chapter 01 lecture notes

9/21/2011

1

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations prepared by

Jason LaPres

Lone Star College—North Harris

1An Introduction to

Anatomy and

Physiology


An Introduction to Studying the Human Body

• Learning Outcomes

• 1-1 Explain the importance of studying anatomy and

physiology.

• 1-2 Identify basic study skill strategies to use in this

course.

• 1-3 Define anatomy and physiology, describe the

origins of anatomical and physiological terms,

and explain the significance of Terminologia

Anatomica (International Anatomical

Terminology).




• 1-4 Explain the relationship between anatomy and

physiology, and describe various specialties of

each discipline.

• 1-5 Identify the major levels of organization in

organisms, from the simplest to the most

complex, and identify major components of each

organ system.

• 1-6 Explain the concept of homeostasis.




• 1-7 Describe how negative feedback and positive

feedback are involved in homeostatic regulation,

and explain the significance of homeostasis.

• 1-8 Use anatomical terms to describe body

sections, body regions, and relative positions.

• 1-9 Identify the major body cavities and their

subdivisions, and describe the functions of each.



• Classification of Living Things

• Humans and many other animals are vertebrates

• Characterized by a segmented vertebral column

• Common characteristics suggest the same path in

evolution

• Homeostasis

• The goal of physiological regulation and the key to

survival in a changing environment


1-1 Anatomy and Physiology Directly Affect

Your Life

• Anatomy

• Is the oldest medical science

• 1600 B.C.

• Physiology

• Is the study of function

• Biochemistry

• Biology

• Chemistry

• Genetics

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1-2 Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success

• Study Strategies

• Attend all lectures, labs, and study sessions

• Read your lecture and laboratory assignments before going to class or lab

• Devote a block of time each day to your A&P course

• Set up a study schedule and stick to it

• Do not procrastinate

• Approach the information in different ways

• Develop the skill of memorization, and practice it regularly

• As soon as you experience difficulty with the course, seek assistance




• Illustrations, Tables,

and Photos

• Pronunciation Guides

• Checkpoint Questions

• Tips & Tricks

• Clinical Notes

• Arrow Icons

• End-of-Chapter Study

and Review Materials

• Systems Integrators

• Colored Tabs

• End-of-Book

Reference Sections

• Important Features of the Textbook



• Supplements

• Practice Anatomy Lab™ (PAL™) 3.0 DVD

• MasteringA&P™ Study Area

• Interactive Physiology® 10-System Suite (IP-10) CD-ROM

• Martini’s Atlas of the Human Body

• Get Ready for A&P!

• A&P Applications Manual

• Study Guide

• Full descriptions in preface of textbook


1-3 Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy

• Describes the structures of the body

• What they are made of

• Where they are located

• Associated structures

• Physiology

• Is the study of:

