Chapter 1Introduction and Basic Concepts

1-1 Thermodynamics and Energy Application Areas of Thermodynamics1-2 Importance of Dimensions and Units Some SI and English Units Dimensional Homogeneity Unity Conversion Ratios1-3 Systems and Control Volumes1-4 Properties of a System Continuum1-5 Density and Specific Gravity1-6 State and Equilibrium The State Postulate1-7 Processes and Cycles The Steady-Flow Process1-8 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics Temperature Scales The International Temperature Scale of 1990 (ITS-90)1-9 Pressure Variation of Pressure with Depth1-10 The Manometer Other Pressure Measurement Devices1-11 The Barometer and Atmospheric Pressure1-12 Problem-Solving Technique Step 1: Problem Statement Step 2: Schematic Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations Step 4: Physical Laws Step 5: Properties Step 6: Calculations Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion Engineering Software Packages A Remark on Significant DigitsSummaryReferences and Suggested ReadingProblems

Chapter 2Energy Conversion and General Energy Analysis

2-1 Introduction2-2 Forms of Energy Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy Mechanical Energy More on Nuclear Energy2-3 Energy Transfer by Heat Historical Background on Heat2-4 Energy Transfer by Work Electrical Work2-5 Mechanical Forms of Work Shaft Work Spring Work Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body Nonmechanical Forms of Work2-6 The First Law of Thermodynamics Energy Balance Energy Change of a System, system

Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, in and out

2-7 Energy Conversion Efficiencies2-8 Energy and Environment Ozone and Smog Acid Rain The Greenhouse Effect: Global Warming and Climate ChangeTopic of Special Interest: Mechanisms of Heat TransferSummaryReferences and Suggested ReadingProblems

Chapter 3Properties of Pure Substances

3-1 Pure Substance

3-2 Phases of a Pure Substance3-3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure Substances Compressed Liquid and Saturated Liquid Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure Some Consequences of sat and sat Dependence3-4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change Processes 1 The - Diagram 2 The - Diagram Extending the Diagrams to Include the Solid Phase 3 The Diagram The Surface3-5 Property Tables Enthalpy�A Combination Property 1a Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States 1b Saturated Liquid�Vapor Mixture 2 Superheated Vapor 3 Compressed Liquid Reference State and Reference Values3-6 The Ideal-Gas Equation of State Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas?3-7 Compressibility Factor�A Measure of Deviation from Ideal-GasBehavior3-8 Other Equations of State Van der Waals Equation of State Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State Virial Equation of StateTopic of Special InterestVapor Pressure and Phase EquilibriumSummaryReferences and Suggested ReadingProblems

Chapter 4Energy Analysis of Closed Systems4-1 Moving Boundary Work Polytropic Process

4-2 Energy Balance for Closed Systems4-3 Specific Heats4-4 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases4-5 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heat of Solids and Liquids Internal Energy Changes Enthalpy ChangesTopic of Special Interest: Thermodynamic Aspects of Biological SystemsSummaryReferences and Suggested ReadingProblems

Chapter 5Mass and Energy Analysis of Control Volumes5-1 Conservation of Mass Mass and Volume Flow Rates Conservation of Mass Principle Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes Special Case: Incompressible Flow5-2 Flow Work and the Energy of a Flowing Fluid Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid Energy Transport by Mass5-3 Energy Analysis of Steady-Flow Systems Energy Balance5-4 Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices 1 Nozzles and Diffusers 2 Turbines and Compressors 3 Throttling Valves 4a Mixing Chambers 4b Heat Exchangers 5 Pipe and Duct Flow5-5 Energy Analysis of Unsteady-Flow Processes

Mass Balance Energy BalanceTopic of Special Interest: General Energy EquationSummaryReferences and Suggested ReadingProblems

Chapter 6The Second Law of Thermodynamics

6-1 Introduction to the Second Law6-2 Thermal Energy Reservoirs6-3 Heat Engines Thermal Efficiency Can We Save ? The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Kelvin�Planck Statement6-5 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps Coefficient of Performance Heat Pumps The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Clausius Statement Equivalence of the Two Statements6-6 Perpetual-Motion Machines6-7 Reversible and Irreversible Processes Irreversibilities Internally and Externally Reversible Processes6-8 The Carnot Cycle The Reversed Carnot Cycle6-9 The Carnot Principles6-10 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale6-11 The Carnot Heat Engine The Quality of Energy Quantity versus Quality in Daily Life6-12 The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat PumpTopics of Special Interest: Household RefrigeratorsSummaryReferences and Suggested ReadingProblems

Chapter 7Entropy

7-1 Entropy A Special Case: Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes

7-2 The Increase of Entropy Principle Some Remarks about Entropy7-3 Entropy Change of Pure Substances7-4 Isentropic Processes7-5 Property Diagrams Involving Entropy7-6 What Is Entropy? Entropy and Entropy Generation in Daily Life7-7 The Relations7-8 Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids7-9 The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis) Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis) Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis) Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis) Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume7-10 Reversible Steady-Flow Work Proof that Steady-Flow Devices Deliver the Most and Consume the Least Work when the Process Is Reversible7-11 Minimizing the Compressor Work Multistage Compression with Intercooling7-12 Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-Flow Devices Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles7-13 Entropy Balance Entropy Change of a System, system

Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, in and out

1 Heat Transfer 2 Mass Flow Entropy Generation, gen

Closed Systems Control Volumes Entropy Generation Associated with a Heat Transfer ProcessTopics of Special Interest: Reducing the Cost of Compressed AirSummaryReferences and Suggested ReadingProblems

Chapter 8Exergy: A Measure of Work Potential

8-1 Exergy: Work Potential of Energy Exergy (Work Potential) Associated with Kinetic and Potential Energy8-2 Reversible Work and Irreversibility8-3 Second-Law Efficiency, II

8-4 Exergy Change of a System Exergy of a Fixed Mass: Nonflow (or Closed System) Exergy Exergy of a Flow Stream: Flow (or Stream) Exergy8-5 Exergy Transfer by Heat, Work, and Mass Exergy Transfer by Heat Transfer, Exergy Transfer by Work, Exergy Transfer by Mass,8-6 The Decrease of Exergy Principle and Exergy Destruction Exergy Destruction8-7 Exergy Balance: Closed Systems8-8 Exergy Balance: Control Volumes Exergy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems Reversible Work, rev

Second-Law Efficiency of Steady-Flow Devices, II

Topics of Special Interest: Second-Law Aspects of Daily LifeSummaryReferences and Suggested ReadingProblems

Chapter 9Gas Power Cycles

9-1 Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles9-2 The Carnot Cycle and Its Value in Engineering9-3 Air-Standard Assumptions9-4 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines9-5 Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines9-6 Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines9-7 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles9-8 Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines

Development of Gas Turbines Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones9-9 The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration9-10 The Brayton Cycle with Intercooling, Reheating, and Regeneration9-11 Ideal Jet-Propulsion Cycles Modifications to Turbojet Engines9-12 Second-Law Analysis of Gas Power CyclesTopics of Special Interest: Saving Fuel and Money by Driving SensiblySummaryReferences and Suggested ReadingProblems

Chapter 10Vapor and Combined Power Cycles10-1 The Carnot Vapor Cycle10-2 Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycles Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle10-3 Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from Idealized Ones10-4 How Can We Increase the Efficiency of the Rankine Cycle? Lowering the Condenser Pressure ( low,av) Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures ( high,av) Increasing the Boiler Pressure ( high,av)10-5 The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle10-6 The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle Open Feedwater Heaters Closed Feedwater Heaters10-7 Second-Law Analysis of Vapor Power Cycles10-8 Cogeneration10-9 Combined Gas�Vapor Power CyclesTopics of Special Interest: Binary Vapor CyclesSummaryReferences and Suggested ReadingProblems

Chapter 11Refrigeration Cycles

11-1 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

11-2 The Reversed Carnot Cycle11-3 The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle11-4 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle11-5 Selecting the Right Refrigerant11-6 Heat Pump Systems11-7 Innovative Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems Cascade Refrigeration Systems Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems Multipurpose Refrigeration Systems with a Single Compressor Liquefaction of Gases11-8 Gas Refrigeration Cycles11-9 Absorption Refrigeration SystemsTopics of Special Interest: Thermoelectric Power Generation and RefrigerationSystemsSummaryReferences and Suggested ReadingProblems

Chapter 12Thermodynamic Property Relations

12-1 A Little Math�Partial Derivatives and Associated Relations Partial Differentials Partial Differential Relations12-2 The Maxwell Relations12-3 The Clapeyron Equation12-4 General Relations for , , , , and Internal Energy Changes Enthalpy Changes Entropy Changes Specific Heats and12-5 The Joule-Thomson Coefficient12-6 The , , and of Real Gases Enthalpy Changes of Real Gases Internal Energy Changes of Real Gases Entropy Changes of Real GasesSummaryReferences and Suggested Reading

Problems

Chapter 13Gas Mixtures

13-1 Composition of a Gas Mixture: Mass and Mole Fractions13-2 Behavior of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real Gases Ideal-Gas Mixtures Real-Gas Mixtures13-3 Properties of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real Gases Ideal-Gas Mixtures Real-Gas MixturesTopics of Special Interest: Chemical Potential and the Separation Work ofMixtures Ideal Gas Mixtures and Ideal Solutions Minimum Work of Separation of Mixtures Reversible Mixing Processes Second-Law Efficiency Special-Case: Separation of a Two-Component Mixture An Application: Desalination Processes

Chapter 14Gas�Vapor Mixtures and Air-Conditioning

14-1 Dry and Atmospheric Air14-2 Specific and Relative Humidity of Air14-3 Dew-Point Temperature14-4 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures14-5 The Psychrometric Chart14-6 Human Comfort and Air-Conditioning14-7 Air-Conditioning Processes Simple Heating and Cooling ( = constant) Heating with Humidification Cooling with Dehumidification Evaporative Cooling Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams Wet Cooling TowersSummary

