changing the habits of a lifetime mindfu
TRANSCRIPT
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Changing the habits of a lifetime mindfulness meditationand habitual geographies
Journal Cultural Geographies
Manuscript ID CGJ-13-0082R1
Manuscript Type Article
Keywordshabit mindfulness meditation mental health Bourdieu Merleau-Pontyreflexivity embodiment
Abstract
Mindfulness meditation (in the context of mindfulness based stressreduction and mindfulness based cognitive therapy) is a reflexive practicethat seeks to reduce suffering in the form of depression anxiety andstress Through a variety of techniques mindfulness meditation aims tocultivate awareness of the participantrsquos current experience (notably their
thoughts and feelings) as well as an attitude of non-judgement towardsthis experience Via Crossleyrsquos (2001) account of the relation betweenhabits and the development of a self-reflexive stance the paper develops
an understanding of agency as distributed across body mind and contextwhich is not fixed in time or space Drawing on in-depth depth interviews
carried out with students and teachers of mindfulness meditation thepaper analyses the role of dialogue in the practice and situates it withinthe wider routines of the participantrsquos everyday lives
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Changing the habits of a lifetime mindfulness meditation and habitual geographies
1) Introduction
It is increasingly being recognised that habit is a crucial concept for embodied geographies1
offering an interpretative grid through which we might understand certain aspects of the relation
between body and world (as mediated by culture) and also the relation between body and self (in
terms of reflexive practices) Habitual geographies of how individual human beings or indeed
social groups navigate space-time tracing out regularised lsquostructuresrsquo of activity and encounter
arguably lie at the heart of older projects which are concerned to apprehend lsquothe constitution of
social lifersquo2 More recent writings adopting a phenomenological or non-representational line have
also effectively enrolled notions of habit when considering the role of corporeal practices skills and
craft-work in fashioning everyday dwelt landscapes3 Having long been a term of discussion in
philosophy and the social sciences moreover habit has often been taken to be a negative force the
unthought and unintelligent element of the body posed against the thinking and intelligent mind
cast as the lsquoenemy of moral actionrsquo with its repetitive force removing the need for (and ability to)
think about what is lsquorightrsquo and requiring us to be emancipated from its non-deliberative and non-
rational nature4 Furthermore in this mechanistic understanding habits have been understood to
prevent change stubbornly trapping the body in the same regimes and routines and removing the
potential lsquonewness of the worldrsquo5 In creating this familiarity and repetition dominant cultural
norms are embedded within the habitual body rendering the power relations that form these cultural
forms invisible and therefore without challenge6
Habit has also been conceptualised as a more positive force however taken as both a practical way
of understanding the world that enables action and a form of intelligence that enables us to act
effortlessly in familiar circumstances In this way habit is seen to push understandings of agency
away from the lsquoexistence of a sovereign wilfulnessrsquo towards a distributed understanding of lsquothe
performance of subjectivities as more or less durable but ever-changing dispositions potentials and
failuresrsquo7 Indeed at a rudimentary level habit is seemingly founded upon the plasticity and
malleability of minds and bodies meaning that (seemingly unreflexive) habits associated with
discipline control and dominance ndash think of Foucaultrsquos lsquodocile bodiesrsquo for example ndash contain
within their very making the capacity to become undone8 Seen in terms of productive potential and
framed in terms of transformation habit is at the crux of recent discussions around the possibility of
what some commentators now frame as lsquopositive behavioural changersquo relating everyday practices
of consumption to wider geographies of carbon consumption9 or ethical consumption
10 for
instance At a bodily level habit has been positioned as central to present-day reflexive body
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techniques associated with wellbeing and good health including modern postural yoga dieting and
akin practices whose primary purpose is to work back upon the body so as to modify maintain or
schematise it in some wayrsquo11
In particular geographers have found habit to be a useful conceptual route into the lsquoheart of bodily
experiencesrsquo
12
enabling novel understandings to be developed of a mind-body-world assemblageacross which habit acts as a formative and generative force It has been used as a lens through
which to view a variety of cultural practices including dancing performing landscapes being a
passenger doing therapeutic massage walking and running13
In these writings habit is positioned
as central to developing understandings of how senses muscles and bodily dispositions are trained
how habitual embodied selves shape feelings and thoughts and how ubiquitous cultural practices
maintain or re-order the material and symbolic contexts in which habits take place Broadly
speaking then habit has enabled geographers to understand how cultural practices situate the
human body and self within such contexts and to ask important questions about corporeal changeand continuity the role of wider structures that situate us in the world and the relationship that we
have to our bodies in a diversity of contexts This paper speaks directly to these questions but also
addresses the relation between the body and self as mediated and shaped by habit More
specifically we focus on the articulations of habit and the development of a self-reflexive stance
enabling us to ponder what for some may become the mindrsquos critical self-awareness of the bodyrsquos
habits the latter of which may also include problematic mental habits with unhealthy bodily
correlates or symptoms The aim is to throw into relief not only lsquobodily experiencesrsquo involved in
habit but also the formation of a subjective relation to such bodily experiences as set within the
worldly contexts of wider habitual geographies
This at first seemingly strange meeting point of habit and reflexivity is one of the important tenets
of mindfulness meditation14
the case study which this paper addresses In the form of Mindfulness
Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) programmes
mindfulness meditation is a lsquosecularrsquo style of meditation deploying a variety of techniques which
intervene in established body mind and everyday habits perceived as damaging to the self (ones
supposedly resulting in stress anxiety and depression) The practice enables the cultivation of a
relation to the self that makes apparent the lsquohiddenrsquo habits upon which the self is understood to rest
encouraging the participant to form a new relation of awareness of these habits perhaps itself based
upon establishing new habits of judgement As a practical example which centralises the body
embodied habits and forms of self-reflexivity mindfulness meditation offers a clear opportunity to
avoid the eitheror alternative of social (or biological) determinism or sovereign chooser in relation
to habit It also allows us to configure both contemporary societal understandings of habit and the
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habitual body and contemporary experiences of embodiment embodied habits and corporeal
change (as reflected by for example practitioners who are seeking to modify or adapt their
possibly unknown habits) In order to do this we first seek to offer a framework for focusing upon
habit bodily techniques and self-reflexive practice via the work of sociologist Nick Crossley
whose work synthesises Bourdieu and Merleau-Ponty in order to offer an account of habit and self-
reflexivity in the context of reflexive body practices Following this we look at the role and
function of habit in mindfulness practice first by considering the attention paid to reflexive
techniques that are designed to interfere with habitual emotional and perceptual responses to
external and internal events and stimuli and secondly to understand how the practice is situated
within the wider everyday habits (including space-time routines) which constitute the ebb and flow
of participantsrsquo daily lives
2) Conceptualising habit
In a series of books and articles Crossley traces how conceptualisations of habit have emerged as
critiques of dualist theories of the body First he draws on Bourdieursquos idea of lsquohabitusrsquo which
outlines how past actions become sedimented in the body thus shaping the present Habitus works
across multiple embodied registers structuring perception thought and action into forms of know-
how and competences disposing the individual to act in particular ways in particular contexts and
thereby offering an understanding of the body that lsquocan account for its regularity coherence and
orderrsquo15
Within this conception of habitus habits are always socially constructed they are lsquothe way
society becomes deposited in persons in the form of lasting dispositions or trained capacities and
structured propensities to think feel and act in determinant waysrsquo16
These social practices are
embedded in the body and are reproduced via embodied actions This understanding of habit offers
insights into the reproduction of lsquosocietyrsquo and Crossley notes that the key political insight offered
by Bourdieu is in relation to this societal reproduction habitus is seen to render invisible the power
relations that structure society while being complicit in reproducing these power relations As such
habitus must be subjected to critique with analysis targeted towards the lsquounderlying and invisible
dynamics within fieldsrsquo that are credited with agency shaping the lsquoopportunities and actions of the
incumbents of various positions without those incumbents being necessarily aware of the factrsquo17
Bourdieu supposes it to be difficult for the individual to reflect upon and change the habitus
precisely because it functions lsquobelow the level of consciousness and language beyond the reach of
introspective scrutiny or control by the willrsquo18
Furthermore unless lsquoprompted by an experience that
disturbs their faith in the status quorsquo19
individuals are unlikely to cultivate a reflexive perspective
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Crossley argues that Bourdieursquos account would be enriched by the development of a lsquomore
hermeneutic perspective which admits of human reflexivityrsquo20
on the part of research subjects
critiquing Bourdieursquos work in three main ways Firstly Crossley argues that while Bourdieu claims
that the habitus offers a lsquoldquomiddle pathrdquo between determinism and free willrsquo21
his writing does not
clearly delineate the mechanism by which this path is achieved in practice For Crossley this
substantiates critiques of Bourdieu as a deterministic thinker 22 Secondly Crossley argues that
Bourdieu problematically conflates the agent with habit suggesting that there is in fact lsquomore to
agency than the concept of habit can fully capturersquo23
While habits shape the actions of the agent he
continues it is still (self-reflexive) agents who act24
Thirdly Crossley outlines the fact that there is
little in Bourdieursquos writing to enable exploration of the lsquosubjective side of the social worldrsquo25
In
order to counter these critiques and to develop a broader view of agency (indeed if lsquoagencyrsquo
remains the appropriate term in such a phenomenological rendering) Crossley argues that we need
to develop a more nuanced understanding of the human agent in relation to habit (avoiding
positioning ourselves on the side of either freedom or determinism) For Crossley the way to do
this is via a model of reflexive self constituted via language Drawing on the writing of
phenomenological thinker Merleau-Ponty26
he argues that it is by hearing ourselves think that we
find out what we think As well as becoming aware of our own thoughts via language (speech or
thoughts) we can enter into a dialogue or discussion with ourselves Language allows us to have a
relation to ourselves and it is this dialogue that constitutes the reflexive self for Crossley This
gives rise to Crossleyrsquos definition of agency as lsquopurposive and meaningful conduct shaped by
habitrsquo27
In defining the reflexive self Crossley notes that the act of reflection may itself become habitual so
we might cultivate a habit of self-reflection (or rather a lsquohabitual reflexivityrsquo) This might make us
into reflexive beings able to question and potentially change how we live Crossley therefore sees
self-reflection as offering liberatory possibilities and his understanding of habit via a
transformational framing has clear potential to contribute to a more diverse geographical figuring of
habit28
However it is important to note that the transformation Crossley envisions in relation to
habit and therefore the potential for liberation is inevitably limited because while agents are lsquonot
wholly pre-empted by the notion of the habitusrsquo29 the possibility of transformation is always located
within the existing habitus and the (habitual) contexts in which we are located Habits provide lsquothe
necessary background of meaning and preference which makes choice possiblersquo30
ndash for instance
our habits of thought cannot but shape the conversations we have with ourselves (so our horizons
for self-reflection are largely configured by our existing linguistic schemas) and the questions we
might ask ourselves are rooted in our social contexts (inasumuch as we can only perceive
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deficiencies and attributions relative to others and collective representations) As such a radically
new perspective on the self is neither guaranteed nor perhaps even possible
Crossley usefully underlines the importance of examining relations between habit and reflexivity
negotiating the tension between transformation and habituation The significance that he attaches to
human agents is useful in thinking about the question of agency in relation to habit and reflexivityHowever the case study that this paper considers (mindfulness meditation) suggests the existence
of a different relation between reflexivity and habit Following an introduction to mindfulness
meditation and a discussion of the methods used the paper will look at the dialogue with the self
into which people can apparently enter via practices of mindfulness meditation and ask what kind
of collective representations structure the reflexive habit being developed in particular questioning
what habits are seen as problematic and why Following this the paper will examine the
relationship between worldly contexts and the development of these reflexive habits focusing on
how the participants negotiate the relationship between mindfulness meditation and their everydaylives Focussing on worldly contexts (eg everyday space-times) enables us to offer a supplement or
rejoinder to Crossleyrsquos account and opens up a social scientific and geographical perspective on the
practice of mindfulness in its everyday context31
The paper offers a distinct perspective on the
contemporary cultural and practical (possibly even political) significance of lsquohabitual geographiesrsquo
3) Mindfulness meditation methods and introduction to the practice
The research underpinning this paper derives from a funded project which aimed to look at the
lsquoplacersquo of two practices yoga and meditation sometimes configured as spiritual lsquopractices of the
selfrsquo32
We had a particular interest in how these practices happen in context both the lsquofitrsquo within
individualrsquos everyday lives and the space-time contexts within which they take place The year-long
project was carried out in Brighton and Hove a smallish city on the South coast of the UK which
has a high concentration of said practices We utilised a number of qualitative methods including
in-depth interviews with teachers and centre owners diary-interviews conducted with participants
and observant participation in yoga classes and on a mindfulness meditation course33
This paper
focuses on mindfulness meditation ndash or more specifically mindfulness meditation as it is currently
being practiced within a Western health and wellbeing context through the development of MBCT
and MBSR programmes MBSR was established by Jon Kabat-Zinn at the University of
Massachusetts Medical School in 197934
it was subsequently developed into MBCT during the
1990rsquos by the cognitive and behavioral psychologists Zindel Segal Mark Williams and John
Teasdale35
While there are plenty of books CDrsquos and websites through which people can learn
mindfulness meditation our research participants attended and were recruited via an eight week
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MBSR or MBCT course Such courses targeted at individuals who suffer from recurrent
depression anxiety or chronic pain are growing in popularity amongst the general population in the
UK and are slowly but increasingly being offered by local National Health Service mental health
trusts36
Mindfulness meditation is an integrative form of meditation that aims to cultivate awareness of the participantrsquos current experience (notably their thoughts and feelings) as well as an attitude of non-
judgement towards this experience As many authors have acknowledged the practice is a hybrid
between lsquoWestern cognitive science and Eastern practicesrsquo37
and while MBSR and MBCT courses
are effectively non-religious they draw in elements of Buddhist practice particularly insight
(Vipassana) meditation Most courses including the ones attended by our participants tend to focus
on three areas of (classroom andor homework) practice First they aim to teach participants a
number of mindful meditation techniques (such as breathing meditation the body scan mindful
eating and mindful walking) Secondly working with a group format (usually of 8-12 participants)they try to foster discussion and feedback about these techniques and to provide a space for self-
reflection Thirdly lsquohomeworkrsquo is set and learning materials are provided in the hope that
participants will establish a daily meditation practice (of about 40 minutes per day) and put the
techniques into practice during their daily life routines While we do not wish to go into the specific
details of each session during a course ndash not least because they are adapted by individual teachers ndash
in the following we outline some of the techniques central to these courses and outline the rationale
given for them38
Key to the course is for participants to become aware of a tendency to be on automatic pilot in their
thoughts feelings and actions ndash in other words not being present in your body while you are doing
something The aim instead is to cultivate a way of staying within and increasing awareness of the
lsquopresent momentrsquo Mindfulness of the breath meditation is one way to cultivate this skill39
a
lsquoBring your awareness to the level of physical sensations by focusing your attention on the
sensations of touch and pressure in your body where it makes contact with the floor and
whatever you are sitting on
b
Now bring your awareness to the changing patterns of physical sensations in the lower
abdomen as the breath moves in and out of your body
c Focus your awareness on the sensations of slight stretching as the abdominal wall rises with
each inbreath and of gentle deflation as it falls with each outbreath
d There is no need to try to control the breathing in any way ndash simply let the breath breathe
itself As best you can also bring this attitude of allowing to the rest of your experience
There is nothing to be fixed no particular state to be achieved As best you can simply allow
your experience to be your experience without needing it to be other than it is
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e Sooner or later (usually sooner) your mind will wander away from the focus on the breath in
the lower abdomen to thoughts planning daydreams drifting along ndash whatever This is
perfectly OK ndash itrsquos simply what minds do hellipWhen you notice that your awareness is no
longer on the breath gently congratulate yourself ndash you have come back and are once more
aware of your experience hellip Then gently escort the awareness back to a focus on the
changing pattern of physical sensations in the lower abdomen renewing the intention to pay
attention to the ongoing inbreath and outbreath whichever you find
f
hellipAs best you can bring a quality of kindliness to your awareness perhaps seeing the
repeated wanderings of the mind as opportunities to bring patience and gentle curiosity to
your experiencersquo40
In another key practice which seeks simply to bring a lsquocuriousrsquo and lsquofriendlyrsquo awareness to
whatever is happening in the present the participant lies down for a body scan A teacher (in person
or via a CD) directs the participant to focus their attention around all the areas of their body in turn
lsquothe challenge is can you feel the toes of your left foot without wiggling them You tune
into the toes then gradually move your attention to the bottom of the foot and the heel and
feel the contact with the floor Then you move to the ankle and slowly up the leg to the pelvis Then you go to the toes of the right foot and move up the right leg Very slowly you
move up the torso through the lower back and abdomen then the upper back and chest and
the shoulders Then you go to the fingers on both hands and move up the arms to the
shoulders Then you move through the neck and throat the face and the back of the head
and then right on up through the top of the headrsquo41
The purpose of this is for the participant to become mindful of their experiences in the present
moment including their bodily sensations and the mindrsquos commentary (the lsquodiscursive mindrsquo as it
has been termed by writers on mindfulness meditation42
) Being mindful in everyday life is
practised through such techniques as mindful eating and mindful walking Both of these involve full
attention being given to the process of eating or walking the attention is paid to the food (how it
looks how it smells the act of cutting it the muscles used to bring it to the mouth the taste and
texture of the food as it is chewed slowly) or to the body walking (the feel of the ground as the foot
meets it the feel of the foot meeting the ground breathing the feel of the wind on the skin)
In the following section we draw on in-depth interviews with four mindfulness meditation
teachers43
and seven meditation students44
along with reference to some of the secondary literature
relating to MBSR and MBCT45
in order to look at two things first the shift from Crossleyrsquos
understanding of a discursive dialogue with the (habitual) self ndash which mindfulness meditation
understands to actually increase forms of mental suffering ndash towards the opening up of a non-
discursive form of self-reflexivity and secondly the significance of everyday (space-time) contexts
for the ability of the participants to develop this self-reflexive stance
4) Practising Mindfulness meditation
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i) Dialogue with the self towards habitual self-reflexivity
The lsquoproblemsrsquo that these practices are designed to address are those of particular mental patterns
which create and perpetuate stress unhappiness depression and dissatisfaction As already
introduced in the previous section fundamental to these problems is a kind of habitual lsquoautomatic
pilotrsquo operative at a sub- or semi-conscious level
46
This is generally the first thing introduced in theMBCT and MBSR courses and concerns a state in which the mind is passive lsquoallowing itself to be
ldquocaughtrdquo by thoughts memories plans or feelingsrsquo47
Our habitual patterns of thought transform
what might otherwise be a fleeting negative feelingthought into a more enduring form of negativity
or rumination Ruminative thought attempts to lsquoproblem solversquo by taking us back to past times
where we might previously have felt like this in lsquoan effort to understand what went wrongrsquo48
and to
project us into imagined futures Teacher 2 a female psychotherapist and teacher of MBCT clearly
describes this
ldquoyou know a lot of us just spend so much time flying out of our bodies trying to be in the
next place trying to be in the last place upset because you know wersquore thinking in the
past wersquore planning for the future wersquore not really presentrdquo49
(teacher 2)
The writing on mindfulness suggests that rumination does not solve our problems but rather is
likely to precipitate a lsquocascade of mental events that draws us down into a depressionrsquo50
The
lsquoproblemrsquo is not the feeling but rather how the mind reacts to the feeling51
This habit of mind is
seen to persist because of wider cultural beliefs that this is the best hope of revealing a lsquoway to
solve our problemsrsquo52
The hinge of the techniques is to teach the participants to recognise when their minds are running
on automatic pilot and lsquoto teach them to intentionally to shift their awareness to something elsersquo53
thus intervening in habits of thought and allowing the (agentic) reflexive self to change their
relation to these habits This change is made possible in mindfulness meditation by a focus on the
present moment accessed via attention to physical experiences of the immediate context The
objective of situating attention in the body is to lsquoget out of our heads and learn to experience the
world directly experientially without the relentless commentary of our thoughtsrsquo54
The diarists
reported that the practices had indeed had an effect on their habits of thought For instance diarist 5
a male musician between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with his partner and children and
practices mindfulness meditation and yoga said this
ldquoI think itrsquos actually noticing your thoughts and not letting them run away with you all the
time I think thatrsquos what has happened since Irsquove had the breakdown is that I was one of
these people whose thoughts raced a million miles an hour They still do to a degree but
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F o r P
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much less so Now that could be the medicationhellip But maybe the combination of
medication and meditation slowed me down for the first time ever reallyrdquo (diarist 5)
Diarist 25 a female full time mother between the ages of 26 and 35 who lives with her partner and
child and practices mindfulness meditation noted that her life had been given a different rhythm
ldquoA lot of my life Irsquove just been running from one thing to another like in a frantic kind of
excited way because Irsquom quite an hellip energetic sort of person hellip I was doing lots of differentthings But I feel like Irsquod just been running from one thing to another and never stopping
And so this maybe has given me a chance to stoprdquo (diarist 25 interview)
Participants are trained to notice automatic pilot and in so doing to generate an alternative lsquohabitrsquo
of acute awareness of what is going on in the present (both in the world and in onersquos mind and
body) thus developing an interplay between attention (to the present moment) and a meta-
awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind (in the present moment) Still this
reflexivity often only became apparent after the individual had noticed that they had drifted off into
their usual state of autopilot Notable here is one of the assumptions of mindfulness that due to theinherently discursive nature of the mind the practice constantly fails As Segal et al put it