• Functions of anatomical structures

• Individual and cooperative functions


1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and

Physiology

• Anatomy

• Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines

large, visible structures

• Surface anatomy: exterior features

• Regional anatomy: body areas

• Systemic anatomy: organ systems

• Developmental anatomy: from conception to death

• Clinical anatomy: medical specialties



Physiology

• Anatomy

• Microscopic anatomy examines cells and molecules

• Cytology: study of cells and their structures

• cyt- = cell

• Histology: study of tissues and their structures

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Physiology

• Physiology

• Cell physiology: processes within and between cells

• Organ physiology: functions of specific organs

• Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system

• Pathological physiology: effects of diseases


1-5 Levels of Organization

• The Chemical (or Molecular) Level

• Atoms are the smallest chemical units

• Molecules are a group of atoms working together

• The Cellular Level

• Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles working

together

• The Tissue Level

• A tissue is a group of similar cells working together

• The Organ Level

• An organ is a group of different tissues working together



• The Organ System Level

• An organ system is a group of organs working together

• Humans have 11 organ systems

• The Organism Level

• A human is an organism


Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization

Chemical and Molecular Levels

Cellular Level

Atoms in combination

Complex protein moleculeProtein filaments

Heart musclecell


Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization

Tissue LevelOrgan Level

Cardiac muscletissue

The heart

Thecardiovascular

system

Organ system

level

Organism

level



• The Organ Systems

• Integumentary

• Major Organs

• Skin

• Hair

• Sweat glands

• Nails

• Functions

• Protects against environmental hazards

• Helps regulate body temperature

• Provides sensory information

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• Skeletal

• Major Organs

• Bones

• Cartilages

• Associated ligaments

• Bone marrow

• Functions

• Provides support and protection for other tissues

• Stores calcium and other minerals

• Forms blood cells




• Muscular

• Major Organs

• Skeletal muscles and associated tendons

• Functions

• Provides movement

• Provides protection and support for other

tissues

• Generates heat that maintains body

temperature




• Nervous

• Major Organs

• Brain

• Spinal cord

• Peripheral nerves

• Sense organs

• Functions

• Directs immediate responses to stimuli

• Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems

• Provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions



• Endocrine

• Major Organs

• Pituitary gland

• Pancreas

• Gonads

• Endocrine tissues in other systems

• Functions

• Directs long-term changes in the activities of

other organ systems

• Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body

• Controls many structural and functional changes during

development

• Thyroid gland

• Adrenal glands





• Cardiovascular

• Major Organs

• Heart

• Blood

• Blood vessels

• Functions

• Distributes blood cells, water and dissolved

materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide

• Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature




• Lymphatic

• Major Organs

• Spleen

• Thymus

• Lymphatic vessels

• Lymph nodes

• Tonsils

• Functions

• Defends against infection and disease

• Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream

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• Respiratory

• Major Organs

• Nasal cavities

• Sinuses

• Larynx

• Trachea

• Bronchi

• Lungs

• Alveoli




• Respiratory

• Functions

• Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where

gas exchange occurs)

• Provides oxygen to bloodstream

• Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream

• Produces sounds for communication




• Digestive

• Major Organs

• Teeth

• Tongue

• Pharynx

• Esophagus

• Stomach

• Small intestine

• Large intestine

• Liver

• Gallbladder

• Pancreas




• Digestive

• Functions

• Processes and digests food

• Absorbs and conserves water

• Absorbs nutrients

• Stores energy reserves




• Urinary

• Major Organs

• Kidneys

• Ureters

• Urinary bladder

• Urethra

• Functions

• Excretes waste products from the blood

• Controls water balance by regulating volume of

urine produced

• Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination

• Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH




• Male Reproductive

• Major Organs

• Testes

• Epididymides

• Ductus deferentia

• Seminal vesicles

• Prostate gland

• Penis

• Scrotum

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• Male Reproductive

• Functions

• Produces male sex cells (sperm),

suspending fluids, and hormones

• Sexual intercourse




• Female Reproductive

• Major Organs

• Ovaries

• Uterine tubes

• Uterus

• Vagina

• Labia

• Clitoris

• Mammary glands




• Female Reproductive

• Functions

• Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and

hormones

• Supports developing embryo from

conception to delivery

• Provides milk to nourish newborn infant

• Sexual intercourse


1-6 Homeostasis

• Homeostasis

• All body systems working together to maintain a

stable internal environment

• Systems respond to external and internal changes

to function within a normal range (body

temperature, fluid balance)


1-6 Homeostasis

• Mechanisms of Regulation

• Autoregulation (intrinsic)

• Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some

environmental change

• Extrinsic regulation

• Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine

systems


1-6 Homeostasis

• Receptor

• Receives the stimulus

• Control center

• Processes the signal and sends instructions

• Effector

• Carries out instructions

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Figure 1-2 The Control of Room Temperature

Normal

condition

disturbed

Information

affects

RECEPTOR

Thermometer

HOMEOSTASIS

STIMULUS:

Room temperature

rises

Normal room

temperature

RESPONSE:

Room temperature

drops

CONTROL CENTER

(Thermostat)

Normal

condition

restored

EFFECTOR

Air conditioner

turns on

Sends

commands

to

20°°°° 30°°°° 40°°°°In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a thermostat(the control center) triggers an effector response (either an air condi-tioner or a heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case,when room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostatturns on the air conditioner, and the temperature returns to normal.

