chap11-20-170-191

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Introduction 11.1

Principles of distance relays 11.2

Relay performance 11.3

Relationship between relay voltageand Z

S/Z

Lratio 11.4

Voltage limit for accuratereach point measurement 11.5

Zones of protection 11.6

Distance relay characteristics 11.7

Distance relay implementation 11.8

Effect of source impedanceand earthing methods 11.9

Distance relay application problems 11.10

Other distance relay features 11.11

Distance relay application example 11.12

References 11.13

1 1 D i s t a n c e P r o t e c t i o n

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11.1 INTRODUCTION

The problem of combining fast fault clearance withselective tripping of plant is a key aim for the protectionof power systems. To meet these requirements, high-

speed protection systems for transmission and primarydistribution circuits that are suitable for use with theautomatic reclosure of circuit breakers are undercontinuous development and are very widely applied.

Distance protection, in its basic form, is a non-unitsystem of protection offering considerable economic andtechnical advantages. Unlike phase and neutralovercurrent protection, the key advantage of distanceprotection is that its fault coverage of the protectedcircuit is virtually independent of source impedancevariations.

This is illustrated in Figure 11.1, where it can be seen thatovercurrent protection cannot be applied satisfactorily.

1 1 Distanc e P ro tec t ion

N e t w o r k P r o t e c t i o n & A u t o m a t i o n G u i d e 1 7 1

=1

=10

Z =4

Z =4

1

R1

=10

115k

Relay 1(a

115kV

>

>>

F1 7380x

3 +

F2 664011 1

3x10

Therefore, for relay operation for line faults,Relay current setting 7380This is impractical, overcurrent relay not suitableMust use Distance or nit Protection

(b

Figure 11.1: Advantages of distanceover overcurrent protection

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Distance protection is comparatively simple to apply andit can be fast in operation for faults located along mostof a protected circuit. It can also provide both primaryand remote back-up functions in a single scheme. It caneasily be adapted to create a unit protection schemewhen applied with a signalling channel. In this form it iseminently suitable for application with high-speed auto-reclosing, for the protection of critical transmission lines.

11.2 PRINCIPLES OF DISTANCE RELAYS

Since the impedance of a transmission line isproportional to its length, for distance measurement it isappropriate to use a relay capable of measuring theimpedance of a line up to a predetermined point (thereach point). Such a relay is described as a distance relayand is designed to operate only for faults occurringbetween the relay location and the selected reach point,thus giving discrimination for faults that may occur indifferent line sections.

The basic principle of distance protection involves thedivision of the voltage at the relaying point by themeasured current. The apparent impedance socalculated is compared with the reach point impedance.If the measured impedance is less than the reach pointimpedance, it is assumed that a fault exists on the linebetween the relay and the reach point.

The reach point of a relay is the point along the lineimpedance locus that is intersected by the boundary

characteristic of the relay. Since this is dependent on theratio of voltage and current and the phase anglebetween them, it may be plotted on an R/Xdiagram. Theloci of power system impedances as seen by the relayduring faults, power swings and load variations may beplotted on the same diagram and in this manner theperformance of the relay in the presence of system faultsand disturbances may be studied.

11.3 RELAY PERFORMANCE

Distance relay performance is defined in terms of reachaccuracy and operating time. Reach accuracy is acomparison of the actual ohmic reach of the relay underpractical conditions with the relay setting value in ohms.Reach accuracy particularly depends on the level ofvoltage presented to the relay under fault conditions.The impedance measuring techniques employed inparticular relay designs also have an impact.

Operating times can vary with fault current, with faultposition relative to the relay setting, and with the pointon the voltage wave at which the fault occurs.Depending on the measuring techniques employed in aparticular relay design, measuring signal transient errors,such as those produced by Capacitor Voltage

Transformers or saturating CTs, can also adversely delayrelay operation for faults close to the reach point. It isusual for electromechanical and static distance relays toclaim both maximum and minimum operating times.However, for modern digital or numerical distance relays,the variation between these is small over a wide range ofsystem operating conditions and fault positions.