lsquowandering is what minds dorsquo55
and rather than berating the self for lsquofailingrsquo the teachers described
how an attitude of acceptance rather than judgement needs to be cultivated
ldquoAnd actually the core of mindfulness hellip is the letting go Is the being with hellip the
accepting of how things are and then just allowing things to be helliprdquo (teacher 2 interview)
ldquopeople come in distressed because of the judgements theyrsquore making about certain things
hellip lsquoOkay this is what is happening to your thinking style when yoursquore anxious or yoursquore
upset or you know someonersquos cut you up as you were driving into workrsquo Itrsquos hellip those
judgements that are driving the way that we react to life so yeah in terms of mindfulness
itrsquos just about noticing thatrsquos happening and not getting hooked in hellip to our dramas and our
reactionsrdquo (teacher 1 interview)
Changing the relationship between the self and these habits of thought so that the participant can
see them lsquoas they are simply streams of thinking events in the mind rather than getting lost in
themrsquo56
is seen as crucial to removing suffering
lsquoThat thing of if your thoughts drift off hellip most people think hellip [meditationrsquos] about
clearing your mind and being relaxed But no sometimes your headrsquos just full of stuff hellip If
you give yourself a hard time or you get self-critical about something yoursquove done yoursquore just making the whole problem a whole lot worse arenrsquot yoursquo (teacher 1 interview)
The reflexive subject emergent here differs from the one mapped out by Crossley in a number of
ways Firstly while Crossleyrsquos reflexive subject is constituted through dialogue (in particular the
ability to ask oneself questions and pose answers to them) mindfulness meditation sees these kinds
of dialogue to be problematic (inasmuch as they obscure the present moment and encourage
individuals to become caught up in ruminations) Secondly mindfulness meditation suspends the
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form of judgement that Crossley identifies as central to this self-reflexive dialogue (in which we
evaluate ourselves via the questions we ask ourselves and effect a change in our habits as a result)
In contrast mindfulness meditation cultivates a non-judgemental form of paying attention to the
self which doesnrsquot necessarily have to result in a change in habits Thirdly Crossleyrsquos version of
agency is characterised by a clear intentionality albeit shaped by habit In contrast agency is
constructed in mindfulness meditation via an ongoing dialogue between the mindful activity (ie
the attention to actions in the present moment ndash breathing walking eating and so forth) and a
wider meta-awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind as this activity proceeds
This gives agency a less purposive and more exploratory form
As a result of these differences the desired end-point of the transformation also differs Crossleyrsquos
reflexive self aims towards an end-point of a different body-mind generally constructed relative to
dominant norms around what a body-mind should be This has consequences for the social status
(within a particular lsquofieldrsquo) of an individual57
In contrast the reflexive self advocated inmindfulness meditation sets up an expansive sense of awareness in order to be more accepting of
the body-mind as it is and espouses an attitude of lsquonon-strivingrsquo58
This does not necessarily entail a
desire for change in status or position but rather the development of a different attitude towards
onersquos current position59
The reflexive self of mindfulness meditation thus offers a different model
of transformation while Crossleyrsquos reflexive self entails willing transformation in the self
mindfulness meditation absolutely does not involve this kind of will to transformation but rather
the transformation of the relationship to the self as it is This is not to say that the participant
becomes resigned to the current form of their selfhood ndash or framed in terms of habit they remain a
passive body helplessly drawn along by existing habits ndash but rather that their current form of
selfhood becomes something to be explored (by developing an active relationship to their embodied
habits)
Reflexive practices are always lsquodonersquo in specific material spatio-temporal contexts and the habits
that they are designed to reshape are always situated in and clearly related to these contexts While
Crossley gestures towards the material circumstances within which a reflexive self might engage
with habits (as he assesses how transformations in the self might relate to the socialcultural norms
that structure) his engagement with contexts is limited We suggest there is a need for a more
geographically sensitive engagement with habit and reflexivity As such it is important to look at
the relations that exist between body and world in such practices and so the following section will
trace two different relations that exist between bodies and contexts First it will examine how the
contexts within which reflexive body practices are undertaken shape the agency of habit andor the
reflexive self enabling or frustrating our abilities to relate tointervene in habits of thoughtbody
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The section will trace how participants negotiate the techniques alongside the wider contexts of
their everyday lives attending to the relation between habits at the individual scale and wider
habitual geographies (eg working routines sleep childcare) Secondly it will look at how such
reflexive practices might change the relationship that we have with the material contexts within
which we live While Crossley suggests that we might experience a change in our position within
the field(s) where we are located by engagement with reflexive practices mindfulness meditation
potentially offers a different relation to context in which we do not change position but rather
change our relationship with the (existent) contexts where we are located
ii) Relationship with context intervening in geographies of habit
Looking at the experiences of a number of diarists is instructive in beginning to understand some of
the negotiations made between their practice and the routines of their wider lives For each diarist it
is useful to explore both of these relations first how wider contexts shape engagement with
mindfulness meditation and secondly how the practices change relations with these wider
contexts For example diarist 23 a female housing support worker between the ages of 36 and 45
who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation was seemingly able to experience the lsquoidealrsquo fit
between her practice and her wider life in that she could lsquofitrsquo it into her everyday working routine
(albeit in a relatively fraught way) and in turn it shaped her relationship with that work in a manner
that she experienced as positive She described how her workplace was close to the Buddhist Centre
and how she would normally
ldquohelliprush to the Buddhist Centre one minute before meditation starts and then hope that Irsquovegot some money to pay them and run upstairs trying to look calm try and remember how
many cushions I need sit down pant a bit and then kind of think I always do this and next
time Irsquoll try and get here a bit earlier But at least Irsquom here and yeah itrsquos better than nothingrdquo
(diarist 23 interview)
As well as being able to fit her practice into her working day her space-time diary described how
the practice at lunchtime had an impact on her subsequent working activities
ldquo2072010 230-500 Back to the office for another client appt Felt more calm and centre
after meditation and also more confident than usual with this client who I can find
challengingrdquo (diarist 23 diary)
In this instance diarist 23 can be seen to embody the lsquointentionrsquo of mindfulness meditation in
which she maintained her current place within the lsquofieldrsquo (and indeed the proximity of her work to
the Buddhist Centre facilitated her practice) and changed her relationship to it via her practice
Impromptu informal mindfulness practices were also seen to lsquofitrsquo in the participantsrsquo everyday
routines enabling them to develop alternative relationships with events which they had habitually
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experienced as difficult For example diarist 19 a female administrator between the ages of 56 and
65 who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation described how she was able to do the
techniques when she needed them during her working day
ldquoAnd I think that having meditation throughout your day is probably far better than having
to do it every day It is a tool that you can just use any minute of the day Sometimes if
yoursquove got a really terrible time at work you shut yourself in the toilet and just breathe Andthen you can come out and go lsquoyes finersquo Because otherwise you might lose itrdquo (diarist 19
interview)
Other diarists however had not been able to lsquofitrsquo their practice easily within their everyday lives
and had developed other ways to negotiate the relationship between their practice and their context
For example diarist 4 a female academic between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with her partner
and practices mindfulness meditation and yoga identified a number of tensions arising as she tried
to accommodate the practice within her domestic routines She told us that she found it hard to
create a lsquospacersquo (literally and metaphorically) within her home to practise
Diarist 4 ldquoItrsquos really just a desire to be in that hellip place where itrsquos quiet hellip but Irsquom not very
good at it (and I think a lot of people have this problem) Irsquom not very good at taking myself
away from a very hectic environment where there seems to be lots going on and where lots
needs doing like you know supper needs cooking and the kitchen needs clearing and I
havenrsquot quite finished my emails Irsquom not very good at saying lsquoright yoga or meditationrsquo I
mean I am if Irsquove got a class (which is presumably why a lot of people use classes hellip) but
hellip just to extricate myself from all that and just go up to my room and sit there I still find
that quite difficultrdquo
Interviewer ldquoWhat do you mean To negotiate with others to do itrdquo
Diarist 4 ldquoNo just myself really I mean everyone elsersquod be fine lsquogo on go go awayrsquo
[laughs] hellip but erm I know Irsquom someone who needs to ndash whatever it is Irsquom trying to do if
Irsquom trying to sit and write ndash everything has to be cleared up first You have to have done the
laundry and got the breakfast and cleared that up and thatrsquos just the way I seem to be And I
thought that getting into meditation things might change that and I would just be able to
float through the kitchen see all the mess and float out the other side [laughs] It hasnrsquot quite
worked that way In fact you know in some ways I need to be more prepared and organised
in other ways to enjoy the meditationrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
What she describes here is how the space-time routines through which her life is structured and the
material contexts within which she lives make it difficult for her to practise at home (therefore
obscuring the potential for her to change her relation to those space-time routines and material
contexts) Her habits for doing work (ie needing to clear up before writing) also persist for doing
meditation A class ndash where ldquothe space would be organised by somebody else for usrdquo (diarist 4
interview) ndash would offer this clutter- and task-free space thereby circumventing her habitual
inability to do something where there are still domestic tasks remaining undone Yet she noted in
her interview that she ldquodoesnrsquot go to a class for that anymorerdquo60
She also told us that she had been
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able to squeeze meditation into her already existing routines outside of the home aided by some
guided mindfulness meditation exercises downloaded on to her iPod so that she could listen to them
on the bus journey to work
ldquoIrsquove put [the guided meditation CDs] on my iPod as well now so I can have them I take
sometimes I have my iPod like on the bus hellip I sometimes do a little bit hellip of meditation on
the way out to [campus] on the bus because itrsquos just time that Irsquove got to myself so itrsquos quitenice helliprdquo (diarist 4 interview)
Her space-time diary showed that when she felt she really needed the practice she did manage to fit
it in at home
ldquo3152010 900-1100 up to do yogameditation 900-945 (home) Determined not to miss
this today as yesterday didnrsquot turn out so well with rushed start and no yogameditation
practicerdquo (diarist 4 diary)
Diarist 25 found that her current lifestyle both enabled and complicated her practice She had given
up work due to anxiety and then started meditation three months later (as a response to difficulties
that she was experiencing in her life) Giving up work had enabled her meditation and yoga
practice giving her time to attend sessions at the Buddhist centre on an almost daily basis Later
becoming a mother had also shaped her practice
ldquoHaving Baba has enabled me to do what Irsquom doing Actually having a kid and staying at
home has enabled me to get into meditation When he was little I used to take him along
to the Buddhist Centre and hersquod sleep and Irsquod go upstairs to one of the sessions and people
wouldnrsquot mind me leaving him in the buggy downstairs I mean I havenrsquot been doing that
so much recently but thatrsquos when Baba was [six months to 18 months] But now Baba will
go to sleep two hours in the middle of the day and I can do some thenrdquo (diarist 25interview)
The routine of her day with her child in combination with the support offered by the Buddhist
Centre enabled her to devote discrete time and space to her meditation She also used time with her
child to practice walking meditation saying ldquoI do walking meditation when Irsquom walking to the park
with Babardquo But this was not straightforwardly easy as she found pushing the pushchair
frustrated her practice ldquowhen Irsquom not pushing the buggy I can concentrate like on my feet - the
feelings of my feet ndash much easier than if Irsquom pushing the buggyrdquo
The experiences of these diarists show that it is not perhaps as straightforward as simply fitting the
practice within current space-time routines in order to alter onersquos experience of an existing life as
structured via those space-time routines (the kind of reflexive relation entailed in mindfulness
meditation) The teachers pragmatically acknowledged that fitting a formal daily meditation
practice in was difficult For instance teacher 2 explained that the main work done by students on
the MBSR and MBCT courses is in the time between the sessions rather than the sessions
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themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
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983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
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mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
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983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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Changing the habits of a lifetime mindfulness meditation and habitual geographies
1) Introduction
It is increasingly being recognised that habit is a crucial concept for embodied geographies1
offering an interpretative grid through which we might understand certain aspects of the relation
between body and world (as mediated by culture) and also the relation between body and self (in
terms of reflexive practices) Habitual geographies of how individual human beings or indeed
social groups navigate space-time tracing out regularised lsquostructuresrsquo of activity and encounter
arguably lie at the heart of older projects which are concerned to apprehend lsquothe constitution of
social lifersquo2 More recent writings adopting a phenomenological or non-representational line have
also effectively enrolled notions of habit when considering the role of corporeal practices skills and
craft-work in fashioning everyday dwelt landscapes3 Having long been a term of discussion in
philosophy and the social sciences moreover habit has often been taken to be a negative force the
unthought and unintelligent element of the body posed against the thinking and intelligent mind
cast as the lsquoenemy of moral actionrsquo with its repetitive force removing the need for (and ability to)
think about what is lsquorightrsquo and requiring us to be emancipated from its non-deliberative and non-
rational nature4 Furthermore in this mechanistic understanding habits have been understood to
prevent change stubbornly trapping the body in the same regimes and routines and removing the
potential lsquonewness of the worldrsquo5 In creating this familiarity and repetition dominant cultural
norms are embedded within the habitual body rendering the power relations that form these cultural
forms invisible and therefore without challenge6
Habit has also been conceptualised as a more positive force however taken as both a practical way
of understanding the world that enables action and a form of intelligence that enables us to act
effortlessly in familiar circumstances In this way habit is seen to push understandings of agency
away from the lsquoexistence of a sovereign wilfulnessrsquo towards a distributed understanding of lsquothe
performance of subjectivities as more or less durable but ever-changing dispositions potentials and
failuresrsquo7 Indeed at a rudimentary level habit is seemingly founded upon the plasticity and
malleability of minds and bodies meaning that (seemingly unreflexive) habits associated with
discipline control and dominance ndash think of Foucaultrsquos lsquodocile bodiesrsquo for example ndash contain
within their very making the capacity to become undone8 Seen in terms of productive potential and
framed in terms of transformation habit is at the crux of recent discussions around the possibility of
what some commentators now frame as lsquopositive behavioural changersquo relating everyday practices
of consumption to wider geographies of carbon consumption9 or ethical consumption
10 for
instance At a bodily level habit has been positioned as central to present-day reflexive body
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techniques associated with wellbeing and good health including modern postural yoga dieting and
akin practices whose primary purpose is to work back upon the body so as to modify maintain or
schematise it in some wayrsquo11
In particular geographers have found habit to be a useful conceptual route into the lsquoheart of bodily
experiencesrsquo
12
enabling novel understandings to be developed of a mind-body-world assemblageacross which habit acts as a formative and generative force It has been used as a lens through
which to view a variety of cultural practices including dancing performing landscapes being a
passenger doing therapeutic massage walking and running13
In these writings habit is positioned
as central to developing understandings of how senses muscles and bodily dispositions are trained
how habitual embodied selves shape feelings and thoughts and how ubiquitous cultural practices
maintain or re-order the material and symbolic contexts in which habits take place Broadly
speaking then habit has enabled geographers to understand how cultural practices situate the
human body and self within such contexts and to ask important questions about corporeal changeand continuity the role of wider structures that situate us in the world and the relationship that we
have to our bodies in a diversity of contexts This paper speaks directly to these questions but also
addresses the relation between the body and self as mediated and shaped by habit More
specifically we focus on the articulations of habit and the development of a self-reflexive stance
enabling us to ponder what for some may become the mindrsquos critical self-awareness of the bodyrsquos
habits the latter of which may also include problematic mental habits with unhealthy bodily
correlates or symptoms The aim is to throw into relief not only lsquobodily experiencesrsquo involved in
habit but also the formation of a subjective relation to such bodily experiences as set within the
worldly contexts of wider habitual geographies
This at first seemingly strange meeting point of habit and reflexivity is one of the important tenets
of mindfulness meditation14
the case study which this paper addresses In the form of Mindfulness
Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) programmes
mindfulness meditation is a lsquosecularrsquo style of meditation deploying a variety of techniques which
intervene in established body mind and everyday habits perceived as damaging to the self (ones
supposedly resulting in stress anxiety and depression) The practice enables the cultivation of a
relation to the self that makes apparent the lsquohiddenrsquo habits upon which the self is understood to rest
encouraging the participant to form a new relation of awareness of these habits perhaps itself based
upon establishing new habits of judgement As a practical example which centralises the body
embodied habits and forms of self-reflexivity mindfulness meditation offers a clear opportunity to
avoid the eitheror alternative of social (or biological) determinism or sovereign chooser in relation
to habit It also allows us to configure both contemporary societal understandings of habit and the
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habitual body and contemporary experiences of embodiment embodied habits and corporeal
change (as reflected by for example practitioners who are seeking to modify or adapt their
possibly unknown habits) In order to do this we first seek to offer a framework for focusing upon
habit bodily techniques and self-reflexive practice via the work of sociologist Nick Crossley
whose work synthesises Bourdieu and Merleau-Ponty in order to offer an account of habit and self-
reflexivity in the context of reflexive body practices Following this we look at the role and
function of habit in mindfulness practice first by considering the attention paid to reflexive
techniques that are designed to interfere with habitual emotional and perceptual responses to
external and internal events and stimuli and secondly to understand how the practice is situated
within the wider everyday habits (including space-time routines) which constitute the ebb and flow
of participantsrsquo daily lives
2) Conceptualising habit
In a series of books and articles Crossley traces how conceptualisations of habit have emerged as
critiques of dualist theories of the body First he draws on Bourdieursquos idea of lsquohabitusrsquo which
outlines how past actions become sedimented in the body thus shaping the present Habitus works
across multiple embodied registers structuring perception thought and action into forms of know-
how and competences disposing the individual to act in particular ways in particular contexts and
thereby offering an understanding of the body that lsquocan account for its regularity coherence and
orderrsquo15
Within this conception of habitus habits are always socially constructed they are lsquothe way
society becomes deposited in persons in the form of lasting dispositions or trained capacities and
structured propensities to think feel and act in determinant waysrsquo16
These social practices are
embedded in the body and are reproduced via embodied actions This understanding of habit offers
insights into the reproduction of lsquosocietyrsquo and Crossley notes that the key political insight offered
by Bourdieu is in relation to this societal reproduction habitus is seen to render invisible the power
relations that structure society while being complicit in reproducing these power relations As such
habitus must be subjected to critique with analysis targeted towards the lsquounderlying and invisible
dynamics within fieldsrsquo that are credited with agency shaping the lsquoopportunities and actions of the
incumbents of various positions without those incumbents being necessarily aware of the factrsquo17
Bourdieu supposes it to be difficult for the individual to reflect upon and change the habitus
precisely because it functions lsquobelow the level of consciousness and language beyond the reach of
introspective scrutiny or control by the willrsquo18
Furthermore unless lsquoprompted by an experience that
disturbs their faith in the status quorsquo19
individuals are unlikely to cultivate a reflexive perspective
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Crossley argues that Bourdieursquos account would be enriched by the development of a lsquomore
hermeneutic perspective which admits of human reflexivityrsquo20
on the part of research subjects
critiquing Bourdieursquos work in three main ways Firstly Crossley argues that while Bourdieu claims
that the habitus offers a lsquoldquomiddle pathrdquo between determinism and free willrsquo21
his writing does not
clearly delineate the mechanism by which this path is achieved in practice For Crossley this
substantiates critiques of Bourdieu as a deterministic thinker 22 Secondly Crossley argues that
Bourdieu problematically conflates the agent with habit suggesting that there is in fact lsquomore to
agency than the concept of habit can fully capturersquo23
While habits shape the actions of the agent he
continues it is still (self-reflexive) agents who act24
Thirdly Crossley outlines the fact that there is
little in Bourdieursquos writing to enable exploration of the lsquosubjective side of the social worldrsquo25
In
order to counter these critiques and to develop a broader view of agency (indeed if lsquoagencyrsquo
remains the appropriate term in such a phenomenological rendering) Crossley argues that we need
to develop a more nuanced understanding of the human agent in relation to habit (avoiding
positioning ourselves on the side of either freedom or determinism) For Crossley the way to do
this is via a model of reflexive self constituted via language Drawing on the writing of
phenomenological thinker Merleau-Ponty26
he argues that it is by hearing ourselves think that we
find out what we think As well as becoming aware of our own thoughts via language (speech or
thoughts) we can enter into a dialogue or discussion with ourselves Language allows us to have a
relation to ourselves and it is this dialogue that constitutes the reflexive self for Crossley This
gives rise to Crossleyrsquos definition of agency as lsquopurposive and meaningful conduct shaped by
habitrsquo27
In defining the reflexive self Crossley notes that the act of reflection may itself become habitual so
we might cultivate a habit of self-reflection (or rather a lsquohabitual reflexivityrsquo) This might make us
into reflexive beings able to question and potentially change how we live Crossley therefore sees
self-reflection as offering liberatory possibilities and his understanding of habit via a
transformational framing has clear potential to contribute to a more diverse geographical figuring of
habit28
However it is important to note that the transformation Crossley envisions in relation to
habit and therefore the potential for liberation is inevitably limited because while agents are lsquonot
wholly pre-empted by the notion of the habitusrsquo29 the possibility of transformation is always located
within the existing habitus and the (habitual) contexts in which we are located Habits provide lsquothe
necessary background of meaning and preference which makes choice possiblersquo30
ndash for instance
our habits of thought cannot but shape the conversations we have with ourselves (so our horizons