With this regulatory system, roomtemperature fluctuates around theset point.

Airconditioner

turns on

Airconditioner

turns off

TimeR

oo

m t

em

pera

ture

(

°°°°C)22

Normalrange


1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback

• The Role of Negative Feedback

• The response of the effector negates the stimulus

• Body is brought back into homeostasis

• Normal range is achieved


Figure 1-3 Negative Feedback in the Control of Body Temperature

Normal

temperature

disturbed

Information

affects

RECEPTORS

Temperaturesensors in skin

andhypothalamus

HOMEOSTASIS

STIMULUS:

Body temperature

rises

Normal body

temperatureRESPONSE:

Increased heat loss,

body temperature

drops

CONTROL

CENTER

Normal

temperature

restored

EFFECTORS

• Sweat glandsin skin increasesecretion

• Blood vesselsin skin dilate

Sends

commands

to

Events in the regulation of body temperature, which arecomparable to those shown in Figure 1−−−−2. A control centerin the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostatwith a set point of 37°°°°C. If body temperature exceeds37.2°°°°C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flowto the skin and increased sweating.

The thermoregulatory center keepsbody temperature fluctuatingwithin an acceptable range, usuallybetween 36.7 and 37.2°°°°C.

Vessels

dilate,

sweating

increases

Vessels

constrict,

sweating

decreases

TimeBo

dy

te

mp

era

ture

(

°°°°C)

37.2Normalrange37

36.7

Thermoregulatory

center in brain



• The Role of Positive Feedback

• The response of the effector increases change of the

stimulus

• Body is moved away from homeostasis

• Normal range is lost

• Used to speed up processes


Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting

Clottingaccelerates

Positivefeedback

loop

Blood clotChemicals

This escalating process

is a positive feedback

loop that ends with the

formation of a blood clot,

which patches the vessel

wall and stops the bleeding.

As clotting continues,

each step releases

chemicals that further

accelerate the process.

The chemicals start chain

reactions in which cells,

cell fragments, and

soluble proteins in the

blood begin to form a clot.

Damage to cells in the

blood vessel wall releases

chemicals that begin the

process of blood clotting.

Chemicals



• Systems Integration

• Systems work together to maintain homeostasis

• Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium

• Opposing forces are in balance

• Dynamic equilibrium — continual adaptation

• Physiological systems work to restore balance

• Failure results in disease or death

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Table 1-1 The Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation


1-8 Anatomical Terminology

• Superficial Anatomy

• Locating structures on or near the body surface

• Anatomical Landmarks

• Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward

• Supine: lying down, face up

• Prone: lying down, face down



• Superficial Anatomy

• Anatomical Landmarks

• References to palpable structures

• Anatomical Regions

• Body regions

• Abdominopelvic quadrants

• Abdominopelvic regions

• Anatomical Directions

• Reference terms based on subject


Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks

Cephalic or head

Frontal or

forehead

Cranialor skull

Facialor face

Oral or mouth

Mental or chin

Axillary or armpit

Brachialor arm

Antecubitalor front of

elbow

Umbilicalor navel

TrunkAbdominal(abdomen)

Mammaryor breast

Thoracic orthorax, chest

Cervical or neck

Buccal or cheek

Otic or ear

Nasal or nose

Ocular, orbitalor eye

Anterior view


Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks

Antebrachialor forearm

Carpal or wrist

Palmar or palm

Pollexor thumb

Digits(phalanges)

or fingers (digitalor phalangeal)Patellar

or kneecap

Cruralor leg

Digits (phalanges)or toes (digital or

phalangeal)

Tarsal orankle

Anterior view

Hallux orgreat toe

Pedalor foot

Femoralor thigh

Pubic(pubis)

Inguinalor groin

Manualor hand

Pelvic(pelvis)

Trunk


Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks

Acromial orshoulder

Olecranalor back

of elbow

Dorsal orback

Upperlimb

Cervicalor neck

Cephalicor head

Posterior view

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Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks

Posterior view

Lumbaror loin

Glutealor buttock

Popliteal orback of knee

Suralor calf

Calcaneal orheel of foot

Plantar orsole of foot

Lower limb

Upperlimb


Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four

abdominopelvic quadrants are formed by twoperpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. The

terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations,

are most often used in clinical discussions.