11.3.1 Electromechanical/Static Distance Relays

With electromechanical and earlier static relay designs,the magnitude of input quantities particularly influencedboth reach accuracy and operating time. It wascustomary to present information on relay performanceby voltage/reach curves, as shown in Figure 11.2, andoperating time/fault position curves for various values ofsystem impedance ratios (S.I.R.s) as shown in Figure 11.3,where:

and

ZS= system source impedance behind the relay

location

ZL = line impedance equivalent to relay reach setting

S I R ZZ

S

L. . .=

11

DistanceProtection


105

100

9520 40 60 80 100

100

4020 60

105

10080

105

5

100

2010 30 40 50 60 650

0

mpedancereach

(%Z

one1setting)

% relay rated voltage

(a Phase-earth faults


(b) Phase-phase faults


(c) Three-phase and three-phase-earth faults

mpedancereach

(%

Zone1setting)

mpedancereach

(%Z

one1setting)

Figure 11.2: Typical impedance reachaccuracy characteristics for Zone 1

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Alternatively, the above information was combined in afamily of contour curves, where the fault positionexpressed as a percentage of the relay setting is plottedagainst the source to line impedance ratio, as illustratedin Figure 11.4.

11.3.2 Digital/Numerical Distance Relays

Digital/Numerical distance relays tend to have more

consistent operating times. They are usually slightly

slower than some of the older relay designs when

operating under the best conditions, but their maximum

operating times are also less under adverse waveform

conditions or for boundary fault conditions.

11.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELAY VOLTAGE

AND ZS/ZL RATIO

A single, generic, equivalent circuit, as shown in Figure

11.5(a), may represent any fault condition in a three-

phase power system. The voltage V applied to the

impedance loop is the open circuit voltage of the power

system. Point R represents the relay location; IR and VRare the current and voltage measured by the relay,

respectively.The impedances ZSand ZL are described as source and

line impedances because of their position with respect to

the relay location. Source impedance ZSis a measure of

the fault level at the relaying point. For faults involving

earth it is dependent on the method of system earthing

behind the relaying point. Line impedance ZL is a

measure of the impedance of the protected section. The

voltage VR applied to the relay is, therefore, IRZL. For a

fault at the reach point, this may be alternatively

expressed in terms of source to line impedance ratio

ZS/ZL by means of the following expressions:

VR=IRZLwhere:

Therefore :

or

...Equation 11.1

The above generic relationship between VR and ZS/ZL,

illustrated in Figure 11.5(b), is valid for all types of short

circuits provided a few simple rules are observed. These

are:

i. for phase faults, V is the phase-phase source

voltage and ZS/ZL is the positive sequence source

to line impedance ratio. VR is the phase-phase

relay voltage and IR is the phase-phase relay

current, for the faulted phases

VZ Z

VRS L

=( )+

1

1

VZ

Z ZVR

L

S L

=+

IV

Z ZR

S L

=+

11

DistanceProtection


Operationtime(ms)

10

(b) With system impedance ratio of 30/1

n

Max

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 1000

2

30

40

50

Fault position (% relay setting)

(a) With system impedance ratio of 1/1

20

Operationtime(ms)

20

Min

0

10

10 4030 50 60

50

40

Fault position (% relay setting

08070 100

Max

Figure 11.3: Typical operation timecharacteristics for Zone 1 phase-phase faults

0.1

.1

0.20.3.

0.50.60.70.80.91.0

0.01 10 100 1000

SZL

SZL

(b) Zone 1 phase-phase fault: maximum operation t imes

Faultposition(p.u.relaysettingZL

.1

0.01

.3

.2

.4

.1

.8

.7

.6

.

1.0.9

101 100 1000

Faultposition(p.u.relaysettingZL

Boundary

1 ms

9ms

13ms

Boundary

Figure 11.4: Typical operation-time contours

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Equation 11.2

ii. for earth faults, V is the phase-neutral sourcevoltage and ZS/ZL is a composite ratio involvingthe positive and zero sequence impedances. VR isthe phase-neutral relay voltage and IR is the relaycurrent for the faulted phase

...Equation 11.3

whereZS= 2ZS1 + ZS0 = ZS1(2+p)

ZL = 2ZL1 + ZL0 = ZL1(2+q)

and

p

Z

Z

qZ

Z

S

S

L

L

=

=

0

1

0

1

V

Z Zp

q

VR

S L

l n=

( ) +

+

+

1

2

21

VZ Z

VRS L

p p=( )+

1

1

11.5 VOLTAGE LIMIT FOR ACCURATE

REACH POINT MEASUREMENT

The ability of a distance relay to measure accurately for

a reach point fault depends on the minimum voltage at

the relay location under this condition being above a

declared value. This voltage, which depends on the relay

design, can also be quoted in terms of an equivalent

maximum ZS/ZL or S.I.R.