for self-reflection are largely configured by our existing linguistic schemas) and the questions we
might ask ourselves are rooted in our social contexts (inasumuch as we can only perceive
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983093
deficiencies and attributions relative to others and collective representations) As such a radically
new perspective on the self is neither guaranteed nor perhaps even possible
Crossley usefully underlines the importance of examining relations between habit and reflexivity
negotiating the tension between transformation and habituation The significance that he attaches to
human agents is useful in thinking about the question of agency in relation to habit and reflexivityHowever the case study that this paper considers (mindfulness meditation) suggests the existence
of a different relation between reflexivity and habit Following an introduction to mindfulness
meditation and a discussion of the methods used the paper will look at the dialogue with the self
into which people can apparently enter via practices of mindfulness meditation and ask what kind
of collective representations structure the reflexive habit being developed in particular questioning
what habits are seen as problematic and why Following this the paper will examine the
relationship between worldly contexts and the development of these reflexive habits focusing on
how the participants negotiate the relationship between mindfulness meditation and their everydaylives Focussing on worldly contexts (eg everyday space-times) enables us to offer a supplement or
rejoinder to Crossleyrsquos account and opens up a social scientific and geographical perspective on the
practice of mindfulness in its everyday context31
The paper offers a distinct perspective on the
contemporary cultural and practical (possibly even political) significance of lsquohabitual geographiesrsquo
3) Mindfulness meditation methods and introduction to the practice
The research underpinning this paper derives from a funded project which aimed to look at the
lsquoplacersquo of two practices yoga and meditation sometimes configured as spiritual lsquopractices of the
selfrsquo32
We had a particular interest in how these practices happen in context both the lsquofitrsquo within
individualrsquos everyday lives and the space-time contexts within which they take place The year-long
project was carried out in Brighton and Hove a smallish city on the South coast of the UK which
has a high concentration of said practices We utilised a number of qualitative methods including
in-depth interviews with teachers and centre owners diary-interviews conducted with participants
and observant participation in yoga classes and on a mindfulness meditation course33
This paper
focuses on mindfulness meditation ndash or more specifically mindfulness meditation as it is currently
being practiced within a Western health and wellbeing context through the development of MBCT
and MBSR programmes MBSR was established by Jon Kabat-Zinn at the University of
Massachusetts Medical School in 197934
it was subsequently developed into MBCT during the
1990rsquos by the cognitive and behavioral psychologists Zindel Segal Mark Williams and John
Teasdale35
While there are plenty of books CDrsquos and websites through which people can learn
mindfulness meditation our research participants attended and were recruited via an eight week
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MBSR or MBCT course Such courses targeted at individuals who suffer from recurrent
depression anxiety or chronic pain are growing in popularity amongst the general population in the
UK and are slowly but increasingly being offered by local National Health Service mental health
trusts36
Mindfulness meditation is an integrative form of meditation that aims to cultivate awareness of the participantrsquos current experience (notably their thoughts and feelings) as well as an attitude of non-
judgement towards this experience As many authors have acknowledged the practice is a hybrid
between lsquoWestern cognitive science and Eastern practicesrsquo37
and while MBSR and MBCT courses
are effectively non-religious they draw in elements of Buddhist practice particularly insight
(Vipassana) meditation Most courses including the ones attended by our participants tend to focus
on three areas of (classroom andor homework) practice First they aim to teach participants a
number of mindful meditation techniques (such as breathing meditation the body scan mindful
eating and mindful walking) Secondly working with a group format (usually of 8-12 participants)they try to foster discussion and feedback about these techniques and to provide a space for self-
reflection Thirdly lsquohomeworkrsquo is set and learning materials are provided in the hope that
participants will establish a daily meditation practice (of about 40 minutes per day) and put the
techniques into practice during their daily life routines While we do not wish to go into the specific
details of each session during a course ndash not least because they are adapted by individual teachers ndash
in the following we outline some of the techniques central to these courses and outline the rationale
given for them38
Key to the course is for participants to become aware of a tendency to be on automatic pilot in their
thoughts feelings and actions ndash in other words not being present in your body while you are doing
something The aim instead is to cultivate a way of staying within and increasing awareness of the
lsquopresent momentrsquo Mindfulness of the breath meditation is one way to cultivate this skill39
a
lsquoBring your awareness to the level of physical sensations by focusing your attention on the
sensations of touch and pressure in your body where it makes contact with the floor and
whatever you are sitting on
b
Now bring your awareness to the changing patterns of physical sensations in the lower
abdomen as the breath moves in and out of your body
c Focus your awareness on the sensations of slight stretching as the abdominal wall rises with
each inbreath and of gentle deflation as it falls with each outbreath
d There is no need to try to control the breathing in any way ndash simply let the breath breathe
itself As best you can also bring this attitude of allowing to the rest of your experience
There is nothing to be fixed no particular state to be achieved As best you can simply allow
your experience to be your experience without needing it to be other than it is
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e Sooner or later (usually sooner) your mind will wander away from the focus on the breath in
the lower abdomen to thoughts planning daydreams drifting along ndash whatever This is
perfectly OK ndash itrsquos simply what minds do hellipWhen you notice that your awareness is no
longer on the breath gently congratulate yourself ndash you have come back and are once more
aware of your experience hellip Then gently escort the awareness back to a focus on the
changing pattern of physical sensations in the lower abdomen renewing the intention to pay
attention to the ongoing inbreath and outbreath whichever you find
f
hellipAs best you can bring a quality of kindliness to your awareness perhaps seeing the
repeated wanderings of the mind as opportunities to bring patience and gentle curiosity to
your experiencersquo40
In another key practice which seeks simply to bring a lsquocuriousrsquo and lsquofriendlyrsquo awareness to
whatever is happening in the present the participant lies down for a body scan A teacher (in person
or via a CD) directs the participant to focus their attention around all the areas of their body in turn
lsquothe challenge is can you feel the toes of your left foot without wiggling them You tune
into the toes then gradually move your attention to the bottom of the foot and the heel and
feel the contact with the floor Then you move to the ankle and slowly up the leg to the pelvis Then you go to the toes of the right foot and move up the right leg Very slowly you
move up the torso through the lower back and abdomen then the upper back and chest and
the shoulders Then you go to the fingers on both hands and move up the arms to the
shoulders Then you move through the neck and throat the face and the back of the head
and then right on up through the top of the headrsquo41
The purpose of this is for the participant to become mindful of their experiences in the present
moment including their bodily sensations and the mindrsquos commentary (the lsquodiscursive mindrsquo as it
has been termed by writers on mindfulness meditation42
) Being mindful in everyday life is
practised through such techniques as mindful eating and mindful walking Both of these involve full
attention being given to the process of eating or walking the attention is paid to the food (how it
looks how it smells the act of cutting it the muscles used to bring it to the mouth the taste and
texture of the food as it is chewed slowly) or to the body walking (the feel of the ground as the foot
meets it the feel of the foot meeting the ground breathing the feel of the wind on the skin)
In the following section we draw on in-depth interviews with four mindfulness meditation
teachers43
and seven meditation students44
along with reference to some of the secondary literature
relating to MBSR and MBCT45
in order to look at two things first the shift from Crossleyrsquos
understanding of a discursive dialogue with the (habitual) self ndash which mindfulness meditation
understands to actually increase forms of mental suffering ndash towards the opening up of a non-
discursive form of self-reflexivity and secondly the significance of everyday (space-time) contexts
for the ability of the participants to develop this self-reflexive stance
4) Practising Mindfulness meditation
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i) Dialogue with the self towards habitual self-reflexivity
The lsquoproblemsrsquo that these practices are designed to address are those of particular mental patterns
which create and perpetuate stress unhappiness depression and dissatisfaction As already
introduced in the previous section fundamental to these problems is a kind of habitual lsquoautomatic
pilotrsquo operative at a sub- or semi-conscious level
46
This is generally the first thing introduced in theMBCT and MBSR courses and concerns a state in which the mind is passive lsquoallowing itself to be
ldquocaughtrdquo by thoughts memories plans or feelingsrsquo47
Our habitual patterns of thought transform
what might otherwise be a fleeting negative feelingthought into a more enduring form of negativity
or rumination Ruminative thought attempts to lsquoproblem solversquo by taking us back to past times
where we might previously have felt like this in lsquoan effort to understand what went wrongrsquo48
and to
project us into imagined futures Teacher 2 a female psychotherapist and teacher of MBCT clearly
describes this
ldquoyou know a lot of us just spend so much time flying out of our bodies trying to be in the
next place trying to be in the last place upset because you know wersquore thinking in the
past wersquore planning for the future wersquore not really presentrdquo49
(teacher 2)
The writing on mindfulness suggests that rumination does not solve our problems but rather is
likely to precipitate a lsquocascade of mental events that draws us down into a depressionrsquo50
The
lsquoproblemrsquo is not the feeling but rather how the mind reacts to the feeling51
This habit of mind is
seen to persist because of wider cultural beliefs that this is the best hope of revealing a lsquoway to
solve our problemsrsquo52
The hinge of the techniques is to teach the participants to recognise when their minds are running
on automatic pilot and lsquoto teach them to intentionally to shift their awareness to something elsersquo53
thus intervening in habits of thought and allowing the (agentic) reflexive self to change their
relation to these habits This change is made possible in mindfulness meditation by a focus on the
present moment accessed via attention to physical experiences of the immediate context The
objective of situating attention in the body is to lsquoget out of our heads and learn to experience the
world directly experientially without the relentless commentary of our thoughtsrsquo54
The diarists
reported that the practices had indeed had an effect on their habits of thought For instance diarist 5
a male musician between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with his partner and children and
practices mindfulness meditation and yoga said this
ldquoI think itrsquos actually noticing your thoughts and not letting them run away with you all the
time I think thatrsquos what has happened since Irsquove had the breakdown is that I was one of
these people whose thoughts raced a million miles an hour They still do to a degree but
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F o r P
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983097
much less so Now that could be the medicationhellip But maybe the combination of
medication and meditation slowed me down for the first time ever reallyrdquo (diarist 5)
Diarist 25 a female full time mother between the ages of 26 and 35 who lives with her partner and
child and practices mindfulness meditation noted that her life had been given a different rhythm
ldquoA lot of my life Irsquove just been running from one thing to another like in a frantic kind of
excited way because Irsquom quite an hellip energetic sort of person hellip I was doing lots of differentthings But I feel like Irsquod just been running from one thing to another and never stopping
And so this maybe has given me a chance to stoprdquo (diarist 25 interview)
Participants are trained to notice automatic pilot and in so doing to generate an alternative lsquohabitrsquo
of acute awareness of what is going on in the present (both in the world and in onersquos mind and
body) thus developing an interplay between attention (to the present moment) and a meta-
awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind (in the present moment) Still this
reflexivity often only became apparent after the individual had noticed that they had drifted off into
their usual state of autopilot Notable here is one of the assumptions of mindfulness that due to theinherently discursive nature of the mind the practice constantly fails As Segal et al put it
lsquowandering is what minds dorsquo55
and rather than berating the self for lsquofailingrsquo the teachers described
how an attitude of acceptance rather than judgement needs to be cultivated
ldquoAnd actually the core of mindfulness hellip is the letting go Is the being with hellip the
accepting of how things are and then just allowing things to be helliprdquo (teacher 2 interview)
ldquopeople come in distressed because of the judgements theyrsquore making about certain things
hellip lsquoOkay this is what is happening to your thinking style when yoursquore anxious or yoursquore
upset or you know someonersquos cut you up as you were driving into workrsquo Itrsquos hellip those
judgements that are driving the way that we react to life so yeah in terms of mindfulness
itrsquos just about noticing thatrsquos happening and not getting hooked in hellip to our dramas and our
reactionsrdquo (teacher 1 interview)
Changing the relationship between the self and these habits of thought so that the participant can
see them lsquoas they are simply streams of thinking events in the mind rather than getting lost in
themrsquo56
is seen as crucial to removing suffering
lsquoThat thing of if your thoughts drift off hellip most people think hellip [meditationrsquos] about
clearing your mind and being relaxed But no sometimes your headrsquos just full of stuff hellip If
you give yourself a hard time or you get self-critical about something yoursquove done yoursquore just making the whole problem a whole lot worse arenrsquot yoursquo (teacher 1 interview)
The reflexive subject emergent here differs from the one mapped out by Crossley in a number of
ways Firstly while Crossleyrsquos reflexive subject is constituted through dialogue (in particular the
ability to ask oneself questions and pose answers to them) mindfulness meditation sees these kinds
of dialogue to be problematic (inasmuch as they obscure the present moment and encourage
individuals to become caught up in ruminations) Secondly mindfulness meditation suspends the
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form of judgement that Crossley identifies as central to this self-reflexive dialogue (in which we
evaluate ourselves via the questions we ask ourselves and effect a change in our habits as a result)
In contrast mindfulness meditation cultivates a non-judgemental form of paying attention to the
self which doesnrsquot necessarily have to result in a change in habits Thirdly Crossleyrsquos version of
agency is characterised by a clear intentionality albeit shaped by habit In contrast agency is
constructed in mindfulness meditation via an ongoing dialogue between the mindful activity (ie
the attention to actions in the present moment ndash breathing walking eating and so forth) and a
wider meta-awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind as this activity proceeds
This gives agency a less purposive and more exploratory form
As a result of these differences the desired end-point of the transformation also differs Crossleyrsquos
reflexive self aims towards an end-point of a different body-mind generally constructed relative to
dominant norms around what a body-mind should be This has consequences for the social status
(within a particular lsquofieldrsquo) of an individual57
In contrast the reflexive self advocated inmindfulness meditation sets up an expansive sense of awareness in order to be more accepting of
the body-mind as it is and espouses an attitude of lsquonon-strivingrsquo58
This does not necessarily entail a
desire for change in status or position but rather the development of a different attitude towards
onersquos current position59
The reflexive self of mindfulness meditation thus offers a different model
of transformation while Crossleyrsquos reflexive self entails willing transformation in the self
mindfulness meditation absolutely does not involve this kind of will to transformation but rather
the transformation of the relationship to the self as it is This is not to say that the participant
becomes resigned to the current form of their selfhood ndash or framed in terms of habit they remain a
passive body helplessly drawn along by existing habits ndash but rather that their current form of
selfhood becomes something to be explored (by developing an active relationship to their embodied
habits)
Reflexive practices are always lsquodonersquo in specific material spatio-temporal contexts and the habits
that they are designed to reshape are always situated in and clearly related to these contexts While
Crossley gestures towards the material circumstances within which a reflexive self might engage
with habits (as he assesses how transformations in the self might relate to the socialcultural norms
that structure) his engagement with contexts is limited We suggest there is a need for a more
geographically sensitive engagement with habit and reflexivity As such it is important to look at
the relations that exist between body and world in such practices and so the following section will
trace two different relations that exist between bodies and contexts First it will examine how the
contexts within which reflexive body practices are undertaken shape the agency of habit andor the
reflexive self enabling or frustrating our abilities to relate tointervene in habits of thoughtbody
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The section will trace how participants negotiate the techniques alongside the wider contexts of
their everyday lives attending to the relation between habits at the individual scale and wider
habitual geographies (eg working routines sleep childcare) Secondly it will look at how such
reflexive practices might change the relationship that we have with the material contexts within
which we live While Crossley suggests that we might experience a change in our position within
the field(s) where we are located by engagement with reflexive practices mindfulness meditation
potentially offers a different relation to context in which we do not change position but rather
change our relationship with the (existent) contexts where we are located
ii) Relationship with context intervening in geographies of habit
Looking at the experiences of a number of diarists is instructive in beginning to understand some of
the negotiations made between their practice and the routines of their wider lives For each diarist it
is useful to explore both of these relations first how wider contexts shape engagement with
mindfulness meditation and secondly how the practices change relations with these wider
contexts For example diarist 23 a female housing support worker between the ages of 36 and 45
who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation was seemingly able to experience the lsquoidealrsquo fit
between her practice and her wider life in that she could lsquofitrsquo it into her everyday working routine
(albeit in a relatively fraught way) and in turn it shaped her relationship with that work in a manner
that she experienced as positive She described how her workplace was close to the Buddhist Centre
and how she would normally
ldquohelliprush to the Buddhist Centre one minute before meditation starts and then hope that Irsquovegot some money to pay them and run upstairs trying to look calm try and remember how
many cushions I need sit down pant a bit and then kind of think I always do this and next
time Irsquoll try and get here a bit earlier But at least Irsquom here and yeah itrsquos better than nothingrdquo
(diarist 23 interview)
As well as being able to fit her practice into her working day her space-time diary described how
the practice at lunchtime had an impact on her subsequent working activities
ldquo2072010 230-500 Back to the office for another client appt Felt more calm and centre
after meditation and also more confident than usual with this client who I can find
challengingrdquo (diarist 23 diary)
In this instance diarist 23 can be seen to embody the lsquointentionrsquo of mindfulness meditation in
which she maintained her current place within the lsquofieldrsquo (and indeed the proximity of her work to
the Buddhist Centre facilitated her practice) and changed her relationship to it via her practice
Impromptu informal mindfulness practices were also seen to lsquofitrsquo in the participantsrsquo everyday
routines enabling them to develop alternative relationships with events which they had habitually
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experienced as difficult For example diarist 19 a female administrator between the ages of 56 and
65 who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation described how she was able to do the
techniques when she needed them during her working day
ldquoAnd I think that having meditation throughout your day is probably far better than having
to do it every day It is a tool that you can just use any minute of the day Sometimes if
yoursquove got a really terrible time at work you shut yourself in the toilet and just breathe Andthen you can come out and go lsquoyes finersquo Because otherwise you might lose itrdquo (diarist 19
interview)
Other diarists however had not been able to lsquofitrsquo their practice easily within their everyday lives
and had developed other ways to negotiate the relationship between their practice and their context
For example diarist 4 a female academic between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with her partner
and practices mindfulness meditation and yoga identified a number of tensions arising as she tried
to accommodate the practice within her domestic routines She told us that she found it hard to
create a lsquospacersquo (literally and metaphorically) within her home to practise
Diarist 4 ldquoItrsquos really just a desire to be in that hellip place where itrsquos quiet hellip but Irsquom not very
good at it (and I think a lot of people have this problem) Irsquom not very good at taking myself
away from a very hectic environment where there seems to be lots going on and where lots
needs doing like you know supper needs cooking and the kitchen needs clearing and I
havenrsquot quite finished my emails Irsquom not very good at saying lsquoright yoga or meditationrsquo I
mean I am if Irsquove got a class (which is presumably why a lot of people use classes hellip) but
hellip just to extricate myself from all that and just go up to my room and sit there I still find
that quite difficultrdquo
Interviewer ldquoWhat do you mean To negotiate with others to do itrdquo
Diarist 4 ldquoNo just myself really I mean everyone elsersquod be fine lsquogo on go go awayrsquo
[laughs] hellip but erm I know Irsquom someone who needs to ndash whatever it is Irsquom trying to do if
Irsquom trying to sit and write ndash everything has to be cleared up first You have to have done the
laundry and got the breakfast and cleared that up and thatrsquos just the way I seem to be And I
thought that getting into meditation things might change that and I would just be able to
float through the kitchen see all the mess and float out the other side [laughs] It hasnrsquot quite
worked that way In fact you know in some ways I need to be more prepared and organised
in other ways to enjoy the meditationrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
What she describes here is how the space-time routines through which her life is structured and the
material contexts within which she lives make it difficult for her to practise at home (therefore
obscuring the potential for her to change her relation to those space-time routines and material
contexts) Her habits for doing work (ie needing to clear up before writing) also persist for doing
meditation A class ndash where ldquothe space would be organised by somebody else for usrdquo (diarist 4
interview) ndash would offer this clutter- and task-free space thereby circumventing her habitual
inability to do something where there are still domestic tasks remaining undone Yet she noted in
her interview that she ldquodoesnrsquot go to a class for that anymorerdquo60
She also told us that she had been
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983089983091
able to squeeze meditation into her already existing routines outside of the home aided by some
guided mindfulness meditation exercises downloaded on to her iPod so that she could listen to them
on the bus journey to work
ldquoIrsquove put [the guided meditation CDs] on my iPod as well now so I can have them I take
sometimes I have my iPod like on the bus hellip I sometimes do a little bit hellip of meditation on
the way out to [campus] on the bus because itrsquos just time that Irsquove got to myself so itrsquos quitenice helliprdquo (diarist 4 interview)
Her space-time diary showed that when she felt she really needed the practice she did manage to fit
it in at home
ldquo3152010 900-1100 up to do yogameditation 900-945 (home) Determined not to miss
this today as yesterday didnrsquot turn out so well with rushed start and no yogameditation
practicerdquo (diarist 4 diary)
Diarist 25 found that her current lifestyle both enabled and complicated her practice She had given
up work due to anxiety and then started meditation three months later (as a response to difficulties
that she was experiencing in her life) Giving up work had enabled her meditation and yoga
practice giving her time to attend sessions at the Buddhist centre on an almost daily basis Later
becoming a mother had also shaped her practice
ldquoHaving Baba has enabled me to do what Irsquom doing Actually having a kid and staying at
home has enabled me to get into meditation When he was little I used to take him along
to the Buddhist Centre and hersquod sleep and Irsquod go upstairs to one of the sessions and people
wouldnrsquot mind me leaving him in the buggy downstairs I mean I havenrsquot been doing that
