypersonic flight is held by Boeing

X-51 (210s, May 2013).


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Firstly the space is separate and different from theatmosphere. What is the dividing line between space andthe atmosphere?

The atmosphere and space are really one medium whichis best described by the compound term aerospace (aero= atmosphere plus space).

For the purpose of our discussion, the word atmosphere

will be used to describe the aerospace portion wherehumans do not require special life support systems andspace will be used to define the area above theatmosphere where special equipment is needed.

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Definition

4. The Atmosphere


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There are three major ways to study the makeup of theatmosphere:

Its elements.

Its regions. Its pressure.

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Definition

4. The Atmosphere


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The atmosphere is composed of 78 percent nitrogen and21 percent oxygen.

This leaves only one percent to be made up by other

permanent and variable gases. The other permanent gases are argon, neon, helium,

methane, hydrogen and xenon. The variable gases arewater vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide,

sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Added to this pure mixture there are also dust particles,

hydrocarbons and other matter given off by vehicles andindustries, the pollens of plants, and so forth.

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Composition

4. The Atmosphere


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Certain levels of the atmosphere can be identifiedaccording to general characteristics, or atmosphericregions.

The four usual ways of describing these regions (alsocalled atmospheric shells or layers) are:

By temperature distribution

Physicochemical (physical and chemical properties)

processes distribution Molecular composition

Dynamic-kinetic (force-motion) processes

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Characterization

4. The Atmosphere


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One of the most common andeasiest ways to understand anddescribe the atmosphere is bytemperature.

There are four distinct regions of the atmosphere where thetemperature distribution isdifferent enough to warrant adifferent name.

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Temperature Distribution

4. The Atmosphere


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Troposphere („tropo ‟ meaningturn/change) raises from thesurface to about …

Produces weather patterns andthis is where living things

predominantly live.

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4. The Atmosphere


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Stratosphere

Temperature goes up withincreasing altitude.

Begins at km altitude, andextends upto..

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4. The Atmosphere


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4 Th A h


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Mesosphere

Temperature goes up withincreasing altitude.

Begins at km altitude, andextends upto..

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4. The Atmosphere


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4 Th A h


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Dust and other very small particles called particulate matter playan important role in weather. If they were not present in theatmosphere, there would not be certain forms of condensationand precipitation.

These particles serve as a surface for condensation of water vapor and are called condensation nuclei.

The molecules of water attach themselves to these nuclei if thetemperature is right. Water molecules continue to accumulateuntil they can be seen in their familiar liquid or solid forms.

For an idea of just how small the condensation nuclei might be,the diameter of a single condensation nucleus could be as smallas 0.000000004 inch (four billionths of an inch).

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Particulate Matter

4. The Atmosphere

4 Th A h


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Several factors cause the atmosphere to be a constantly changinglandscape of invisible mountains and valleys.

The major influences are the uneven distribution of oceans andcontinents, the seasonal

temperature changes, the heat transferring qualities of differentEarth surfaces and daily temperature changes.

The high-pressure areas of the atmosphere are the mountains andthe low-pressure areas are the valleys.

The wind flows from these high-pressure mountains into the low- pressure valleys

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Atmosphere in Motion

4. The Atmosphere

4 Th At h


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The slope of the high-pressure mountain (defined by contours) iscalled the pressure gradient. On weather maps, its degree of steepness is shown by lines called isobars.

Isobars are drawn through points of equal sea-level atmospheric

(barometric) pressure. They identify five different types of pressure patterns — highs, lows, cols, troughs, and ridges.

A „high‟ is a center of high pressure surrounded by lower pressure,and a „low‟ is a center of low pressure surrounded by higher

pressure. A „col‟ is a “saddle - back” area between two highs andtwo lows.

An elongated area of low pressure is called a trough. Anelongated area of high pressure is called a ridge.