Distance relays are designed so that, provided the reachpoint voltage criterion is met, any increased measuring

errors for faults closer to the relay will not prevent relay

operation. Most modern relays are provided with healthy

phase voltage polarisation and/or memory voltage

polarisation. The prime purpose of the relay polarising

voltage is to ensure correct relay directional response for

close-up faults, in the forward or reverse direction,where the fault-loop voltage measured by the relay may

be very small.

11.6 ZONES OF PROTECTION

Careful selection of the reach settings and tripping times

for the various zones of measurement enables correct co-

ordination between distance relays on a power system.Basic distance protection will comprise instantaneous

directional Zone 1 protection and one or more time-

delayed zones. Typical reach and time settings for a 3-

zone distance protection are shown in Figure 11.6. Digital

and numerical distance relays may have up to five zones,some set to measure in the reverse direction. Typical

settings for three forward-looking zones of basic distanceprotection are given in the following sub-sections. To

determine the settings for a particular relay design or for

a particular distance teleprotection scheme, involving

end-to-end signalling, the relay manufacturers

instructions should be referred to.

11.6.1 Zone 1 Setting

Electromechanical/static relays usually have a reachsetting of up to 80% of the protected line impedance for

instantaneous Zone 1 protection. For digital/numerical

distance relays, settings of up to 85% may be safe. The

resulting 15-20% safety margin ensures that there is no

risk of the Zone 1 protection over-reaching the protected

line due to errors in the current and voltagetransformers, inaccuracies in line impedance data

provided for setting purposes and errors of relay setting

and measurement. Otherwise, there would be a loss of

discrimination with fast operating protection on the

following line section. Zone 2 of the distance protectionmust cover the remaining 15-20% of the line.

11

DistanceProtection


0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 10

10

0

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

System impedance ratio

(b) Variation of relay voltage with system source to line impedance ratio

2.5

5.0

10

7.5

010 20 30 4050

VR(%)

VR (%)

Source LineR

VS VL=VR

VR

IR

ZS ZL

ZL

ZS

ZL

ZS

V

(a) Power system configuration

(%

ratedvoltage)

VoltageVR

Figure 11.5: Relationship between sourceto line ratio and relay voltage

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To ensure full cover of the line with allowance for thesources of error already listed in the previous section, thereach setting of the Zone 2 protection should be at least120% of the protected line impedance. In manyapplications it is common practice to set the Zone 2reach to be equal to the protected line section +50% of

the shortest adjacent line. Where possible, this ensuresthat the resulting maximum effective Zone 2 reach does

not extend beyond the minimum effective Zone 1 reachof the adjacent line protection. This avoids the need tograde the Zone 2 time settings between upstream anddownstream relays. In electromechanical and staticrelays, Zone 2 protection is provided either by separateelements or by extending the reach of the Zone 1elements after a time delay that is initiated by a faultdetector. In most digital and numerical relays, the Zone

2 elements are implemented in software.

Zone 2 tripping must be time-delayed to ensure gradingwith the primary relaying applied to adjacent circuits thatfall within the Zone 2 reach. Thus complete coverage ofa line section is obtained, with fast clearance of faults inthe first 80-85% of the line and somewhat slowerclearance of faults in the remaining section of the line.


Remote back-up protection for all faults on adjacentlines can be provided by a third zone of protection that

is time delayed to discriminate with Zone 2 protectionplus circuit breaker trip time for the adjacent line. Zone3 reach should be set to at least 1.2 times the impedancepresented to the relay for a fault at the remote end ofthe second line section.

On interconnected power systems, the effect of faultcurrent infeed at the remote busbars will cause theimpedance presented to the relay to be much greater

than the actual impedance to the fault and this needs to

be taken into account when setting Zone 3. In somesystems, variations in the remote busbar infeed canprevent the application of remote back-up Zone 3protection but on radial distribution systems with singleend infeed, no difficulties should arise.

11.6.4 Settings for Reverse Reach and Other Zones

Modern digital or numerical relays may have additionalimpedance zones that can be utilised to provideadditional protection functions. For example, where thefirst three zones are set as above, Zone 4 might be usedto provide back-up protection for the local busbar, byapplying a reverse reach setting of the order of 25% ofthe Zone 1 reach. Alternatively, one of the forward-looking zones (typically Zone 3) could be set with a smallreverse offset reach from the origin of the R/X diagram,in addition to its forward reach setting. An offset

impedance measurement characteristic is non-directional. One advantage of a non-directional zone ofimpedance measurement is that it is able to operate fora close-up, zero-impedance fault, in situations wherethere may be no healthy phase voltage signal or memoryvoltage signal available to allow operation of adirectional impedance zone. With the offset-zone timedelay bypassed, there can be provision of Switch-on-to-Fault (SOTF) protection. This is required where there areline voltage transformers, to provide fast tripping in theevent of accidental line energisation with maintenanceearthing clamps left in position. Additional impedancezones may be deployed as part of a distance protectionscheme used in conjunction with a teleprotectionsignalling channel.