Right UpperQuadrant

(RUQ)

Right LowerQuadrant

(RLQ)

Left UpperQuadrant(LUQ)

Left LowerQuadrant(LLQ)


Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

Righthypochondriac

region

Right lumbarregion

Rightinguinal

region

Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic

regions provide more precise regional descriptions.

Left hypochondriacregion

Left lumbarregion

Left inguinalregion

Epigastricregion

Umbilicalregion

Hypogastric(pubic)region


Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

Stomach

Spleen

Urinarybladder

Liver

Gallbladder

Large intestine

Small intestine

Appendix

Anatomical relationships. The relationship between

the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and thelocations of the internal organs are shown here.


Figure 1-7 Directional References

Cranial

Posterioror dorsal

Anterioror ventral

Caudal

A lateral view.

Superior Right Left

Lateral

Proximal

Medial

Proximal

Distal

DistalInferior

An anterior view. Arrowsindicate important directionalterms used in this text;definitions and descriptions

are given in Table 1−−−−2.© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 1-2 Directional Terms

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• Sectional Anatomy

• Planes and sections

• Plane: a three-dimensional axis

• Section: a slice parallel to a plane

• Used to visualize internal organization and structure

• Important in radiological techniques

• MRI

• PET

• CT


Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes

Frontal plane

Transverse plane

Sagittal plane


Table 1-3 Terms That Indicate Sectional Planes


1-9 Body Cavities

• Essential Functions of Body Cavities

1. Protect organs from accidental shocks

2. Permit changes in size and shape of internal organs

• Ventral body cavity (coelom)

• Divided by the diaphragm

• Thoracic cavity

• Abdominopelvic cavity


Figure 1-9 Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Ventral Body Cavity

• Provides protection• Allows organ movement• Linings prevent friction

Ventral Body Cavity

Thoracic Cavity

Surrounded by chest wall anddiaphragm

Surrounds right lung Contains thetrachea, esophagus,and major vessels

MediastinumRight Pleural Cavity

Peritoneal Cavity

Surrounds left lung

Subdivides during development into

Surrounds heart

Pericardial Cavity

Contains many digestive glandsand organs

Abdominal Cavity

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Extendsthroughoutabdominal cavityand into superiorportion of pelviccavity

Pelvic Cavity

Contains urinarybladder,reproductiveorgans, lastportion ofdigestive tract

Left Pleural Cavity


1-9 Body Cavities

• Serous Membranes

• Line body cavities and cover organs

• Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer

• Parietal layer — lines cavity

• Visceral layer — covers organ

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1-9 Body Cavities

• The Thoracic Cavity

• Right and left pleural cavities

• Contain right and left lungs

• Mediastinum

• Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea,

esophagus, and thymus

• Lower portion contains pericardial cavity

• The heart is located within the pericardial cavity


Figure 1-10a The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions

POSTERIOR ANTERIOR

Pleural

cavity

Pericardial

cavity

Thoracic

cavity

Peritoneal

cavity

Abdominal

cavity

Pelvic

cavity

Diaphragm

Abdominopelvic

cavity


Figure 1-10b The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions

Visceralpericardium

Pericardialcavity

Parietalpericardium

Heart Air space

Balloon


Figure 1-10c The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions

Spinal cord

Mediastinum

Parietalpleura

Pleural cavity

Pericardialcavity

Right lung

POSTERIOR

Left lung

ANTERIOR


1-9 Body Cavities

• The Abdominopelvic Cavity

• Peritoneal cavity: chamber within abdominopelvic

cavity

• Parietal peritoneum: lines the internal body wall

• Visceral peritoneum: covers the organs


1-9 Body Cavities


• Abdominal cavity — superior portion

• Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones

• Contains digestive organs

• Retroperitoneal space

• Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular

body wall

• Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the

digestive tract

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1-9 Body Cavities


• Pelvic cavity — inferior portion

• Within pelvic bones

• Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder

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