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4. The Atmosphere



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Chapter 7 The Atmosphere


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4 Th At h


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The general circulation of the air is complicated by the irregular distribution of land and water areas. Different types of surfacesvary in the rate at which they absorb heat from the Sun andtransfer heat to the atmosphere. Seasonal changes and daily

variations in temperature also affect this rate of transfer. In some regions, local low-pressure areas form over hot land

surfaces in summer, and over the warmer water surfaces in winter.Convection currents are formed along shorelines. These currentsare heated air rising upward which cause advection currents

(wind) to flow from the water over the warmer land during theday. During the night, convection currents develop over thewarmer-than-land water and cause the wind to blow from theland toward the water. This phenomenon is known as the landand sea breeze .

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4. The Atmosphere



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Land Breeze

Sea Breeze

4 The Atmosphere


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Local air circulation of limited scope is caused by variations inthe Earth‟s surface.

Some surfaces- such as sand, rocks, plowed areas and barrenland- give off or reflect a great amount of heat.

Other surfaces- such as meadows, planted fields and water- tendto retain heat.

Rising air currents are encountered by aircraft flying over surfaces that give off considerable heat, while descending air

currents are encountered over surfaces that tend to retain heat.

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4. The Atmosphere



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Advection is a transport mechanism of a substance or conserved property by a fluiddue to the fluid's bulk motion.


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4 The Atmosphere


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The rotation of the Earth complicates the simple concept of windthat is due to pressure and thermal gradients. The rotation causesthe alternating heating and cooling of the equatorial and other regions during day and night.

Perhaps the most significant influence on the creation and flow of wind is the spinning planet and the resulting Coriolis Effect.

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4. The Atmosphere


4 The Atmosphere


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The jet stream is a comparatively narrowcurrent of air which moves around the

Northern (and Southern) Hemispheres of the Earth in wavelike patterns.

It might be compared to a “river” of wind moving at high speed. The jetstream varies from about 100 to 400miles wide and 1 to 3 miles thick. Itsstrongest winds are generally

encountered above 30,000 feet. Jet-stream winds usually have a speed of 140-to-480 km/h, but speeds up to 725km/h have been recorded. Its generalmotion is from west to east.

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4. The Atmosphere


4 The Atmosphere


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The jet stream shifts position frequently and actually migrateswith the seasons. The cruising range of aircraft flyingdownwind within a jet stream is greatly increased. Pilotsanticipating high-altitude or long-range flights attempt todiscover the location of the jet stream and use it to their advantage.

For several decades now, meteorologists have studied jet streamsand how they affect the movements of air masses. While therelationship is still unknown, there is a common agreement that

jet streams may act as a barrier between cold air in the north andwarm air in the south. During their snakelike meandering, thestreams appear to allow some cold air to flow southward andwarm air to flow northward. These flows undoubtedly have someaffect on the formation of cold and warm air masses.

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4. The Atmosphere


4 The Atmosphere


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4. The Atmosphere

Clouds

4 The Atmosphere


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4. The Atmosphere

Clouds

4 The Atmosphere


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4. The Atmosphere

Clouds

AltocumulusCastellanus

4 The Atmosphere


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4. The Atmosphere

Clouds

AltocumulusCastellanus

4 The Atmosphere


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4. The Atmosphere

Clouds

Nimbostratus

4 The Atmosphere


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4. The Atmosphere

Clouds

CirrocumulusStratiformis

4 The Atmosphere


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4. The Atmosphere

Clouds

Fall Streakthrough

AltocumulusStratiformis

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4. The Atmosphere

Clouds

Cirrus Spissatus


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4 The Atmosphere


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4. The Atmosphere

Clouds

CumulusCongestus

4. The Atmosphere


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4. The Atmosphere

Clouds

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Clouds

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4. The Atmosphere

Clouds

4. The Atmosphere


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4. The Atmosphere

Clouds

Morning GloryClouds (Australia)

“ t l l d t d b th i it th h littl ig ifi

chapter-1 aerospace science and engineering

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