11.7 DISTANCE RELAY CHARACTERISTICS

Some numerical relays measure the absolute faultimpedance and then determine whether operation isrequired according to impedance boundaries defined onthe R/X diagram. Traditional distance relays and

numerical relays that emulate the impedance elementsof traditional relays do not measure absolute impedance.They compare the measured fault voltage with a replicavoltage derived from the fault current and the zoneimpedance setting to determine whether the fault iswithin zone or out-of-zone. Distance relay impedancecomparators or algorithms which emulate traditionalcomparators are classified according to their polarcharacteristics, the number of signal inputs they have,and the method by which signal comparisons are made.The common types compare either the relative amplitudeor phase of two input quantities to obtain operatingcharacteristics that are either straight lines or circleswhen plotted on an R/X diagram. At each stage ofdistance relay design evolution, the development of

11

DistanceProtection


Zone 1 = 80-85% of protected line impedanceZone 2 (minimum) = 120% of protected lineZone 2 (maximum) < Protected line + 50% of shortest second lineZone 3F = 1.2 (protected line + longest second lineZone 3R = 20% of protected lineX = Circuit breaker tripping time

Y = Discriminating time

Time

Time

Source Source

ZJR JF

1H Z1K

2K

3KF 3KR

1L

2J

1JY

H J K

Y

X

Figure 11.6: Typical time/distance characteristicsfor three zone distance protection

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impedance operating characteristic shapes andsophistication has been governed by the technologyavailable and the acceptable cost. Since manytraditional relays are still in service and since somenumerical relays emulate the techniques of thetraditional relays, a brief review of impedancecomparators is justified.

11.7.1 Amplitude and Phase Comparison

Relay measuring elements whose functionality is basedon the comparison of two independent quantities areessentially either amplitude or phase comparators. Forthe impedance elements of a distance relay, thequantities being compared are the voltage and currentmeasured by the relay. There are numerous techniquesavailable for performing the comparison, depending onthe technology used. They vary from balanced-beam(amplitude comparison) and induction cup (phasecomparison) electromagnetic relays, through diode andoperational amplifier comparators in static-type distancerelays, to digital sequence comparators in digital relaysand to algorithms used in numerical relays.

Any type of impedance characteristic obtainable withone comparator is also obtainable with the other. Theaddition and subtraction of the signals for one type ofcomparator produces the required signals to obtain asimilar characteristic using the other type. For example,comparing Vand Iin an amplitude comparator results ina circular impedance characteristic centred at the originof the R/Xdiagram. If the sum and difference of V andI are applied to the phase comparator the result is asimilar characteristic.

11.7.2 Plain Impedance Characteristic

This characteristic takes no account of the phase anglebetween the current and the voltage applied to it; for thisreason its impedance characteristic when plotted on anR/Xdiagram is a circle with its centre at the origin of the

co-ordinates and of radius equal to its setting in ohms.Operation occurs for all impedance values less than thesetting, that is, for all points within the circle. The relaycharacteristic, shown in Figure 11.7, is therefore non-directional, and in this form would operate for all faultsalong the vectorAL and also for all faults behind thebusbars up to an impedanceAM. It is to be noted thatAis the relaying point and RAB is the angle by which thefault current lags the relay voltage for a fault on the lineAB and RACis the equivalent leading angle for a fault onlineAC. VectorAB represents the impedance in front ofthe relay between the relaying pointA and the end of lineAB. Vector ACrepresents the impedance of line ACbehind the relaying point. AL represents the reach ofinstantaneous Zone 1 protection, set to cover 80% to85% of the protected line.

A relay using this characteristic has three important

disadvantages:

i. it is non-directional; it will see faults both in frontof and behind the relaying point, and therefore

11

DistanceProtection


Operates

LineAC L ne AB

AC

Restrains

mpe ancereay

Line

Figure 11.7: Plain impedance relaycharacteristic

F1

F2

AZ

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