so much recently but thatrsquos when Baba was [six months to 18 months] But now Baba will
go to sleep two hours in the middle of the day and I can do some thenrdquo (diarist 25interview)
The routine of her day with her child in combination with the support offered by the Buddhist
Centre enabled her to devote discrete time and space to her meditation She also used time with her
child to practice walking meditation saying ldquoI do walking meditation when Irsquom walking to the park
with Babardquo But this was not straightforwardly easy as she found pushing the pushchair
frustrated her practice ldquowhen Irsquom not pushing the buggy I can concentrate like on my feet - the
feelings of my feet ndash much easier than if Irsquom pushing the buggyrdquo
The experiences of these diarists show that it is not perhaps as straightforward as simply fitting the
practice within current space-time routines in order to alter onersquos experience of an existing life as
structured via those space-time routines (the kind of reflexive relation entailed in mindfulness
meditation) The teachers pragmatically acknowledged that fitting a formal daily meditation
practice in was difficult For instance teacher 2 explained that the main work done by students on
the MBSR and MBCT courses is in the time between the sessions rather than the sessions
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14
themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
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983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
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mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
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983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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2
techniques associated with wellbeing and good health including modern postural yoga dieting and
akin practices whose primary purpose is to work back upon the body so as to modify maintain or
schematise it in some wayrsquo11
In particular geographers have found habit to be a useful conceptual route into the lsquoheart of bodily
experiencesrsquo
12
enabling novel understandings to be developed of a mind-body-world assemblageacross which habit acts as a formative and generative force It has been used as a lens through
which to view a variety of cultural practices including dancing performing landscapes being a
passenger doing therapeutic massage walking and running13
In these writings habit is positioned
as central to developing understandings of how senses muscles and bodily dispositions are trained
how habitual embodied selves shape feelings and thoughts and how ubiquitous cultural practices
maintain or re-order the material and symbolic contexts in which habits take place Broadly
speaking then habit has enabled geographers to understand how cultural practices situate the
human body and self within such contexts and to ask important questions about corporeal changeand continuity the role of wider structures that situate us in the world and the relationship that we
have to our bodies in a diversity of contexts This paper speaks directly to these questions but also
addresses the relation between the body and self as mediated and shaped by habit More
specifically we focus on the articulations of habit and the development of a self-reflexive stance
enabling us to ponder what for some may become the mindrsquos critical self-awareness of the bodyrsquos
habits the latter of which may also include problematic mental habits with unhealthy bodily
correlates or symptoms The aim is to throw into relief not only lsquobodily experiencesrsquo involved in
habit but also the formation of a subjective relation to such bodily experiences as set within the
worldly contexts of wider habitual geographies
This at first seemingly strange meeting point of habit and reflexivity is one of the important tenets
of mindfulness meditation14
the case study which this paper addresses In the form of Mindfulness
Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) and Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) programmes
mindfulness meditation is a lsquosecularrsquo style of meditation deploying a variety of techniques which
intervene in established body mind and everyday habits perceived as damaging to the self (ones
supposedly resulting in stress anxiety and depression) The practice enables the cultivation of a
relation to the self that makes apparent the lsquohiddenrsquo habits upon which the self is understood to rest
encouraging the participant to form a new relation of awareness of these habits perhaps itself based
upon establishing new habits of judgement As a practical example which centralises the body
embodied habits and forms of self-reflexivity mindfulness meditation offers a clear opportunity to
avoid the eitheror alternative of social (or biological) determinism or sovereign chooser in relation
to habit It also allows us to configure both contemporary societal understandings of habit and the
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habitual body and contemporary experiences of embodiment embodied habits and corporeal
change (as reflected by for example practitioners who are seeking to modify or adapt their
possibly unknown habits) In order to do this we first seek to offer a framework for focusing upon
habit bodily techniques and self-reflexive practice via the work of sociologist Nick Crossley
whose work synthesises Bourdieu and Merleau-Ponty in order to offer an account of habit and self-
reflexivity in the context of reflexive body practices Following this we look at the role and
function of habit in mindfulness practice first by considering the attention paid to reflexive
techniques that are designed to interfere with habitual emotional and perceptual responses to
external and internal events and stimuli and secondly to understand how the practice is situated
within the wider everyday habits (including space-time routines) which constitute the ebb and flow
of participantsrsquo daily lives
2) Conceptualising habit
In a series of books and articles Crossley traces how conceptualisations of habit have emerged as
critiques of dualist theories of the body First he draws on Bourdieursquos idea of lsquohabitusrsquo which
outlines how past actions become sedimented in the body thus shaping the present Habitus works
across multiple embodied registers structuring perception thought and action into forms of know-
how and competences disposing the individual to act in particular ways in particular contexts and
thereby offering an understanding of the body that lsquocan account for its regularity coherence and
orderrsquo15
Within this conception of habitus habits are always socially constructed they are lsquothe way
society becomes deposited in persons in the form of lasting dispositions or trained capacities and
structured propensities to think feel and act in determinant waysrsquo16
These social practices are
embedded in the body and are reproduced via embodied actions This understanding of habit offers
insights into the reproduction of lsquosocietyrsquo and Crossley notes that the key political insight offered
by Bourdieu is in relation to this societal reproduction habitus is seen to render invisible the power
relations that structure society while being complicit in reproducing these power relations As such
habitus must be subjected to critique with analysis targeted towards the lsquounderlying and invisible
dynamics within fieldsrsquo that are credited with agency shaping the lsquoopportunities and actions of the
incumbents of various positions without those incumbents being necessarily aware of the factrsquo17
Bourdieu supposes it to be difficult for the individual to reflect upon and change the habitus
precisely because it functions lsquobelow the level of consciousness and language beyond the reach of
introspective scrutiny or control by the willrsquo18
Furthermore unless lsquoprompted by an experience that
disturbs their faith in the status quorsquo19
individuals are unlikely to cultivate a reflexive perspective
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Crossley argues that Bourdieursquos account would be enriched by the development of a lsquomore
hermeneutic perspective which admits of human reflexivityrsquo20
on the part of research subjects
critiquing Bourdieursquos work in three main ways Firstly Crossley argues that while Bourdieu claims
that the habitus offers a lsquoldquomiddle pathrdquo between determinism and free willrsquo21
his writing does not
clearly delineate the mechanism by which this path is achieved in practice For Crossley this
substantiates critiques of Bourdieu as a deterministic thinker 22 Secondly Crossley argues that
Bourdieu problematically conflates the agent with habit suggesting that there is in fact lsquomore to
agency than the concept of habit can fully capturersquo23
While habits shape the actions of the agent he
continues it is still (self-reflexive) agents who act24
Thirdly Crossley outlines the fact that there is
little in Bourdieursquos writing to enable exploration of the lsquosubjective side of the social worldrsquo25
In
order to counter these critiques and to develop a broader view of agency (indeed if lsquoagencyrsquo
remains the appropriate term in such a phenomenological rendering) Crossley argues that we need
to develop a more nuanced understanding of the human agent in relation to habit (avoiding
positioning ourselves on the side of either freedom or determinism) For Crossley the way to do
this is via a model of reflexive self constituted via language Drawing on the writing of
phenomenological thinker Merleau-Ponty26
he argues that it is by hearing ourselves think that we
find out what we think As well as becoming aware of our own thoughts via language (speech or
thoughts) we can enter into a dialogue or discussion with ourselves Language allows us to have a
relation to ourselves and it is this dialogue that constitutes the reflexive self for Crossley This
gives rise to Crossleyrsquos definition of agency as lsquopurposive and meaningful conduct shaped by
habitrsquo27
In defining the reflexive self Crossley notes that the act of reflection may itself become habitual so
we might cultivate a habit of self-reflection (or rather a lsquohabitual reflexivityrsquo) This might make us
into reflexive beings able to question and potentially change how we live Crossley therefore sees
self-reflection as offering liberatory possibilities and his understanding of habit via a
transformational framing has clear potential to contribute to a more diverse geographical figuring of
habit28
However it is important to note that the transformation Crossley envisions in relation to
habit and therefore the potential for liberation is inevitably limited because while agents are lsquonot
wholly pre-empted by the notion of the habitusrsquo29 the possibility of transformation is always located
within the existing habitus and the (habitual) contexts in which we are located Habits provide lsquothe
necessary background of meaning and preference which makes choice possiblersquo30
ndash for instance
our habits of thought cannot but shape the conversations we have with ourselves (so our horizons
for self-reflection are largely configured by our existing linguistic schemas) and the questions we
might ask ourselves are rooted in our social contexts (inasumuch as we can only perceive
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983093
deficiencies and attributions relative to others and collective representations) As such a radically
new perspective on the self is neither guaranteed nor perhaps even possible
Crossley usefully underlines the importance of examining relations between habit and reflexivity
negotiating the tension between transformation and habituation The significance that he attaches to
human agents is useful in thinking about the question of agency in relation to habit and reflexivityHowever the case study that this paper considers (mindfulness meditation) suggests the existence
of a different relation between reflexivity and habit Following an introduction to mindfulness
meditation and a discussion of the methods used the paper will look at the dialogue with the self
into which people can apparently enter via practices of mindfulness meditation and ask what kind
of collective representations structure the reflexive habit being developed in particular questioning
what habits are seen as problematic and why Following this the paper will examine the
relationship between worldly contexts and the development of these reflexive habits focusing on
how the participants negotiate the relationship between mindfulness meditation and their everydaylives Focussing on worldly contexts (eg everyday space-times) enables us to offer a supplement or
rejoinder to Crossleyrsquos account and opens up a social scientific and geographical perspective on the
practice of mindfulness in its everyday context31
The paper offers a distinct perspective on the
contemporary cultural and practical (possibly even political) significance of lsquohabitual geographiesrsquo
3) Mindfulness meditation methods and introduction to the practice
The research underpinning this paper derives from a funded project which aimed to look at the
lsquoplacersquo of two practices yoga and meditation sometimes configured as spiritual lsquopractices of the
selfrsquo32
We had a particular interest in how these practices happen in context both the lsquofitrsquo within
individualrsquos everyday lives and the space-time contexts within which they take place The year-long
project was carried out in Brighton and Hove a smallish city on the South coast of the UK which
has a high concentration of said practices We utilised a number of qualitative methods including
in-depth interviews with teachers and centre owners diary-interviews conducted with participants
and observant participation in yoga classes and on a mindfulness meditation course33
This paper
focuses on mindfulness meditation ndash or more specifically mindfulness meditation as it is currently
being practiced within a Western health and wellbeing context through the development of MBCT
and MBSR programmes MBSR was established by Jon Kabat-Zinn at the University of
Massachusetts Medical School in 197934
it was subsequently developed into MBCT during the
1990rsquos by the cognitive and behavioral psychologists Zindel Segal Mark Williams and John
Teasdale35
While there are plenty of books CDrsquos and websites through which people can learn
mindfulness meditation our research participants attended and were recruited via an eight week
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MBSR or MBCT course Such courses targeted at individuals who suffer from recurrent
depression anxiety or chronic pain are growing in popularity amongst the general population in the
UK and are slowly but increasingly being offered by local National Health Service mental health
trusts36
Mindfulness meditation is an integrative form of meditation that aims to cultivate awareness of the participantrsquos current experience (notably their thoughts and feelings) as well as an attitude of non-
judgement towards this experience As many authors have acknowledged the practice is a hybrid
between lsquoWestern cognitive science and Eastern practicesrsquo37
and while MBSR and MBCT courses
are effectively non-religious they draw in elements of Buddhist practice particularly insight
(Vipassana) meditation Most courses including the ones attended by our participants tend to focus
on three areas of (classroom andor homework) practice First they aim to teach participants a
number of mindful meditation techniques (such as breathing meditation the body scan mindful
eating and mindful walking) Secondly working with a group format (usually of 8-12 participants)they try to foster discussion and feedback about these techniques and to provide a space for self-
reflection Thirdly lsquohomeworkrsquo is set and learning materials are provided in the hope that
participants will establish a daily meditation practice (of about 40 minutes per day) and put the
techniques into practice during their daily life routines While we do not wish to go into the specific
details of each session during a course ndash not least because they are adapted by individual teachers ndash
in the following we outline some of the techniques central to these courses and outline the rationale
given for them38
Key to the course is for participants to become aware of a tendency to be on automatic pilot in their
thoughts feelings and actions ndash in other words not being present in your body while you are doing
something The aim instead is to cultivate a way of staying within and increasing awareness of the
lsquopresent momentrsquo Mindfulness of the breath meditation is one way to cultivate this skill39
a
lsquoBring your awareness to the level of physical sensations by focusing your attention on the
sensations of touch and pressure in your body where it makes contact with the floor and
whatever you are sitting on
b
Now bring your awareness to the changing patterns of physical sensations in the lower
abdomen as the breath moves in and out of your body
c Focus your awareness on the sensations of slight stretching as the abdominal wall rises with
each inbreath and of gentle deflation as it falls with each outbreath
d There is no need to try to control the breathing in any way ndash simply let the breath breathe
itself As best you can also bring this attitude of allowing to the rest of your experience
There is nothing to be fixed no particular state to be achieved As best you can simply allow
your experience to be your experience without needing it to be other than it is
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983095
e Sooner or later (usually sooner) your mind will wander away from the focus on the breath in
the lower abdomen to thoughts planning daydreams drifting along ndash whatever This is
perfectly OK ndash itrsquos simply what minds do hellipWhen you notice that your awareness is no
longer on the breath gently congratulate yourself ndash you have come back and are once more
aware of your experience hellip Then gently escort the awareness back to a focus on the
changing pattern of physical sensations in the lower abdomen renewing the intention to pay
attention to the ongoing inbreath and outbreath whichever you find
f
hellipAs best you can bring a quality of kindliness to your awareness perhaps seeing the
repeated wanderings of the mind as opportunities to bring patience and gentle curiosity to
your experiencersquo40
In another key practice which seeks simply to bring a lsquocuriousrsquo and lsquofriendlyrsquo awareness to
whatever is happening in the present the participant lies down for a body scan A teacher (in person
or via a CD) directs the participant to focus their attention around all the areas of their body in turn
lsquothe challenge is can you feel the toes of your left foot without wiggling them You tune
into the toes then gradually move your attention to the bottom of the foot and the heel and
feel the contact with the floor Then you move to the ankle and slowly up the leg to the pelvis Then you go to the toes of the right foot and move up the right leg Very slowly you
move up the torso through the lower back and abdomen then the upper back and chest and
the shoulders Then you go to the fingers on both hands and move up the arms to the
shoulders Then you move through the neck and throat the face and the back of the head
and then right on up through the top of the headrsquo41
The purpose of this is for the participant to become mindful of their experiences in the present
moment including their bodily sensations and the mindrsquos commentary (the lsquodiscursive mindrsquo as it
has been termed by writers on mindfulness meditation42
) Being mindful in everyday life is
practised through such techniques as mindful eating and mindful walking Both of these involve full
attention being given to the process of eating or walking the attention is paid to the food (how it
looks how it smells the act of cutting it the muscles used to bring it to the mouth the taste and
texture of the food as it is chewed slowly) or to the body walking (the feel of the ground as the foot
meets it the feel of the foot meeting the ground breathing the feel of the wind on the skin)
In the following section we draw on in-depth interviews with four mindfulness meditation
teachers43
and seven meditation students44
along with reference to some of the secondary literature
relating to MBSR and MBCT45
in order to look at two things first the shift from Crossleyrsquos
understanding of a discursive dialogue with the (habitual) self ndash which mindfulness meditation
understands to actually increase forms of mental suffering ndash towards the opening up of a non-
discursive form of self-reflexivity and secondly the significance of everyday (space-time) contexts
for the ability of the participants to develop this self-reflexive stance
4) Practising Mindfulness meditation
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i) Dialogue with the self towards habitual self-reflexivity
The lsquoproblemsrsquo that these practices are designed to address are those of particular mental patterns
which create and perpetuate stress unhappiness depression and dissatisfaction As already
introduced in the previous section fundamental to these problems is a kind of habitual lsquoautomatic
pilotrsquo operative at a sub- or semi-conscious level
46
This is generally the first thing introduced in theMBCT and MBSR courses and concerns a state in which the mind is passive lsquoallowing itself to be
ldquocaughtrdquo by thoughts memories plans or feelingsrsquo47
Our habitual patterns of thought transform
what might otherwise be a fleeting negative feelingthought into a more enduring form of negativity
or rumination Ruminative thought attempts to lsquoproblem solversquo by taking us back to past times
where we might previously have felt like this in lsquoan effort to understand what went wrongrsquo48
and to
project us into imagined futures Teacher 2 a female psychotherapist and teacher of MBCT clearly
describes this
ldquoyou know a lot of us just spend so much time flying out of our bodies trying to be in the
next place trying to be in the last place upset because you know wersquore thinking in the
past wersquore planning for the future wersquore not really presentrdquo49
(teacher 2)
The writing on mindfulness suggests that rumination does not solve our problems but rather is
likely to precipitate a lsquocascade of mental events that draws us down into a depressionrsquo50
The
lsquoproblemrsquo is not the feeling but rather how the mind reacts to the feeling51
This habit of mind is
seen to persist because of wider cultural beliefs that this is the best hope of revealing a lsquoway to
solve our problemsrsquo52
The hinge of the techniques is to teach the participants to recognise when their minds are running
on automatic pilot and lsquoto teach them to intentionally to shift their awareness to something elsersquo53
thus intervening in habits of thought and allowing the (agentic) reflexive self to change their
relation to these habits This change is made possible in mindfulness meditation by a focus on the
present moment accessed via attention to physical experiences of the immediate context The
objective of situating attention in the body is to lsquoget out of our heads and learn to experience the
world directly experientially without the relentless commentary of our thoughtsrsquo54
The diarists
reported that the practices had indeed had an effect on their habits of thought For instance diarist 5
a male musician between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with his partner and children and
practices mindfulness meditation and yoga said this
ldquoI think itrsquos actually noticing your thoughts and not letting them run away with you all the
time I think thatrsquos what has happened since Irsquove had the breakdown is that I was one of
these people whose thoughts raced a million miles an hour They still do to a degree but
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F o r P
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983097
much less so Now that could be the medicationhellip But maybe the combination of
medication and meditation slowed me down for the first time ever reallyrdquo (diarist 5)
Diarist 25 a female full time mother between the ages of 26 and 35 who lives with her partner and
child and practices mindfulness meditation noted that her life had been given a different rhythm
ldquoA lot of my life Irsquove just been running from one thing to another like in a frantic kind of
excited way because Irsquom quite an hellip energetic sort of person hellip I was doing lots of differentthings But I feel like Irsquod just been running from one thing to another and never stopping
And so this maybe has given me a chance to stoprdquo (diarist 25 interview)
Participants are trained to notice automatic pilot and in so doing to generate an alternative lsquohabitrsquo
of acute awareness of what is going on in the present (both in the world and in onersquos mind and
body) thus developing an interplay between attention (to the present moment) and a meta-
awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind (in the present moment) Still this
reflexivity often only became apparent after the individual had noticed that they had drifted off into
their usual state of autopilot Notable here is one of the assumptions of mindfulness that due to theinherently discursive nature of the mind the practice constantly fails As Segal et al put it
lsquowandering is what minds dorsquo55
and rather than berating the self for lsquofailingrsquo the teachers described
how an attitude of acceptance rather than judgement needs to be cultivated
ldquoAnd actually the core of mindfulness hellip is the letting go Is the being with hellip the
accepting of how things are and then just allowing things to be helliprdquo (teacher 2 interview)
ldquopeople come in distressed because of the judgements theyrsquore making about certain things
hellip lsquoOkay this is what is happening to your thinking style when yoursquore anxious or yoursquore
upset or you know someonersquos cut you up as you were driving into workrsquo Itrsquos hellip those
judgements that are driving the way that we react to life so yeah in terms of mindfulness
itrsquos just about noticing thatrsquos happening and not getting hooked in hellip to our dramas and our
reactionsrdquo (teacher 1 interview)
Changing the relationship between the self and these habits of thought so that the participant can
see them lsquoas they are simply streams of thinking events in the mind rather than getting lost in
themrsquo56
is seen as crucial to removing suffering
lsquoThat thing of if your thoughts drift off hellip most people think hellip [meditationrsquos] about
clearing your mind and being relaxed But no sometimes your headrsquos just full of stuff hellip If
you give yourself a hard time or you get self-critical about something yoursquove done yoursquore just making the whole problem a whole lot worse arenrsquot yoursquo (teacher 1 interview)
The reflexive subject emergent here differs from the one mapped out by Crossley in a number of
ways Firstly while Crossleyrsquos reflexive subject is constituted through dialogue (in particular the
ability to ask oneself questions and pose answers to them) mindfulness meditation sees these kinds
of dialogue to be problematic (inasmuch as they obscure the present moment and encourage
individuals to become caught up in ruminations) Secondly mindfulness meditation suspends the
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form of judgement that Crossley identifies as central to this self-reflexive dialogue (in which we
evaluate ourselves via the questions we ask ourselves and effect a change in our habits as a result)
In contrast mindfulness meditation cultivates a non-judgemental form of paying attention to the
self which doesnrsquot necessarily have to result in a change in habits Thirdly Crossleyrsquos version of
agency is characterised by a clear intentionality albeit shaped by habit In contrast agency is