References and Suggested ReadingProblems

Chapter 15Chemical Reactions

15-1 Fuels and Combustion15-2 Theoretical and Actual Combustion Processes15-3 Enthalpy of Formation and Enthalpy of Combustion15-4 First-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems Steady-Flow Systems Closed Systems15-5 Adiabatic Flame Temperature15-6 Entropy Change of Reacting Systems15-7 Second-Law Analysis of Reacting systemsTopics of Special Interest: Fuel CellsSummaryReferences and Suggested ReadingProblems

Chapter 16Chemical and Phase Equilibrium

16-1 Criterion for Chemical Equilibrium16-2 The Equilibrium Constant for Ideal-Gas Mixtures16-3 Some Remarks about the of Ideal-Gas Mixtures16-4 Chemical Equilibrium for Simultaneous Reactions16-5 Variation of with Temperature16-6 Phase Equilibrium Phase Equilibrium for a Single-Component System The Phase Rule Phase Equilibrium for a Multicomponent SystemSummaryReferences and Suggested ReadingProblems

Chapter 17Compressible Flow

17-1 Stagnation Properties17-2 Speed of Sound and Mach Number17-3 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases17-4 Isentropic Flow through Nozzles Converging Nozzles Converging�Diverging Nozzles17-5 Shock Waves and Expansion Normal Shocks Oblique Shocks Prandtl�Meyer Expansion Waves17-6 Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction (Rayleigh Flow) Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow Choked Rayleigh Flow17-7 Steam NozzlesSummaryReferences and Suggested ReadingProblems

Appendix 1Property Tables and Charts (SI Units)

Table A-1 Molar mass, gas constant, and critical-point properties

Table A-2 Ideal-gas specific heats of various common gases

Table A-3 Properties of common liquids, solids, and foods

Table A-4 Saturated water�Temperature table

Table A-5 Saturated water�Pressure table

Table A-6 Superheated water

Table A-7 Compressed liquid water

Table A-8 Saturated ice�water vapor

Figure A-9 diagram for water

Figure A-10 Mollier diagram for water

Table A-11 Saturated refrigerant-134a�Temperature table

Table A-12 Saturated refrigerant-134a�Pressure table

Table A-13 Superheated refrigerant-134a

Figure A-14 diagram for refrigerant-134a

Figure A-15 Nelson�Obert generalized compressibility chart

Table A-16 Properties of the atmosphere at high altitude

Table A-17 Ideal-gas properties of air

Table A-18 Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen, N2

Table A-19 Ideal-gas properties of oxygen, O2

Table A-20 Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide, CO2

Table A-21 Ideal-gas properties of carbon monoxide, CO

Table A-22 Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen, H2

Table A-23 Ideal-gas properties of water vapor, H2O

Table A-24 Ideal-gas properties of monatomic oxygen, O

Table A-25 Ideal-gas properties of hydroxyl, OH

Table A-26 Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs function of formation, andabsolute entropy at 25 C, 1 atm

Table A-27 Properties of some common fuels and hydrocarbons

Table A-28 Natural Logarithms of the equilibrium constant

Figure A-29 Generalized enthalpy departure chart

Figure A-30 Generalized entropy departure chart

Figure A-31 Psychrometric chart at 1 atm total pressure

Table A-32 One-dimensional isentropic compressible-flow functions for anideal gas with = 1.4

Table A-33 One-dimensional normal-shock functions for an ideal gas with=1.4

Table A-34 Rayleigh flow functions for an ideal gas with = 1.4

Appendix 2Property Tables and Charts (English Units)

Table A-1E Molar mass, gas constant, and critical-point properties

Table A-2E Ideal-gas specific heats of various common gases

Table A-3E Properties of common liquids, solids, and foods

Table A-4E Saturated water�Temperature table

Table A-5E Saturated water�Pressure table

Table A-6E Superheated water

Table A-7E Compressed liquid water

Table A-8E Saturated ice�water vapor

Figure A-9E diagram for water

Figure A-10E Mollier diagram for water

Table A-11E Saturated refrigerant-134a�Temperature table

Table A-12E Saturated refrigerant-134a�Pressure table

Table A-13E Superheated refrigerant-134a

Figure A-14E diagram for refrigerant-134a

Table A-15E

Table A-16E Properties of the atomosphere at high altitude

Table A-17E Ideal-gas properties of air

Table A-18E Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen, N2

Table A-19E Ideal-gas properties of oxygen, O2

Table A-20E Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide, CO2

Table A-21E Ideal-gas properties of carbon monoxide, CO

Table A-22E Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen, H2

Table A-23E Ideal-gas properties of water vapor, H2O

Table A-24E

Table A-25E

Table A-26E Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs function of formation, andabsolute entropy at 77 C, 1 atm

Table A-27E Properties of some common fuels and hydrocarbons

Figure A-31E Psycrometric chart at 1 atm total pressure