constructed in mindfulness meditation via an ongoing dialogue between the mindful activity (ie
the attention to actions in the present moment ndash breathing walking eating and so forth) and a
wider meta-awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind as this activity proceeds
This gives agency a less purposive and more exploratory form
As a result of these differences the desired end-point of the transformation also differs Crossleyrsquos
reflexive self aims towards an end-point of a different body-mind generally constructed relative to
dominant norms around what a body-mind should be This has consequences for the social status
(within a particular lsquofieldrsquo) of an individual57
In contrast the reflexive self advocated inmindfulness meditation sets up an expansive sense of awareness in order to be more accepting of
the body-mind as it is and espouses an attitude of lsquonon-strivingrsquo58
This does not necessarily entail a
desire for change in status or position but rather the development of a different attitude towards
onersquos current position59
The reflexive self of mindfulness meditation thus offers a different model
of transformation while Crossleyrsquos reflexive self entails willing transformation in the self
mindfulness meditation absolutely does not involve this kind of will to transformation but rather
the transformation of the relationship to the self as it is This is not to say that the participant
becomes resigned to the current form of their selfhood ndash or framed in terms of habit they remain a
passive body helplessly drawn along by existing habits ndash but rather that their current form of
selfhood becomes something to be explored (by developing an active relationship to their embodied
habits)
Reflexive practices are always lsquodonersquo in specific material spatio-temporal contexts and the habits
that they are designed to reshape are always situated in and clearly related to these contexts While
Crossley gestures towards the material circumstances within which a reflexive self might engage
with habits (as he assesses how transformations in the self might relate to the socialcultural norms
that structure) his engagement with contexts is limited We suggest there is a need for a more
geographically sensitive engagement with habit and reflexivity As such it is important to look at
the relations that exist between body and world in such practices and so the following section will
trace two different relations that exist between bodies and contexts First it will examine how the
contexts within which reflexive body practices are undertaken shape the agency of habit andor the
reflexive self enabling or frustrating our abilities to relate tointervene in habits of thoughtbody
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983089983089
The section will trace how participants negotiate the techniques alongside the wider contexts of
their everyday lives attending to the relation between habits at the individual scale and wider
habitual geographies (eg working routines sleep childcare) Secondly it will look at how such
reflexive practices might change the relationship that we have with the material contexts within
which we live While Crossley suggests that we might experience a change in our position within
the field(s) where we are located by engagement with reflexive practices mindfulness meditation
potentially offers a different relation to context in which we do not change position but rather
change our relationship with the (existent) contexts where we are located
ii) Relationship with context intervening in geographies of habit
Looking at the experiences of a number of diarists is instructive in beginning to understand some of
the negotiations made between their practice and the routines of their wider lives For each diarist it
is useful to explore both of these relations first how wider contexts shape engagement with
mindfulness meditation and secondly how the practices change relations with these wider
contexts For example diarist 23 a female housing support worker between the ages of 36 and 45
who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation was seemingly able to experience the lsquoidealrsquo fit
between her practice and her wider life in that she could lsquofitrsquo it into her everyday working routine
(albeit in a relatively fraught way) and in turn it shaped her relationship with that work in a manner
that she experienced as positive She described how her workplace was close to the Buddhist Centre
and how she would normally
ldquohelliprush to the Buddhist Centre one minute before meditation starts and then hope that Irsquovegot some money to pay them and run upstairs trying to look calm try and remember how
many cushions I need sit down pant a bit and then kind of think I always do this and next
time Irsquoll try and get here a bit earlier But at least Irsquom here and yeah itrsquos better than nothingrdquo
(diarist 23 interview)
As well as being able to fit her practice into her working day her space-time diary described how
the practice at lunchtime had an impact on her subsequent working activities
ldquo2072010 230-500 Back to the office for another client appt Felt more calm and centre
after meditation and also more confident than usual with this client who I can find
challengingrdquo (diarist 23 diary)
In this instance diarist 23 can be seen to embody the lsquointentionrsquo of mindfulness meditation in
which she maintained her current place within the lsquofieldrsquo (and indeed the proximity of her work to
the Buddhist Centre facilitated her practice) and changed her relationship to it via her practice
Impromptu informal mindfulness practices were also seen to lsquofitrsquo in the participantsrsquo everyday
routines enabling them to develop alternative relationships with events which they had habitually
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experienced as difficult For example diarist 19 a female administrator between the ages of 56 and
65 who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation described how she was able to do the
techniques when she needed them during her working day
ldquoAnd I think that having meditation throughout your day is probably far better than having
to do it every day It is a tool that you can just use any minute of the day Sometimes if
yoursquove got a really terrible time at work you shut yourself in the toilet and just breathe Andthen you can come out and go lsquoyes finersquo Because otherwise you might lose itrdquo (diarist 19
interview)
Other diarists however had not been able to lsquofitrsquo their practice easily within their everyday lives
and had developed other ways to negotiate the relationship between their practice and their context
For example diarist 4 a female academic between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with her partner
and practices mindfulness meditation and yoga identified a number of tensions arising as she tried
to accommodate the practice within her domestic routines She told us that she found it hard to
create a lsquospacersquo (literally and metaphorically) within her home to practise
Diarist 4 ldquoItrsquos really just a desire to be in that hellip place where itrsquos quiet hellip but Irsquom not very
good at it (and I think a lot of people have this problem) Irsquom not very good at taking myself
away from a very hectic environment where there seems to be lots going on and where lots
needs doing like you know supper needs cooking and the kitchen needs clearing and I
havenrsquot quite finished my emails Irsquom not very good at saying lsquoright yoga or meditationrsquo I
mean I am if Irsquove got a class (which is presumably why a lot of people use classes hellip) but
hellip just to extricate myself from all that and just go up to my room and sit there I still find
that quite difficultrdquo
Interviewer ldquoWhat do you mean To negotiate with others to do itrdquo
Diarist 4 ldquoNo just myself really I mean everyone elsersquod be fine lsquogo on go go awayrsquo
[laughs] hellip but erm I know Irsquom someone who needs to ndash whatever it is Irsquom trying to do if
Irsquom trying to sit and write ndash everything has to be cleared up first You have to have done the
laundry and got the breakfast and cleared that up and thatrsquos just the way I seem to be And I
thought that getting into meditation things might change that and I would just be able to
float through the kitchen see all the mess and float out the other side [laughs] It hasnrsquot quite
worked that way In fact you know in some ways I need to be more prepared and organised
in other ways to enjoy the meditationrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
What she describes here is how the space-time routines through which her life is structured and the
material contexts within which she lives make it difficult for her to practise at home (therefore
obscuring the potential for her to change her relation to those space-time routines and material
contexts) Her habits for doing work (ie needing to clear up before writing) also persist for doing
meditation A class ndash where ldquothe space would be organised by somebody else for usrdquo (diarist 4
interview) ndash would offer this clutter- and task-free space thereby circumventing her habitual
inability to do something where there are still domestic tasks remaining undone Yet she noted in
her interview that she ldquodoesnrsquot go to a class for that anymorerdquo60
She also told us that she had been
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983089983091
able to squeeze meditation into her already existing routines outside of the home aided by some
guided mindfulness meditation exercises downloaded on to her iPod so that she could listen to them
on the bus journey to work
ldquoIrsquove put [the guided meditation CDs] on my iPod as well now so I can have them I take
sometimes I have my iPod like on the bus hellip I sometimes do a little bit hellip of meditation on
the way out to [campus] on the bus because itrsquos just time that Irsquove got to myself so itrsquos quitenice helliprdquo (diarist 4 interview)
Her space-time diary showed that when she felt she really needed the practice she did manage to fit
it in at home
ldquo3152010 900-1100 up to do yogameditation 900-945 (home) Determined not to miss
this today as yesterday didnrsquot turn out so well with rushed start and no yogameditation
practicerdquo (diarist 4 diary)
Diarist 25 found that her current lifestyle both enabled and complicated her practice She had given
up work due to anxiety and then started meditation three months later (as a response to difficulties
that she was experiencing in her life) Giving up work had enabled her meditation and yoga
practice giving her time to attend sessions at the Buddhist centre on an almost daily basis Later
becoming a mother had also shaped her practice
ldquoHaving Baba has enabled me to do what Irsquom doing Actually having a kid and staying at
home has enabled me to get into meditation When he was little I used to take him along
to the Buddhist Centre and hersquod sleep and Irsquod go upstairs to one of the sessions and people
wouldnrsquot mind me leaving him in the buggy downstairs I mean I havenrsquot been doing that
so much recently but thatrsquos when Baba was [six months to 18 months] But now Baba will
go to sleep two hours in the middle of the day and I can do some thenrdquo (diarist 25interview)
The routine of her day with her child in combination with the support offered by the Buddhist
Centre enabled her to devote discrete time and space to her meditation She also used time with her
child to practice walking meditation saying ldquoI do walking meditation when Irsquom walking to the park
with Babardquo But this was not straightforwardly easy as she found pushing the pushchair
frustrated her practice ldquowhen Irsquom not pushing the buggy I can concentrate like on my feet - the
feelings of my feet ndash much easier than if Irsquom pushing the buggyrdquo
The experiences of these diarists show that it is not perhaps as straightforward as simply fitting the
practice within current space-time routines in order to alter onersquos experience of an existing life as
structured via those space-time routines (the kind of reflexive relation entailed in mindfulness
meditation) The teachers pragmatically acknowledged that fitting a formal daily meditation
practice in was difficult For instance teacher 2 explained that the main work done by students on
the MBSR and MBCT courses is in the time between the sessions rather than the sessions
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14
themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
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983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
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mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
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983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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F o r P
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983091
habitual body and contemporary experiences of embodiment embodied habits and corporeal
change (as reflected by for example practitioners who are seeking to modify or adapt their
possibly unknown habits) In order to do this we first seek to offer a framework for focusing upon
habit bodily techniques and self-reflexive practice via the work of sociologist Nick Crossley
whose work synthesises Bourdieu and Merleau-Ponty in order to offer an account of habit and self-
reflexivity in the context of reflexive body practices Following this we look at the role and
function of habit in mindfulness practice first by considering the attention paid to reflexive
techniques that are designed to interfere with habitual emotional and perceptual responses to
external and internal events and stimuli and secondly to understand how the practice is situated
within the wider everyday habits (including space-time routines) which constitute the ebb and flow
of participantsrsquo daily lives
2) Conceptualising habit
In a series of books and articles Crossley traces how conceptualisations of habit have emerged as
critiques of dualist theories of the body First he draws on Bourdieursquos idea of lsquohabitusrsquo which
outlines how past actions become sedimented in the body thus shaping the present Habitus works
across multiple embodied registers structuring perception thought and action into forms of know-
how and competences disposing the individual to act in particular ways in particular contexts and
thereby offering an understanding of the body that lsquocan account for its regularity coherence and
orderrsquo15
Within this conception of habitus habits are always socially constructed they are lsquothe way
society becomes deposited in persons in the form of lasting dispositions or trained capacities and
structured propensities to think feel and act in determinant waysrsquo16
These social practices are
embedded in the body and are reproduced via embodied actions This understanding of habit offers
insights into the reproduction of lsquosocietyrsquo and Crossley notes that the key political insight offered
by Bourdieu is in relation to this societal reproduction habitus is seen to render invisible the power
relations that structure society while being complicit in reproducing these power relations As such
habitus must be subjected to critique with analysis targeted towards the lsquounderlying and invisible
dynamics within fieldsrsquo that are credited with agency shaping the lsquoopportunities and actions of the
incumbents of various positions without those incumbents being necessarily aware of the factrsquo17
Bourdieu supposes it to be difficult for the individual to reflect upon and change the habitus
precisely because it functions lsquobelow the level of consciousness and language beyond the reach of
introspective scrutiny or control by the willrsquo18
Furthermore unless lsquoprompted by an experience that
disturbs their faith in the status quorsquo19
individuals are unlikely to cultivate a reflexive perspective
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Crossley argues that Bourdieursquos account would be enriched by the development of a lsquomore
hermeneutic perspective which admits of human reflexivityrsquo20
on the part of research subjects
critiquing Bourdieursquos work in three main ways Firstly Crossley argues that while Bourdieu claims
that the habitus offers a lsquoldquomiddle pathrdquo between determinism and free willrsquo21
his writing does not
clearly delineate the mechanism by which this path is achieved in practice For Crossley this
substantiates critiques of Bourdieu as a deterministic thinker 22 Secondly Crossley argues that
Bourdieu problematically conflates the agent with habit suggesting that there is in fact lsquomore to
agency than the concept of habit can fully capturersquo23
While habits shape the actions of the agent he
continues it is still (self-reflexive) agents who act24
Thirdly Crossley outlines the fact that there is
little in Bourdieursquos writing to enable exploration of the lsquosubjective side of the social worldrsquo25
In
order to counter these critiques and to develop a broader view of agency (indeed if lsquoagencyrsquo
remains the appropriate term in such a phenomenological rendering) Crossley argues that we need
to develop a more nuanced understanding of the human agent in relation to habit (avoiding
positioning ourselves on the side of either freedom or determinism) For Crossley the way to do
this is via a model of reflexive self constituted via language Drawing on the writing of
phenomenological thinker Merleau-Ponty26
he argues that it is by hearing ourselves think that we
find out what we think As well as becoming aware of our own thoughts via language (speech or
thoughts) we can enter into a dialogue or discussion with ourselves Language allows us to have a
relation to ourselves and it is this dialogue that constitutes the reflexive self for Crossley This
gives rise to Crossleyrsquos definition of agency as lsquopurposive and meaningful conduct shaped by
habitrsquo27
In defining the reflexive self Crossley notes that the act of reflection may itself become habitual so
we might cultivate a habit of self-reflection (or rather a lsquohabitual reflexivityrsquo) This might make us
into reflexive beings able to question and potentially change how we live Crossley therefore sees
self-reflection as offering liberatory possibilities and his understanding of habit via a
transformational framing has clear potential to contribute to a more diverse geographical figuring of
habit28
However it is important to note that the transformation Crossley envisions in relation to
habit and therefore the potential for liberation is inevitably limited because while agents are lsquonot
wholly pre-empted by the notion of the habitusrsquo29 the possibility of transformation is always located
within the existing habitus and the (habitual) contexts in which we are located Habits provide lsquothe
necessary background of meaning and preference which makes choice possiblersquo30
ndash for instance
our habits of thought cannot but shape the conversations we have with ourselves (so our horizons
for self-reflection are largely configured by our existing linguistic schemas) and the questions we
might ask ourselves are rooted in our social contexts (inasumuch as we can only perceive
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deficiencies and attributions relative to others and collective representations) As such a radically
new perspective on the self is neither guaranteed nor perhaps even possible
Crossley usefully underlines the importance of examining relations between habit and reflexivity
negotiating the tension between transformation and habituation The significance that he attaches to
human agents is useful in thinking about the question of agency in relation to habit and reflexivityHowever the case study that this paper considers (mindfulness meditation) suggests the existence
of a different relation between reflexivity and habit Following an introduction to mindfulness
meditation and a discussion of the methods used the paper will look at the dialogue with the self
into which people can apparently enter via practices of mindfulness meditation and ask what kind
of collective representations structure the reflexive habit being developed in particular questioning
what habits are seen as problematic and why Following this the paper will examine the
relationship between worldly contexts and the development of these reflexive habits focusing on
how the participants negotiate the relationship between mindfulness meditation and their everydaylives Focussing on worldly contexts (eg everyday space-times) enables us to offer a supplement or
rejoinder to Crossleyrsquos account and opens up a social scientific and geographical perspective on the
practice of mindfulness in its everyday context31
The paper offers a distinct perspective on the
contemporary cultural and practical (possibly even political) significance of lsquohabitual geographiesrsquo
3) Mindfulness meditation methods and introduction to the practice
The research underpinning this paper derives from a funded project which aimed to look at the
lsquoplacersquo of two practices yoga and meditation sometimes configured as spiritual lsquopractices of the
selfrsquo32
We had a particular interest in how these practices happen in context both the lsquofitrsquo within
individualrsquos everyday lives and the space-time contexts within which they take place The year-long
project was carried out in Brighton and Hove a smallish city on the South coast of the UK which
has a high concentration of said practices We utilised a number of qualitative methods including
in-depth interviews with teachers and centre owners diary-interviews conducted with participants
and observant participation in yoga classes and on a mindfulness meditation course33
This paper
focuses on mindfulness meditation ndash or more specifically mindfulness meditation as it is currently
being practiced within a Western health and wellbeing context through the development of MBCT
and MBSR programmes MBSR was established by Jon Kabat-Zinn at the University of
Massachusetts Medical School in 197934
it was subsequently developed into MBCT during the
1990rsquos by the cognitive and behavioral psychologists Zindel Segal Mark Williams and John
Teasdale35
While there are plenty of books CDrsquos and websites through which people can learn
mindfulness meditation our research participants attended and were recruited via an eight week
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MBSR or MBCT course Such courses targeted at individuals who suffer from recurrent
depression anxiety or chronic pain are growing in popularity amongst the general population in the
UK and are slowly but increasingly being offered by local National Health Service mental health
trusts36
Mindfulness meditation is an integrative form of meditation that aims to cultivate awareness of the participantrsquos current experience (notably their thoughts and feelings) as well as an attitude of non-
judgement towards this experience As many authors have acknowledged the practice is a hybrid
between lsquoWestern cognitive science and Eastern practicesrsquo37
and while MBSR and MBCT courses
are effectively non-religious they draw in elements of Buddhist practice particularly insight
(Vipassana) meditation Most courses including the ones attended by our participants tend to focus
on three areas of (classroom andor homework) practice First they aim to teach participants a
number of mindful meditation techniques (such as breathing meditation the body scan mindful
eating and mindful walking) Secondly working with a group format (usually of 8-12 participants)they try to foster discussion and feedback about these techniques and to provide a space for self-
reflection Thirdly lsquohomeworkrsquo is set and learning materials are provided in the hope that
participants will establish a daily meditation practice (of about 40 minutes per day) and put the
techniques into practice during their daily life routines While we do not wish to go into the specific
details of each session during a course ndash not least because they are adapted by individual teachers ndash
in the following we outline some of the techniques central to these courses and outline the rationale
given for them38
Key to the course is for participants to become aware of a tendency to be on automatic pilot in their
thoughts feelings and actions ndash in other words not being present in your body while you are doing
something The aim instead is to cultivate a way of staying within and increasing awareness of the
lsquopresent momentrsquo Mindfulness of the breath meditation is one way to cultivate this skill39
a
lsquoBring your awareness to the level of physical sensations by focusing your attention on the
sensations of touch and pressure in your body where it makes contact with the floor and
whatever you are sitting on
b
Now bring your awareness to the changing patterns of physical sensations in the lower
abdomen as the breath moves in and out of your body
c Focus your awareness on the sensations of slight stretching as the abdominal wall rises with
each inbreath and of gentle deflation as it falls with each outbreath
d There is no need to try to control the breathing in any way ndash simply let the breath breathe
itself As best you can also bring this attitude of allowing to the rest of your experience
There is nothing to be fixed no particular state to be achieved As best you can simply allow
your experience to be your experience without needing it to be other than it is
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e Sooner or later (usually sooner) your mind will wander away from the focus on the breath in
the lower abdomen to thoughts planning daydreams drifting along ndash whatever This is
perfectly OK ndash itrsquos simply what minds do hellipWhen you notice that your awareness is no
longer on the breath gently congratulate yourself ndash you have come back and are once more
aware of your experience hellip Then gently escort the awareness back to a focus on the
changing pattern of physical sensations in the lower abdomen renewing the intention to pay
attention to the ongoing inbreath and outbreath whichever you find
f
hellipAs best you can bring a quality of kindliness to your awareness perhaps seeing the
repeated wanderings of the mind as opportunities to bring patience and gentle curiosity to
your experiencersquo40
In another key practice which seeks simply to bring a lsquocuriousrsquo and lsquofriendlyrsquo awareness to
whatever is happening in the present the participant lies down for a body scan A teacher (in person
or via a CD) directs the participant to focus their attention around all the areas of their body in turn
lsquothe challenge is can you feel the toes of your left foot without wiggling them You tune
into the toes then gradually move your attention to the bottom of the foot and the heel and
feel the contact with the floor Then you move to the ankle and slowly up the leg to the pelvis Then you go to the toes of the right foot and move up the right leg Very slowly you
move up the torso through the lower back and abdomen then the upper back and chest and
the shoulders Then you go to the fingers on both hands and move up the arms to the
shoulders Then you move through the neck and throat the face and the back of the head
and then right on up through the top of the headrsquo41
The purpose of this is for the participant to become mindful of their experiences in the present
moment including their bodily sensations and the mindrsquos commentary (the lsquodiscursive mindrsquo as it
has been termed by writers on mindfulness meditation42
) Being mindful in everyday life is
practised through such techniques as mindful eating and mindful walking Both of these involve full
attention being given to the process of eating or walking the attention is paid to the food (how it
looks how it smells the act of cutting it the muscles used to bring it to the mouth the taste and
texture of the food as it is chewed slowly) or to the body walking (the feel of the ground as the foot
meets it the feel of the foot meeting the ground breathing the feel of the wind on the skin)
In the following section we draw on in-depth interviews with four mindfulness meditation
teachers43
and seven meditation students44
along with reference to some of the secondary literature
relating to MBSR and MBCT45
in order to look at two things first the shift from Crossleyrsquos
understanding of a discursive dialogue with the (habitual) self ndash which mindfulness meditation
understands to actually increase forms of mental suffering ndash towards the opening up of a non-
discursive form of self-reflexivity and secondly the significance of everyday (space-time) contexts
for the ability of the participants to develop this self-reflexive stance
4) Practising Mindfulness meditation
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i) Dialogue with the self towards habitual self-reflexivity
The lsquoproblemsrsquo that these practices are designed to address are those of particular mental patterns
which create and perpetuate stress unhappiness depression and dissatisfaction As already
introduced in the previous section fundamental to these problems is a kind of habitual lsquoautomatic
pilotrsquo operative at a sub- or semi-conscious level
46
This is generally the first thing introduced in theMBCT and MBSR courses and concerns a state in which the mind is passive lsquoallowing itself to be
ldquocaughtrdquo by thoughts memories plans or feelingsrsquo47
Our habitual patterns of thought transform
what might otherwise be a fleeting negative feelingthought into a more enduring form of negativity
or rumination Ruminative thought attempts to lsquoproblem solversquo by taking us back to past times
where we might previously have felt like this in lsquoan effort to understand what went wrongrsquo48
and to
project us into imagined futures Teacher 2 a female psychotherapist and teacher of MBCT clearly
describes this
ldquoyou know a lot of us just spend so much time flying out of our bodies trying to be in the
next place trying to be in the last place upset because you know wersquore thinking in the
past wersquore planning for the future wersquore not really presentrdquo49
(teacher 2)
The writing on mindfulness suggests that rumination does not solve our problems but rather is
likely to precipitate a lsquocascade of mental events that draws us down into a depressionrsquo50
The
lsquoproblemrsquo is not the feeling but rather how the mind reacts to the feeling51
This habit of mind is
seen to persist because of wider cultural beliefs that this is the best hope of revealing a lsquoway to
solve our problemsrsquo52
The hinge of the techniques is to teach the participants to recognise when their minds are running
on automatic pilot and lsquoto teach them to intentionally to shift their awareness to something elsersquo53
thus intervening in habits of thought and allowing the (agentic) reflexive self to change their
relation to these habits This change is made possible in mindfulness meditation by a focus on the
present moment accessed via attention to physical experiences of the immediate context The
objective of situating attention in the body is to lsquoget out of our heads and learn to experience the
world directly experientially without the relentless commentary of our thoughtsrsquo54
The diarists
reported that the practices had indeed had an effect on their habits of thought For instance diarist 5
a male musician between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with his partner and children and
practices mindfulness meditation and yoga said this
ldquoI think itrsquos actually noticing your thoughts and not letting them run away with you all the
time I think thatrsquos what has happened since Irsquove had the breakdown is that I was one of
these people whose thoughts raced a million miles an hour They still do to a degree but
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F o r P
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983097
much less so Now that could be the medicationhellip But maybe the combination of
medication and meditation slowed me down for the first time ever reallyrdquo (diarist 5)
Diarist 25 a female full time mother between the ages of 26 and 35 who lives with her partner and
child and practices mindfulness meditation noted that her life had been given a different rhythm
ldquoA lot of my life Irsquove just been running from one thing to another like in a frantic kind of
excited way because Irsquom quite an hellip energetic sort of person hellip I was doing lots of differentthings But I feel like Irsquod just been running from one thing to another and never stopping
And so this maybe has given me a chance to stoprdquo (diarist 25 interview)
Participants are trained to notice automatic pilot and in so doing to generate an alternative lsquohabitrsquo
of acute awareness of what is going on in the present (both in the world and in onersquos mind and
body) thus developing an interplay between attention (to the present moment) and a meta-
awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind (in the present moment) Still this
reflexivity often only became apparent after the individual had noticed that they had drifted off into
their usual state of autopilot Notable here is one of the assumptions of mindfulness that due to theinherently discursive nature of the mind the practice constantly fails As Segal et al put it
lsquowandering is what minds dorsquo55
and rather than berating the self for lsquofailingrsquo the teachers described
how an attitude of acceptance rather than judgement needs to be cultivated
ldquoAnd actually the core of mindfulness hellip is the letting go Is the being with hellip the
accepting of how things are and then just allowing things to be helliprdquo (teacher 2 interview)
ldquopeople come in distressed because of the judgements theyrsquore making about certain things
hellip lsquoOkay this is what is happening to your thinking style when yoursquore anxious or yoursquore
upset or you know someonersquos cut you up as you were driving into workrsquo Itrsquos hellip those
judgements that are driving the way that we react to life so yeah in terms of mindfulness
itrsquos just about noticing thatrsquos happening and not getting hooked in hellip to our dramas and our
reactionsrdquo (teacher 1 interview)
Changing the relationship between the self and these habits of thought so that the participant can
see them lsquoas they are simply streams of thinking events in the mind rather than getting lost in
themrsquo56
is seen as crucial to removing suffering
lsquoThat thing of if your thoughts drift off hellip most people think hellip [meditationrsquos] about
clearing your mind and being relaxed But no sometimes your headrsquos just full of stuff hellip If
you give yourself a hard time or you get self-critical about something yoursquove done yoursquore just making the whole problem a whole lot worse arenrsquot yoursquo (teacher 1 interview)
The reflexive subject emergent here differs from the one mapped out by Crossley in a number of
ways Firstly while Crossleyrsquos reflexive subject is constituted through dialogue (in particular the
ability to ask oneself questions and pose answers to them) mindfulness meditation sees these kinds
of dialogue to be problematic (inasmuch as they obscure the present moment and encourage
individuals to become caught up in ruminations) Secondly mindfulness meditation suspends the
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form of judgement that Crossley identifies as central to this self-reflexive dialogue (in which we
evaluate ourselves via the questions we ask ourselves and effect a change in our habits as a result)
In contrast mindfulness meditation cultivates a non-judgemental form of paying attention to the
self which doesnrsquot necessarily have to result in a change in habits Thirdly Crossleyrsquos version of
agency is characterised by a clear intentionality albeit shaped by habit In contrast agency is
constructed in mindfulness meditation via an ongoing dialogue between the mindful activity (ie
the attention to actions in the present moment ndash breathing walking eating and so forth) and a
wider meta-awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind as this activity proceeds
This gives agency a less purposive and more exploratory form
As a result of these differences the desired end-point of the transformation also differs Crossleyrsquos
reflexive self aims towards an end-point of a different body-mind generally constructed relative to
dominant norms around what a body-mind should be This has consequences for the social status
(within a particular lsquofieldrsquo) of an individual57
In contrast the reflexive self advocated inmindfulness meditation sets up an expansive sense of awareness in order to be more accepting of
the body-mind as it is and espouses an attitude of lsquonon-strivingrsquo58
This does not necessarily entail a
desire for change in status or position but rather the development of a different attitude towards
onersquos current position59
The reflexive self of mindfulness meditation thus offers a different model
of transformation while Crossleyrsquos reflexive self entails willing transformation in the self
mindfulness meditation absolutely does not involve this kind of will to transformation but rather
the transformation of the relationship to the self as it is This is not to say that the participant
becomes resigned to the current form of their selfhood ndash or framed in terms of habit they remain a
passive body helplessly drawn along by existing habits ndash but rather that their current form of
selfhood becomes something to be explored (by developing an active relationship to their embodied
habits)
Reflexive practices are always lsquodonersquo in specific material spatio-temporal contexts and the habits
that they are designed to reshape are always situated in and clearly related to these contexts While
Crossley gestures towards the material circumstances within which a reflexive self might engage
with habits (as he assesses how transformations in the self might relate to the socialcultural norms
that structure) his engagement with contexts is limited We suggest there is a need for a more
geographically sensitive engagement with habit and reflexivity As such it is important to look at
the relations that exist between body and world in such practices and so the following section will
trace two different relations that exist between bodies and contexts First it will examine how the
contexts within which reflexive body practices are undertaken shape the agency of habit andor the
reflexive self enabling or frustrating our abilities to relate tointervene in habits of thoughtbody
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The section will trace how participants negotiate the techniques alongside the wider contexts of
their everyday lives attending to the relation between habits at the individual scale and wider
habitual geographies (eg working routines sleep childcare) Secondly it will look at how such
reflexive practices might change the relationship that we have with the material contexts within
which we live While Crossley suggests that we might experience a change in our position within
the field(s) where we are located by engagement with reflexive practices mindfulness meditation
potentially offers a different relation to context in which we do not change position but rather
change our relationship with the (existent) contexts where we are located
ii) Relationship with context intervening in geographies of habit
Looking at the experiences of a number of diarists is instructive in beginning to understand some of
the negotiations made between their practice and the routines of their wider lives For each diarist it
is useful to explore both of these relations first how wider contexts shape engagement with
mindfulness meditation and secondly how the practices change relations with these wider
contexts For example diarist 23 a female housing support worker between the ages of 36 and 45
who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation was seemingly able to experience the lsquoidealrsquo fit
between her practice and her wider life in that she could lsquofitrsquo it into her everyday working routine
(albeit in a relatively fraught way) and in turn it shaped her relationship with that work in a manner
that she experienced as positive She described how her workplace was close to the Buddhist Centre
and how she would normally
ldquohelliprush to the Buddhist Centre one minute before meditation starts and then hope that Irsquovegot some money to pay them and run upstairs trying to look calm try and remember how
many cushions I need sit down pant a bit and then kind of think I always do this and next
time Irsquoll try and get here a bit earlier But at least Irsquom here and yeah itrsquos better than nothingrdquo
(diarist 23 interview)
As well as being able to fit her practice into her working day her space-time diary described how
the practice at lunchtime had an impact on her subsequent working activities
ldquo2072010 230-500 Back to the office for another client appt Felt more calm and centre
after meditation and also more confident than usual with this client who I can find
challengingrdquo (diarist 23 diary)
In this instance diarist 23 can be seen to embody the lsquointentionrsquo of mindfulness meditation in
which she maintained her current place within the lsquofieldrsquo (and indeed the proximity of her work to
the Buddhist Centre facilitated her practice) and changed her relationship to it via her practice
Impromptu informal mindfulness practices were also seen to lsquofitrsquo in the participantsrsquo everyday
routines enabling them to develop alternative relationships with events which they had habitually
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experienced as difficult For example diarist 19 a female administrator between the ages of 56 and
65 who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation described how she was able to do the
techniques when she needed them during her working day
ldquoAnd I think that having meditation throughout your day is probably far better than having
to do it every day It is a tool that you can just use any minute of the day Sometimes if
yoursquove got a really terrible time at work you shut yourself in the toilet and just breathe Andthen you can come out and go lsquoyes finersquo Because otherwise you might lose itrdquo (diarist 19
interview)
Other diarists however had not been able to lsquofitrsquo their practice easily within their everyday lives
and had developed other ways to negotiate the relationship between their practice and their context
For example diarist 4 a female academic between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with her partner
and practices mindfulness meditation and yoga identified a number of tensions arising as she tried
to accommodate the practice within her domestic routines She told us that she found it hard to
create a lsquospacersquo (literally and metaphorically) within her home to practise
Diarist 4 ldquoItrsquos really just a desire to be in that hellip place where itrsquos quiet hellip but Irsquom not very
good at it (and I think a lot of people have this problem) Irsquom not very good at taking myself
away from a very hectic environment where there seems to be lots going on and where lots
needs doing like you know supper needs cooking and the kitchen needs clearing and I
havenrsquot quite finished my emails Irsquom not very good at saying lsquoright yoga or meditationrsquo I
mean I am if Irsquove got a class (which is presumably why a lot of people use classes hellip) but
hellip just to extricate myself from all that and just go up to my room and sit there I still find
that quite difficultrdquo
Interviewer ldquoWhat do you mean To negotiate with others to do itrdquo
Diarist 4 ldquoNo just myself really I mean everyone elsersquod be fine lsquogo on go go awayrsquo
[laughs] hellip but erm I know Irsquom someone who needs to ndash whatever it is Irsquom trying to do if
Irsquom trying to sit and write ndash everything has to be cleared up first You have to have done the
laundry and got the breakfast and cleared that up and thatrsquos just the way I seem to be And I
thought that getting into meditation things might change that and I would just be able to
float through the kitchen see all the mess and float out the other side [laughs] It hasnrsquot quite
worked that way In fact you know in some ways I need to be more prepared and organised
in other ways to enjoy the meditationrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
What she describes here is how the space-time routines through which her life is structured and the
material contexts within which she lives make it difficult for her to practise at home (therefore
obscuring the potential for her to change her relation to those space-time routines and material
contexts) Her habits for doing work (ie needing to clear up before writing) also persist for doing
meditation A class ndash where ldquothe space would be organised by somebody else for usrdquo (diarist 4
interview) ndash would offer this clutter- and task-free space thereby circumventing her habitual
inability to do something where there are still domestic tasks remaining undone Yet she noted in
her interview that she ldquodoesnrsquot go to a class for that anymorerdquo60
She also told us that she had been
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able to squeeze meditation into her already existing routines outside of the home aided by some
guided mindfulness meditation exercises downloaded on to her iPod so that she could listen to them
on the bus journey to work
ldquoIrsquove put [the guided meditation CDs] on my iPod as well now so I can have them I take
sometimes I have my iPod like on the bus hellip I sometimes do a little bit hellip of meditation on
the way out to [campus] on the bus because itrsquos just time that Irsquove got to myself so itrsquos quitenice helliprdquo (diarist 4 interview)
Her space-time diary showed that when she felt she really needed the practice she did manage to fit
it in at home
ldquo3152010 900-1100 up to do yogameditation 900-945 (home) Determined not to miss
this today as yesterday didnrsquot turn out so well with rushed start and no yogameditation
practicerdquo (diarist 4 diary)
Diarist 25 found that her current lifestyle both enabled and complicated her practice She had given
up work due to anxiety and then started meditation three months later (as a response to difficulties
that she was experiencing in her life) Giving up work had enabled her meditation and yoga
practice giving her time to attend sessions at the Buddhist centre on an almost daily basis Later
becoming a mother had also shaped her practice
ldquoHaving Baba has enabled me to do what Irsquom doing Actually having a kid and staying at
home has enabled me to get into meditation When he was little I used to take him along
to the Buddhist Centre and hersquod sleep and Irsquod go upstairs to one of the sessions and people
wouldnrsquot mind me leaving him in the buggy downstairs I mean I havenrsquot been doing that
so much recently but thatrsquos when Baba was [six months to 18 months] But now Baba will
go to sleep two hours in the middle of the day and I can do some thenrdquo (diarist 25interview)
The routine of her day with her child in combination with the support offered by the Buddhist
Centre enabled her to devote discrete time and space to her meditation She also used time with her
child to practice walking meditation saying ldquoI do walking meditation when Irsquom walking to the park
with Babardquo But this was not straightforwardly easy as she found pushing the pushchair
frustrated her practice ldquowhen Irsquom not pushing the buggy I can concentrate like on my feet - the
feelings of my feet ndash much easier than if Irsquom pushing the buggyrdquo
The experiences of these diarists show that it is not perhaps as straightforward as simply fitting the
practice within current space-time routines in order to alter onersquos experience of an existing life as
structured via those space-time routines (the kind of reflexive relation entailed in mindfulness
meditation) The teachers pragmatically acknowledged that fitting a formal daily meditation
practice in was difficult For instance teacher 2 explained that the main work done by students on
the MBSR and MBCT courses is in the time between the sessions rather than the sessions
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14
themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
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983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
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mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
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983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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4
Crossley argues that Bourdieursquos account would be enriched by the development of a lsquomore
hermeneutic perspective which admits of human reflexivityrsquo20
on the part of research subjects
critiquing Bourdieursquos work in three main ways Firstly Crossley argues that while Bourdieu claims
that the habitus offers a lsquoldquomiddle pathrdquo between determinism and free willrsquo21
his writing does not
clearly delineate the mechanism by which this path is achieved in practice For Crossley this
substantiates critiques of Bourdieu as a deterministic thinker 22 Secondly Crossley argues that
Bourdieu problematically conflates the agent with habit suggesting that there is in fact lsquomore to
agency than the concept of habit can fully capturersquo23
While habits shape the actions of the agent he
continues it is still (self-reflexive) agents who act24
Thirdly Crossley outlines the fact that there is
little in Bourdieursquos writing to enable exploration of the lsquosubjective side of the social worldrsquo25
In
order to counter these critiques and to develop a broader view of agency (indeed if lsquoagencyrsquo
remains the appropriate term in such a phenomenological rendering) Crossley argues that we need
to develop a more nuanced understanding of the human agent in relation to habit (avoiding
positioning ourselves on the side of either freedom or determinism) For Crossley the way to do
this is via a model of reflexive self constituted via language Drawing on the writing of
phenomenological thinker Merleau-Ponty26
he argues that it is by hearing ourselves think that we
find out what we think As well as becoming aware of our own thoughts via language (speech or
thoughts) we can enter into a dialogue or discussion with ourselves Language allows us to have a
relation to ourselves and it is this dialogue that constitutes the reflexive self for Crossley This
gives rise to Crossleyrsquos definition of agency as lsquopurposive and meaningful conduct shaped by
habitrsquo27
In defining the reflexive self Crossley notes that the act of reflection may itself become habitual so
we might cultivate a habit of self-reflection (or rather a lsquohabitual reflexivityrsquo) This might make us
into reflexive beings able to question and potentially change how we live Crossley therefore sees
self-reflection as offering liberatory possibilities and his understanding of habit via a
transformational framing has clear potential to contribute to a more diverse geographical figuring of
habit28
However it is important to note that the transformation Crossley envisions in relation to
habit and therefore the potential for liberation is inevitably limited because while agents are lsquonot
wholly pre-empted by the notion of the habitusrsquo29 the possibility of transformation is always located
within the existing habitus and the (habitual) contexts in which we are located Habits provide lsquothe
necessary background of meaning and preference which makes choice possiblersquo30
ndash for instance
our habits of thought cannot but shape the conversations we have with ourselves (so our horizons
for self-reflection are largely configured by our existing linguistic schemas) and the questions we
might ask ourselves are rooted in our social contexts (inasumuch as we can only perceive
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F o r P
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983093
deficiencies and attributions relative to others and collective representations) As such a radically
new perspective on the self is neither guaranteed nor perhaps even possible
Crossley usefully underlines the importance of examining relations between habit and reflexivity
negotiating the tension between transformation and habituation The significance that he attaches to
human agents is useful in thinking about the question of agency in relation to habit and reflexivityHowever the case study that this paper considers (mindfulness meditation) suggests the existence
of a different relation between reflexivity and habit Following an introduction to mindfulness
meditation and a discussion of the methods used the paper will look at the dialogue with the self
into which people can apparently enter via practices of mindfulness meditation and ask what kind
of collective representations structure the reflexive habit being developed in particular questioning
what habits are seen as problematic and why Following this the paper will examine the
relationship between worldly contexts and the development of these reflexive habits focusing on
how the participants negotiate the relationship between mindfulness meditation and their everydaylives Focussing on worldly contexts (eg everyday space-times) enables us to offer a supplement or
rejoinder to Crossleyrsquos account and opens up a social scientific and geographical perspective on the
practice of mindfulness in its everyday context31
The paper offers a distinct perspective on the
contemporary cultural and practical (possibly even political) significance of lsquohabitual geographiesrsquo
3) Mindfulness meditation methods and introduction to the practice
The research underpinning this paper derives from a funded project which aimed to look at the
lsquoplacersquo of two practices yoga and meditation sometimes configured as spiritual lsquopractices of the
selfrsquo32
We had a particular interest in how these practices happen in context both the lsquofitrsquo within
individualrsquos everyday lives and the space-time contexts within which they take place The year-long
project was carried out in Brighton and Hove a smallish city on the South coast of the UK which
has a high concentration of said practices We utilised a number of qualitative methods including
in-depth interviews with teachers and centre owners diary-interviews conducted with participants
and observant participation in yoga classes and on a mindfulness meditation course33
This paper
focuses on mindfulness meditation ndash or more specifically mindfulness meditation as it is currently
being practiced within a Western health and wellbeing context through the development of MBCT
and MBSR programmes MBSR was established by Jon Kabat-Zinn at the University of
Massachusetts Medical School in 197934
it was subsequently developed into MBCT during the
1990rsquos by the cognitive and behavioral psychologists Zindel Segal Mark Williams and John
Teasdale35
While there are plenty of books CDrsquos and websites through which people can learn
mindfulness meditation our research participants attended and were recruited via an eight week
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MBSR or MBCT course Such courses targeted at individuals who suffer from recurrent
depression anxiety or chronic pain are growing in popularity amongst the general population in the
UK and are slowly but increasingly being offered by local National Health Service mental health
trusts36
Mindfulness meditation is an integrative form of meditation that aims to cultivate awareness of the participantrsquos current experience (notably their thoughts and feelings) as well as an attitude of non-
judgement towards this experience As many authors have acknowledged the practice is a hybrid
between lsquoWestern cognitive science and Eastern practicesrsquo37
and while MBSR and MBCT courses
are effectively non-religious they draw in elements of Buddhist practice particularly insight
(Vipassana) meditation Most courses including the ones attended by our participants tend to focus
on three areas of (classroom andor homework) practice First they aim to teach participants a
number of mindful meditation techniques (such as breathing meditation the body scan mindful
eating and mindful walking) Secondly working with a group format (usually of 8-12 participants)they try to foster discussion and feedback about these techniques and to provide a space for self-
reflection Thirdly lsquohomeworkrsquo is set and learning materials are provided in the hope that
participants will establish a daily meditation practice (of about 40 minutes per day) and put the
techniques into practice during their daily life routines While we do not wish to go into the specific
details of each session during a course ndash not least because they are adapted by individual teachers ndash
in the following we outline some of the techniques central to these courses and outline the rationale
given for them38
Key to the course is for participants to become aware of a tendency to be on automatic pilot in their
thoughts feelings and actions ndash in other words not being present in your body while you are doing
something The aim instead is to cultivate a way of staying within and increasing awareness of the
lsquopresent momentrsquo Mindfulness of the breath meditation is one way to cultivate this skill39
a
lsquoBring your awareness to the level of physical sensations by focusing your attention on the
sensations of touch and pressure in your body where it makes contact with the floor and
whatever you are sitting on
b
Now bring your awareness to the changing patterns of physical sensations in the lower
abdomen as the breath moves in and out of your body
c Focus your awareness on the sensations of slight stretching as the abdominal wall rises with
each inbreath and of gentle deflation as it falls with each outbreath
d There is no need to try to control the breathing in any way ndash simply let the breath breathe
itself As best you can also bring this attitude of allowing to the rest of your experience
There is nothing to be fixed no particular state to be achieved As best you can simply allow
your experience to be your experience without needing it to be other than it is
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983095
e Sooner or later (usually sooner) your mind will wander away from the focus on the breath in
the lower abdomen to thoughts planning daydreams drifting along ndash whatever This is
perfectly OK ndash itrsquos simply what minds do hellipWhen you notice that your awareness is no
longer on the breath gently congratulate yourself ndash you have come back and are once more
aware of your experience hellip Then gently escort the awareness back to a focus on the
changing pattern of physical sensations in the lower abdomen renewing the intention to pay
attention to the ongoing inbreath and outbreath whichever you find
f
hellipAs best you can bring a quality of kindliness to your awareness perhaps seeing the
repeated wanderings of the mind as opportunities to bring patience and gentle curiosity to
your experiencersquo40
In another key practice which seeks simply to bring a lsquocuriousrsquo and lsquofriendlyrsquo awareness to
whatever is happening in the present the participant lies down for a body scan A teacher (in person
or via a CD) directs the participant to focus their attention around all the areas of their body in turn
lsquothe challenge is can you feel the toes of your left foot without wiggling them You tune
into the toes then gradually move your attention to the bottom of the foot and the heel and
feel the contact with the floor Then you move to the ankle and slowly up the leg to the pelvis Then you go to the toes of the right foot and move up the right leg Very slowly you
move up the torso through the lower back and abdomen then the upper back and chest and
the shoulders Then you go to the fingers on both hands and move up the arms to the
shoulders Then you move through the neck and throat the face and the back of the head
and then right on up through the top of the headrsquo41
The purpose of this is for the participant to become mindful of their experiences in the present
moment including their bodily sensations and the mindrsquos commentary (the lsquodiscursive mindrsquo as it
has been termed by writers on mindfulness meditation42
) Being mindful in everyday life is
practised through such techniques as mindful eating and mindful walking Both of these involve full
attention being given to the process of eating or walking the attention is paid to the food (how it
looks how it smells the act of cutting it the muscles used to bring it to the mouth the taste and
texture of the food as it is chewed slowly) or to the body walking (the feel of the ground as the foot
meets it the feel of the foot meeting the ground breathing the feel of the wind on the skin)
In the following section we draw on in-depth interviews with four mindfulness meditation
teachers43
and seven meditation students44
along with reference to some of the secondary literature
relating to MBSR and MBCT45
in order to look at two things first the shift from Crossleyrsquos
understanding of a discursive dialogue with the (habitual) self ndash which mindfulness meditation
understands to actually increase forms of mental suffering ndash towards the opening up of a non-
discursive form of self-reflexivity and secondly the significance of everyday (space-time) contexts
for the ability of the participants to develop this self-reflexive stance
4) Practising Mindfulness meditation
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i) Dialogue with the self towards habitual self-reflexivity
The lsquoproblemsrsquo that these practices are designed to address are those of particular mental patterns
which create and perpetuate stress unhappiness depression and dissatisfaction As already
introduced in the previous section fundamental to these problems is a kind of habitual lsquoautomatic
pilotrsquo operative at a sub- or semi-conscious level
46
This is generally the first thing introduced in theMBCT and MBSR courses and concerns a state in which the mind is passive lsquoallowing itself to be
ldquocaughtrdquo by thoughts memories plans or feelingsrsquo47
Our habitual patterns of thought transform
what might otherwise be a fleeting negative feelingthought into a more enduring form of negativity
or rumination Ruminative thought attempts to lsquoproblem solversquo by taking us back to past times
where we might previously have felt like this in lsquoan effort to understand what went wrongrsquo48
and to
project us into imagined futures Teacher 2 a female psychotherapist and teacher of MBCT clearly
describes this
ldquoyou know a lot of us just spend so much time flying out of our bodies trying to be in the
next place trying to be in the last place upset because you know wersquore thinking in the
past wersquore planning for the future wersquore not really presentrdquo49
(teacher 2)
The writing on mindfulness suggests that rumination does not solve our problems but rather is
likely to precipitate a lsquocascade of mental events that draws us down into a depressionrsquo50
The
lsquoproblemrsquo is not the feeling but rather how the mind reacts to the feeling51
This habit of mind is
seen to persist because of wider cultural beliefs that this is the best hope of revealing a lsquoway to
solve our problemsrsquo52
The hinge of the techniques is to teach the participants to recognise when their minds are running
on automatic pilot and lsquoto teach them to intentionally to shift their awareness to something elsersquo53
thus intervening in habits of thought and allowing the (agentic) reflexive self to change their
relation to these habits This change is made possible in mindfulness meditation by a focus on the
present moment accessed via attention to physical experiences of the immediate context The
objective of situating attention in the body is to lsquoget out of our heads and learn to experience the
world directly experientially without the relentless commentary of our thoughtsrsquo54
The diarists
reported that the practices had indeed had an effect on their habits of thought For instance diarist 5
a male musician between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with his partner and children and
practices mindfulness meditation and yoga said this
ldquoI think itrsquos actually noticing your thoughts and not letting them run away with you all the
time I think thatrsquos what has happened since Irsquove had the breakdown is that I was one of
these people whose thoughts raced a million miles an hour They still do to a degree but
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F o r P
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983097
much less so Now that could be the medicationhellip But maybe the combination of
medication and meditation slowed me down for the first time ever reallyrdquo (diarist 5)
Diarist 25 a female full time mother between the ages of 26 and 35 who lives with her partner and
child and practices mindfulness meditation noted that her life had been given a different rhythm
ldquoA lot of my life Irsquove just been running from one thing to another like in a frantic kind of
excited way because Irsquom quite an hellip energetic sort of person hellip I was doing lots of differentthings But I feel like Irsquod just been running from one thing to another and never stopping
And so this maybe has given me a chance to stoprdquo (diarist 25 interview)
Participants are trained to notice automatic pilot and in so doing to generate an alternative lsquohabitrsquo
of acute awareness of what is going on in the present (both in the world and in onersquos mind and
body) thus developing an interplay between attention (to the present moment) and a meta-
awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind (in the present moment) Still this
reflexivity often only became apparent after the individual had noticed that they had drifted off into
their usual state of autopilot Notable here is one of the assumptions of mindfulness that due to theinherently discursive nature of the mind the practice constantly fails As Segal et al put it
lsquowandering is what minds dorsquo55
and rather than berating the self for lsquofailingrsquo the teachers described
how an attitude of acceptance rather than judgement needs to be cultivated
ldquoAnd actually the core of mindfulness hellip is the letting go Is the being with hellip the
accepting of how things are and then just allowing things to be helliprdquo (teacher 2 interview)
ldquopeople come in distressed because of the judgements theyrsquore making about certain things
hellip lsquoOkay this is what is happening to your thinking style when yoursquore anxious or yoursquore
upset or you know someonersquos cut you up as you were driving into workrsquo Itrsquos hellip those
judgements that are driving the way that we react to life so yeah in terms of mindfulness
itrsquos just about noticing thatrsquos happening and not getting hooked in hellip to our dramas and our
reactionsrdquo (teacher 1 interview)
Changing the relationship between the self and these habits of thought so that the participant can
see them lsquoas they are simply streams of thinking events in the mind rather than getting lost in
themrsquo56
is seen as crucial to removing suffering
lsquoThat thing of if your thoughts drift off hellip most people think hellip [meditationrsquos] about
clearing your mind and being relaxed But no sometimes your headrsquos just full of stuff hellip If
you give yourself a hard time or you get self-critical about something yoursquove done yoursquore just making the whole problem a whole lot worse arenrsquot yoursquo (teacher 1 interview)
The reflexive subject emergent here differs from the one mapped out by Crossley in a number of
ways Firstly while Crossleyrsquos reflexive subject is constituted through dialogue (in particular the
ability to ask oneself questions and pose answers to them) mindfulness meditation sees these kinds
of dialogue to be problematic (inasmuch as they obscure the present moment and encourage
individuals to become caught up in ruminations) Secondly mindfulness meditation suspends the
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form of judgement that Crossley identifies as central to this self-reflexive dialogue (in which we
evaluate ourselves via the questions we ask ourselves and effect a change in our habits as a result)
In contrast mindfulness meditation cultivates a non-judgemental form of paying attention to the
self which doesnrsquot necessarily have to result in a change in habits Thirdly Crossleyrsquos version of
agency is characterised by a clear intentionality albeit shaped by habit In contrast agency is
constructed in mindfulness meditation via an ongoing dialogue between the mindful activity (ie
the attention to actions in the present moment ndash breathing walking eating and so forth) and a
wider meta-awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind as this activity proceeds
This gives agency a less purposive and more exploratory form
As a result of these differences the desired end-point of the transformation also differs Crossleyrsquos
reflexive self aims towards an end-point of a different body-mind generally constructed relative to
dominant norms around what a body-mind should be This has consequences for the social status
(within a particular lsquofieldrsquo) of an individual57
In contrast the reflexive self advocated inmindfulness meditation sets up an expansive sense of awareness in order to be more accepting of
the body-mind as it is and espouses an attitude of lsquonon-strivingrsquo58
This does not necessarily entail a
desire for change in status or position but rather the development of a different attitude towards
onersquos current position59
The reflexive self of mindfulness meditation thus offers a different model
of transformation while Crossleyrsquos reflexive self entails willing transformation in the self
mindfulness meditation absolutely does not involve this kind of will to transformation but rather
the transformation of the relationship to the self as it is This is not to say that the participant
becomes resigned to the current form of their selfhood ndash or framed in terms of habit they remain a
passive body helplessly drawn along by existing habits ndash but rather that their current form of
selfhood becomes something to be explored (by developing an active relationship to their embodied
habits)
Reflexive practices are always lsquodonersquo in specific material spatio-temporal contexts and the habits
that they are designed to reshape are always situated in and clearly related to these contexts While
Crossley gestures towards the material circumstances within which a reflexive self might engage
with habits (as he assesses how transformations in the self might relate to the socialcultural norms
that structure) his engagement with contexts is limited We suggest there is a need for a more
geographically sensitive engagement with habit and reflexivity As such it is important to look at
the relations that exist between body and world in such practices and so the following section will
trace two different relations that exist between bodies and contexts First it will examine how the
contexts within which reflexive body practices are undertaken shape the agency of habit andor the
reflexive self enabling or frustrating our abilities to relate tointervene in habits of thoughtbody
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The section will trace how participants negotiate the techniques alongside the wider contexts of
their everyday lives attending to the relation between habits at the individual scale and wider
habitual geographies (eg working routines sleep childcare) Secondly it will look at how such
reflexive practices might change the relationship that we have with the material contexts within
which we live While Crossley suggests that we might experience a change in our position within
the field(s) where we are located by engagement with reflexive practices mindfulness meditation
potentially offers a different relation to context in which we do not change position but rather
change our relationship with the (existent) contexts where we are located
ii) Relationship with context intervening in geographies of habit
Looking at the experiences of a number of diarists is instructive in beginning to understand some of
the negotiations made between their practice and the routines of their wider lives For each diarist it
is useful to explore both of these relations first how wider contexts shape engagement with
mindfulness meditation and secondly how the practices change relations with these wider
contexts For example diarist 23 a female housing support worker between the ages of 36 and 45
who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation was seemingly able to experience the lsquoidealrsquo fit
between her practice and her wider life in that she could lsquofitrsquo it into her everyday working routine
(albeit in a relatively fraught way) and in turn it shaped her relationship with that work in a manner
that she experienced as positive She described how her workplace was close to the Buddhist Centre
and how she would normally
ldquohelliprush to the Buddhist Centre one minute before meditation starts and then hope that Irsquovegot some money to pay them and run upstairs trying to look calm try and remember how
many cushions I need sit down pant a bit and then kind of think I always do this and next
time Irsquoll try and get here a bit earlier But at least Irsquom here and yeah itrsquos better than nothingrdquo
(diarist 23 interview)
As well as being able to fit her practice into her working day her space-time diary described how
the practice at lunchtime had an impact on her subsequent working activities
ldquo2072010 230-500 Back to the office for another client appt Felt more calm and centre
after meditation and also more confident than usual with this client who I can find
challengingrdquo (diarist 23 diary)
In this instance diarist 23 can be seen to embody the lsquointentionrsquo of mindfulness meditation in
which she maintained her current place within the lsquofieldrsquo (and indeed the proximity of her work to
the Buddhist Centre facilitated her practice) and changed her relationship to it via her practice
Impromptu informal mindfulness practices were also seen to lsquofitrsquo in the participantsrsquo everyday
routines enabling them to develop alternative relationships with events which they had habitually
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experienced as difficult For example diarist 19 a female administrator between the ages of 56 and
65 who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation described how she was able to do the
techniques when she needed them during her working day
ldquoAnd I think that having meditation throughout your day is probably far better than having
to do it every day It is a tool that you can just use any minute of the day Sometimes if
yoursquove got a really terrible time at work you shut yourself in the toilet and just breathe Andthen you can come out and go lsquoyes finersquo Because otherwise you might lose itrdquo (diarist 19
interview)
Other diarists however had not been able to lsquofitrsquo their practice easily within their everyday lives
and had developed other ways to negotiate the relationship between their practice and their context
For example diarist 4 a female academic between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with her partner
and practices mindfulness meditation and yoga identified a number of tensions arising as she tried
to accommodate the practice within her domestic routines She told us that she found it hard to
create a lsquospacersquo (literally and metaphorically) within her home to practise
Diarist 4 ldquoItrsquos really just a desire to be in that hellip place where itrsquos quiet hellip but Irsquom not very
good at it (and I think a lot of people have this problem) Irsquom not very good at taking myself
away from a very hectic environment where there seems to be lots going on and where lots
needs doing like you know supper needs cooking and the kitchen needs clearing and I
havenrsquot quite finished my emails Irsquom not very good at saying lsquoright yoga or meditationrsquo I
mean I am if Irsquove got a class (which is presumably why a lot of people use classes hellip) but
hellip just to extricate myself from all that and just go up to my room and sit there I still find
that quite difficultrdquo
Interviewer ldquoWhat do you mean To negotiate with others to do itrdquo
Diarist 4 ldquoNo just myself really I mean everyone elsersquod be fine lsquogo on go go awayrsquo
[laughs] hellip but erm I know Irsquom someone who needs to ndash whatever it is Irsquom trying to do if
Irsquom trying to sit and write ndash everything has to be cleared up first You have to have done the
laundry and got the breakfast and cleared that up and thatrsquos just the way I seem to be And I
thought that getting into meditation things might change that and I would just be able to
float through the kitchen see all the mess and float out the other side [laughs] It hasnrsquot quite
worked that way In fact you know in some ways I need to be more prepared and organised
in other ways to enjoy the meditationrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
What she describes here is how the space-time routines through which her life is structured and the
material contexts within which she lives make it difficult for her to practise at home (therefore
obscuring the potential for her to change her relation to those space-time routines and material
contexts) Her habits for doing work (ie needing to clear up before writing) also persist for doing
meditation A class ndash where ldquothe space would be organised by somebody else for usrdquo (diarist 4
interview) ndash would offer this clutter- and task-free space thereby circumventing her habitual
inability to do something where there are still domestic tasks remaining undone Yet she noted in
her interview that she ldquodoesnrsquot go to a class for that anymorerdquo60
She also told us that she had been
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able to squeeze meditation into her already existing routines outside of the home aided by some
guided mindfulness meditation exercises downloaded on to her iPod so that she could listen to them
on the bus journey to work
ldquoIrsquove put [the guided meditation CDs] on my iPod as well now so I can have them I take
sometimes I have my iPod like on the bus hellip I sometimes do a little bit hellip of meditation on
the way out to [campus] on the bus because itrsquos just time that Irsquove got to myself so itrsquos quitenice helliprdquo (diarist 4 interview)
Her space-time diary showed that when she felt she really needed the practice she did manage to fit
it in at home
ldquo3152010 900-1100 up to do yogameditation 900-945 (home) Determined not to miss
this today as yesterday didnrsquot turn out so well with rushed start and no yogameditation
practicerdquo (diarist 4 diary)
Diarist 25 found that her current lifestyle both enabled and complicated her practice She had given
up work due to anxiety and then started meditation three months later (as a response to difficulties
that she was experiencing in her life) Giving up work had enabled her meditation and yoga
practice giving her time to attend sessions at the Buddhist centre on an almost daily basis Later
becoming a mother had also shaped her practice
ldquoHaving Baba has enabled me to do what Irsquom doing Actually having a kid and staying at
home has enabled me to get into meditation When he was little I used to take him along
to the Buddhist Centre and hersquod sleep and Irsquod go upstairs to one of the sessions and people
wouldnrsquot mind me leaving him in the buggy downstairs I mean I havenrsquot been doing that
so much recently but thatrsquos when Baba was [six months to 18 months] But now Baba will
go to sleep two hours in the middle of the day and I can do some thenrdquo (diarist 25interview)
The routine of her day with her child in combination with the support offered by the Buddhist
Centre enabled her to devote discrete time and space to her meditation She also used time with her
child to practice walking meditation saying ldquoI do walking meditation when Irsquom walking to the park
with Babardquo But this was not straightforwardly easy as she found pushing the pushchair
frustrated her practice ldquowhen Irsquom not pushing the buggy I can concentrate like on my feet - the
feelings of my feet ndash much easier than if Irsquom pushing the buggyrdquo
The experiences of these diarists show that it is not perhaps as straightforward as simply fitting the
practice within current space-time routines in order to alter onersquos experience of an existing life as
structured via those space-time routines (the kind of reflexive relation entailed in mindfulness
meditation) The teachers pragmatically acknowledged that fitting a formal daily meditation
practice in was difficult For instance teacher 2 explained that the main work done by students on
the MBSR and MBCT courses is in the time between the sessions rather than the sessions
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themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
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bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
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mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
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983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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983093
deficiencies and attributions relative to others and collective representations) As such a radically
new perspective on the self is neither guaranteed nor perhaps even possible
Crossley usefully underlines the importance of examining relations between habit and reflexivity
negotiating the tension between transformation and habituation The significance that he attaches to
human agents is useful in thinking about the question of agency in relation to habit and reflexivityHowever the case study that this paper considers (mindfulness meditation) suggests the existence
of a different relation between reflexivity and habit Following an introduction to mindfulness
meditation and a discussion of the methods used the paper will look at the dialogue with the self
into which people can apparently enter via practices of mindfulness meditation and ask what kind
of collective representations structure the reflexive habit being developed in particular questioning
what habits are seen as problematic and why Following this the paper will examine the
relationship between worldly contexts and the development of these reflexive habits focusing on
how the participants negotiate the relationship between mindfulness meditation and their everydaylives Focussing on worldly contexts (eg everyday space-times) enables us to offer a supplement or
rejoinder to Crossleyrsquos account and opens up a social scientific and geographical perspective on the
practice of mindfulness in its everyday context31
The paper offers a distinct perspective on the
contemporary cultural and practical (possibly even political) significance of lsquohabitual geographiesrsquo
3) Mindfulness meditation methods and introduction to the practice
The research underpinning this paper derives from a funded project which aimed to look at the
lsquoplacersquo of two practices yoga and meditation sometimes configured as spiritual lsquopractices of the
selfrsquo32
We had a particular interest in how these practices happen in context both the lsquofitrsquo within
individualrsquos everyday lives and the space-time contexts within which they take place The year-long
project was carried out in Brighton and Hove a smallish city on the South coast of the UK which
has a high concentration of said practices We utilised a number of qualitative methods including
in-depth interviews with teachers and centre owners diary-interviews conducted with participants
and observant participation in yoga classes and on a mindfulness meditation course33
This paper
focuses on mindfulness meditation ndash or more specifically mindfulness meditation as it is currently
being practiced within a Western health and wellbeing context through the development of MBCT
and MBSR programmes MBSR was established by Jon Kabat-Zinn at the University of
Massachusetts Medical School in 197934
it was subsequently developed into MBCT during the
1990rsquos by the cognitive and behavioral psychologists Zindel Segal Mark Williams and John
Teasdale35
While there are plenty of books CDrsquos and websites through which people can learn
mindfulness meditation our research participants attended and were recruited via an eight week
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6
MBSR or MBCT course Such courses targeted at individuals who suffer from recurrent
depression anxiety or chronic pain are growing in popularity amongst the general population in the
UK and are slowly but increasingly being offered by local National Health Service mental health
trusts36
Mindfulness meditation is an integrative form of meditation that aims to cultivate awareness of the participantrsquos current experience (notably their thoughts and feelings) as well as an attitude of non-
judgement towards this experience As many authors have acknowledged the practice is a hybrid
between lsquoWestern cognitive science and Eastern practicesrsquo37
and while MBSR and MBCT courses
are effectively non-religious they draw in elements of Buddhist practice particularly insight
(Vipassana) meditation Most courses including the ones attended by our participants tend to focus
on three areas of (classroom andor homework) practice First they aim to teach participants a
number of mindful meditation techniques (such as breathing meditation the body scan mindful
eating and mindful walking) Secondly working with a group format (usually of 8-12 participants)they try to foster discussion and feedback about these techniques and to provide a space for self-
reflection Thirdly lsquohomeworkrsquo is set and learning materials are provided in the hope that
participants will establish a daily meditation practice (of about 40 minutes per day) and put the
techniques into practice during their daily life routines While we do not wish to go into the specific
details of each session during a course ndash not least because they are adapted by individual teachers ndash
in the following we outline some of the techniques central to these courses and outline the rationale
given for them38
Key to the course is for participants to become aware of a tendency to be on automatic pilot in their
thoughts feelings and actions ndash in other words not being present in your body while you are doing
something The aim instead is to cultivate a way of staying within and increasing awareness of the
lsquopresent momentrsquo Mindfulness of the breath meditation is one way to cultivate this skill39
a
lsquoBring your awareness to the level of physical sensations by focusing your attention on the
sensations of touch and pressure in your body where it makes contact with the floor and
whatever you are sitting on
b
Now bring your awareness to the changing patterns of physical sensations in the lower
abdomen as the breath moves in and out of your body
c Focus your awareness on the sensations of slight stretching as the abdominal wall rises with
each inbreath and of gentle deflation as it falls with each outbreath
d There is no need to try to control the breathing in any way ndash simply let the breath breathe
itself As best you can also bring this attitude of allowing to the rest of your experience
There is nothing to be fixed no particular state to be achieved As best you can simply allow
your experience to be your experience without needing it to be other than it is
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983095
e Sooner or later (usually sooner) your mind will wander away from the focus on the breath in
the lower abdomen to thoughts planning daydreams drifting along ndash whatever This is
perfectly OK ndash itrsquos simply what minds do hellipWhen you notice that your awareness is no
longer on the breath gently congratulate yourself ndash you have come back and are once more
aware of your experience hellip Then gently escort the awareness back to a focus on the
changing pattern of physical sensations in the lower abdomen renewing the intention to pay
attention to the ongoing inbreath and outbreath whichever you find
f
hellipAs best you can bring a quality of kindliness to your awareness perhaps seeing the
repeated wanderings of the mind as opportunities to bring patience and gentle curiosity to
your experiencersquo40
In another key practice which seeks simply to bring a lsquocuriousrsquo and lsquofriendlyrsquo awareness to
whatever is happening in the present the participant lies down for a body scan A teacher (in person
or via a CD) directs the participant to focus their attention around all the areas of their body in turn
lsquothe challenge is can you feel the toes of your left foot without wiggling them You tune
into the toes then gradually move your attention to the bottom of the foot and the heel and
feel the contact with the floor Then you move to the ankle and slowly up the leg to the pelvis Then you go to the toes of the right foot and move up the right leg Very slowly you
move up the torso through the lower back and abdomen then the upper back and chest and
the shoulders Then you go to the fingers on both hands and move up the arms to the
shoulders Then you move through the neck and throat the face and the back of the head
and then right on up through the top of the headrsquo41
The purpose of this is for the participant to become mindful of their experiences in the present
moment including their bodily sensations and the mindrsquos commentary (the lsquodiscursive mindrsquo as it
has been termed by writers on mindfulness meditation42
) Being mindful in everyday life is
practised through such techniques as mindful eating and mindful walking Both of these involve full
attention being given to the process of eating or walking the attention is paid to the food (how it
looks how it smells the act of cutting it the muscles used to bring it to the mouth the taste and
texture of the food as it is chewed slowly) or to the body walking (the feel of the ground as the foot
meets it the feel of the foot meeting the ground breathing the feel of the wind on the skin)
In the following section we draw on in-depth interviews with four mindfulness meditation
teachers43
and seven meditation students44
along with reference to some of the secondary literature
relating to MBSR and MBCT45
in order to look at two things first the shift from Crossleyrsquos
understanding of a discursive dialogue with the (habitual) self ndash which mindfulness meditation
understands to actually increase forms of mental suffering ndash towards the opening up of a non-
discursive form of self-reflexivity and secondly the significance of everyday (space-time) contexts
for the ability of the participants to develop this self-reflexive stance
4) Practising Mindfulness meditation
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8
i) Dialogue with the self towards habitual self-reflexivity
The lsquoproblemsrsquo that these practices are designed to address are those of particular mental patterns
which create and perpetuate stress unhappiness depression and dissatisfaction As already
introduced in the previous section fundamental to these problems is a kind of habitual lsquoautomatic
pilotrsquo operative at a sub- or semi-conscious level
46
This is generally the first thing introduced in theMBCT and MBSR courses and concerns a state in which the mind is passive lsquoallowing itself to be
ldquocaughtrdquo by thoughts memories plans or feelingsrsquo47
Our habitual patterns of thought transform
what might otherwise be a fleeting negative feelingthought into a more enduring form of negativity
or rumination Ruminative thought attempts to lsquoproblem solversquo by taking us back to past times
where we might previously have felt like this in lsquoan effort to understand what went wrongrsquo48
and to
project us into imagined futures Teacher 2 a female psychotherapist and teacher of MBCT clearly
describes this
ldquoyou know a lot of us just spend so much time flying out of our bodies trying to be in the
next place trying to be in the last place upset because you know wersquore thinking in the
past wersquore planning for the future wersquore not really presentrdquo49
(teacher 2)
The writing on mindfulness suggests that rumination does not solve our problems but rather is
likely to precipitate a lsquocascade of mental events that draws us down into a depressionrsquo50
The
lsquoproblemrsquo is not the feeling but rather how the mind reacts to the feeling51
This habit of mind is
seen to persist because of wider cultural beliefs that this is the best hope of revealing a lsquoway to
solve our problemsrsquo52
The hinge of the techniques is to teach the participants to recognise when their minds are running
on automatic pilot and lsquoto teach them to intentionally to shift their awareness to something elsersquo53
thus intervening in habits of thought and allowing the (agentic) reflexive self to change their
relation to these habits This change is made possible in mindfulness meditation by a focus on the
present moment accessed via attention to physical experiences of the immediate context The
objective of situating attention in the body is to lsquoget out of our heads and learn to experience the
world directly experientially without the relentless commentary of our thoughtsrsquo54
The diarists
reported that the practices had indeed had an effect on their habits of thought For instance diarist 5
a male musician between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with his partner and children and
practices mindfulness meditation and yoga said this
ldquoI think itrsquos actually noticing your thoughts and not letting them run away with you all the
time I think thatrsquos what has happened since Irsquove had the breakdown is that I was one of
these people whose thoughts raced a million miles an hour They still do to a degree but
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F o r P
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983097
much less so Now that could be the medicationhellip But maybe the combination of
medication and meditation slowed me down for the first time ever reallyrdquo (diarist 5)
Diarist 25 a female full time mother between the ages of 26 and 35 who lives with her partner and
child and practices mindfulness meditation noted that her life had been given a different rhythm
ldquoA lot of my life Irsquove just been running from one thing to another like in a frantic kind of
excited way because Irsquom quite an hellip energetic sort of person hellip I was doing lots of differentthings But I feel like Irsquod just been running from one thing to another and never stopping
And so this maybe has given me a chance to stoprdquo (diarist 25 interview)
Participants are trained to notice automatic pilot and in so doing to generate an alternative lsquohabitrsquo
of acute awareness of what is going on in the present (both in the world and in onersquos mind and
body) thus developing an interplay between attention (to the present moment) and a meta-
awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind (in the present moment) Still this
reflexivity often only became apparent after the individual had noticed that they had drifted off into
their usual state of autopilot Notable here is one of the assumptions of mindfulness that due to theinherently discursive nature of the mind the practice constantly fails As Segal et al put it
lsquowandering is what minds dorsquo55
and rather than berating the self for lsquofailingrsquo the teachers described
how an attitude of acceptance rather than judgement needs to be cultivated
ldquoAnd actually the core of mindfulness hellip is the letting go Is the being with hellip the
accepting of how things are and then just allowing things to be helliprdquo (teacher 2 interview)
ldquopeople come in distressed because of the judgements theyrsquore making about certain things
hellip lsquoOkay this is what is happening to your thinking style when yoursquore anxious or yoursquore
upset or you know someonersquos cut you up as you were driving into workrsquo Itrsquos hellip those
judgements that are driving the way that we react to life so yeah in terms of mindfulness
itrsquos just about noticing thatrsquos happening and not getting hooked in hellip to our dramas and our
reactionsrdquo (teacher 1 interview)
Changing the relationship between the self and these habits of thought so that the participant can
see them lsquoas they are simply streams of thinking events in the mind rather than getting lost in
themrsquo56
is seen as crucial to removing suffering
lsquoThat thing of if your thoughts drift off hellip most people think hellip [meditationrsquos] about
clearing your mind and being relaxed But no sometimes your headrsquos just full of stuff hellip If
you give yourself a hard time or you get self-critical about something yoursquove done yoursquore just making the whole problem a whole lot worse arenrsquot yoursquo (teacher 1 interview)
The reflexive subject emergent here differs from the one mapped out by Crossley in a number of
ways Firstly while Crossleyrsquos reflexive subject is constituted through dialogue (in particular the
ability to ask oneself questions and pose answers to them) mindfulness meditation sees these kinds
of dialogue to be problematic (inasmuch as they obscure the present moment and encourage
individuals to become caught up in ruminations) Secondly mindfulness meditation suspends the
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form of judgement that Crossley identifies as central to this self-reflexive dialogue (in which we
evaluate ourselves via the questions we ask ourselves and effect a change in our habits as a result)
In contrast mindfulness meditation cultivates a non-judgemental form of paying attention to the
self which doesnrsquot necessarily have to result in a change in habits Thirdly Crossleyrsquos version of
agency is characterised by a clear intentionality albeit shaped by habit In contrast agency is
constructed in mindfulness meditation via an ongoing dialogue between the mindful activity (ie
the attention to actions in the present moment ndash breathing walking eating and so forth) and a
wider meta-awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind as this activity proceeds
This gives agency a less purposive and more exploratory form
As a result of these differences the desired end-point of the transformation also differs Crossleyrsquos
reflexive self aims towards an end-point of a different body-mind generally constructed relative to
dominant norms around what a body-mind should be This has consequences for the social status
(within a particular lsquofieldrsquo) of an individual57
In contrast the reflexive self advocated inmindfulness meditation sets up an expansive sense of awareness in order to be more accepting of
the body-mind as it is and espouses an attitude of lsquonon-strivingrsquo58
This does not necessarily entail a
desire for change in status or position but rather the development of a different attitude towards
onersquos current position59
The reflexive self of mindfulness meditation thus offers a different model
of transformation while Crossleyrsquos reflexive self entails willing transformation in the self
mindfulness meditation absolutely does not involve this kind of will to transformation but rather
the transformation of the relationship to the self as it is This is not to say that the participant
becomes resigned to the current form of their selfhood ndash or framed in terms of habit they remain a
passive body helplessly drawn along by existing habits ndash but rather that their current form of
selfhood becomes something to be explored (by developing an active relationship to their embodied
habits)
Reflexive practices are always lsquodonersquo in specific material spatio-temporal contexts and the habits
that they are designed to reshape are always situated in and clearly related to these contexts While
Crossley gestures towards the material circumstances within which a reflexive self might engage
with habits (as he assesses how transformations in the self might relate to the socialcultural norms
that structure) his engagement with contexts is limited We suggest there is a need for a more
geographically sensitive engagement with habit and reflexivity As such it is important to look at
the relations that exist between body and world in such practices and so the following section will
trace two different relations that exist between bodies and contexts First it will examine how the
contexts within which reflexive body practices are undertaken shape the agency of habit andor the
reflexive self enabling or frustrating our abilities to relate tointervene in habits of thoughtbody
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983089983089
The section will trace how participants negotiate the techniques alongside the wider contexts of
their everyday lives attending to the relation between habits at the individual scale and wider
habitual geographies (eg working routines sleep childcare) Secondly it will look at how such
reflexive practices might change the relationship that we have with the material contexts within
which we live While Crossley suggests that we might experience a change in our position within
the field(s) where we are located by engagement with reflexive practices mindfulness meditation
potentially offers a different relation to context in which we do not change position but rather
change our relationship with the (existent) contexts where we are located
ii) Relationship with context intervening in geographies of habit
Looking at the experiences of a number of diarists is instructive in beginning to understand some of
the negotiations made between their practice and the routines of their wider lives For each diarist it
is useful to explore both of these relations first how wider contexts shape engagement with
mindfulness meditation and secondly how the practices change relations with these wider
contexts For example diarist 23 a female housing support worker between the ages of 36 and 45
who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation was seemingly able to experience the lsquoidealrsquo fit
between her practice and her wider life in that she could lsquofitrsquo it into her everyday working routine
(albeit in a relatively fraught way) and in turn it shaped her relationship with that work in a manner
that she experienced as positive She described how her workplace was close to the Buddhist Centre
and how she would normally
ldquohelliprush to the Buddhist Centre one minute before meditation starts and then hope that Irsquovegot some money to pay them and run upstairs trying to look calm try and remember how
many cushions I need sit down pant a bit and then kind of think I always do this and next
time Irsquoll try and get here a bit earlier But at least Irsquom here and yeah itrsquos better than nothingrdquo
(diarist 23 interview)
As well as being able to fit her practice into her working day her space-time diary described how
the practice at lunchtime had an impact on her subsequent working activities
ldquo2072010 230-500 Back to the office for another client appt Felt more calm and centre
after meditation and also more confident than usual with this client who I can find
challengingrdquo (diarist 23 diary)
In this instance diarist 23 can be seen to embody the lsquointentionrsquo of mindfulness meditation in
which she maintained her current place within the lsquofieldrsquo (and indeed the proximity of her work to
the Buddhist Centre facilitated her practice) and changed her relationship to it via her practice
Impromptu informal mindfulness practices were also seen to lsquofitrsquo in the participantsrsquo everyday
routines enabling them to develop alternative relationships with events which they had habitually
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experienced as difficult For example diarist 19 a female administrator between the ages of 56 and
65 who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation described how she was able to do the
techniques when she needed them during her working day
ldquoAnd I think that having meditation throughout your day is probably far better than having
to do it every day It is a tool that you can just use any minute of the day Sometimes if
yoursquove got a really terrible time at work you shut yourself in the toilet and just breathe Andthen you can come out and go lsquoyes finersquo Because otherwise you might lose itrdquo (diarist 19
interview)
Other diarists however had not been able to lsquofitrsquo their practice easily within their everyday lives
and had developed other ways to negotiate the relationship between their practice and their context
For example diarist 4 a female academic between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with her partner
and practices mindfulness meditation and yoga identified a number of tensions arising as she tried
to accommodate the practice within her domestic routines She told us that she found it hard to
create a lsquospacersquo (literally and metaphorically) within her home to practise
Diarist 4 ldquoItrsquos really just a desire to be in that hellip place where itrsquos quiet hellip but Irsquom not very
good at it (and I think a lot of people have this problem) Irsquom not very good at taking myself
away from a very hectic environment where there seems to be lots going on and where lots
needs doing like you know supper needs cooking and the kitchen needs clearing and I
havenrsquot quite finished my emails Irsquom not very good at saying lsquoright yoga or meditationrsquo I
mean I am if Irsquove got a class (which is presumably why a lot of people use classes hellip) but
hellip just to extricate myself from all that and just go up to my room and sit there I still find
that quite difficultrdquo
Interviewer ldquoWhat do you mean To negotiate with others to do itrdquo
Diarist 4 ldquoNo just myself really I mean everyone elsersquod be fine lsquogo on go go awayrsquo
[laughs] hellip but erm I know Irsquom someone who needs to ndash whatever it is Irsquom trying to do if
Irsquom trying to sit and write ndash everything has to be cleared up first You have to have done the
laundry and got the breakfast and cleared that up and thatrsquos just the way I seem to be And I
thought that getting into meditation things might change that and I would just be able to
float through the kitchen see all the mess and float out the other side [laughs] It hasnrsquot quite
worked that way In fact you know in some ways I need to be more prepared and organised
in other ways to enjoy the meditationrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
What she describes here is how the space-time routines through which her life is structured and the
material contexts within which she lives make it difficult for her to practise at home (therefore
obscuring the potential for her to change her relation to those space-time routines and material
contexts) Her habits for doing work (ie needing to clear up before writing) also persist for doing
meditation A class ndash where ldquothe space would be organised by somebody else for usrdquo (diarist 4
interview) ndash would offer this clutter- and task-free space thereby circumventing her habitual
inability to do something where there are still domestic tasks remaining undone Yet she noted in
her interview that she ldquodoesnrsquot go to a class for that anymorerdquo60
She also told us that she had been
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983089983091
able to squeeze meditation into her already existing routines outside of the home aided by some
guided mindfulness meditation exercises downloaded on to her iPod so that she could listen to them
on the bus journey to work
ldquoIrsquove put [the guided meditation CDs] on my iPod as well now so I can have them I take
sometimes I have my iPod like on the bus hellip I sometimes do a little bit hellip of meditation on
the way out to [campus] on the bus because itrsquos just time that Irsquove got to myself so itrsquos quitenice helliprdquo (diarist 4 interview)
Her space-time diary showed that when she felt she really needed the practice she did manage to fit
it in at home
ldquo3152010 900-1100 up to do yogameditation 900-945 (home) Determined not to miss
this today as yesterday didnrsquot turn out so well with rushed start and no yogameditation
practicerdquo (diarist 4 diary)
Diarist 25 found that her current lifestyle both enabled and complicated her practice She had given
up work due to anxiety and then started meditation three months later (as a response to difficulties
that she was experiencing in her life) Giving up work had enabled her meditation and yoga
practice giving her time to attend sessions at the Buddhist centre on an almost daily basis Later
becoming a mother had also shaped her practice
ldquoHaving Baba has enabled me to do what Irsquom doing Actually having a kid and staying at
home has enabled me to get into meditation When he was little I used to take him along
to the Buddhist Centre and hersquod sleep and Irsquod go upstairs to one of the sessions and people
wouldnrsquot mind me leaving him in the buggy downstairs I mean I havenrsquot been doing that
so much recently but thatrsquos when Baba was [six months to 18 months] But now Baba will
go to sleep two hours in the middle of the day and I can do some thenrdquo (diarist 25interview)
The routine of her day with her child in combination with the support offered by the Buddhist
Centre enabled her to devote discrete time and space to her meditation She also used time with her
child to practice walking meditation saying ldquoI do walking meditation when Irsquom walking to the park
with Babardquo But this was not straightforwardly easy as she found pushing the pushchair
frustrated her practice ldquowhen Irsquom not pushing the buggy I can concentrate like on my feet - the
feelings of my feet ndash much easier than if Irsquom pushing the buggyrdquo
The experiences of these diarists show that it is not perhaps as straightforward as simply fitting the
practice within current space-time routines in order to alter onersquos experience of an existing life as
structured via those space-time routines (the kind of reflexive relation entailed in mindfulness
meditation) The teachers pragmatically acknowledged that fitting a formal daily meditation
practice in was difficult For instance teacher 2 explained that the main work done by students on
the MBSR and MBCT courses is in the time between the sessions rather than the sessions
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14
themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
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983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
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mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
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983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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18
22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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983089983097
42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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6
MBSR or MBCT course Such courses targeted at individuals who suffer from recurrent
depression anxiety or chronic pain are growing in popularity amongst the general population in the
UK and are slowly but increasingly being offered by local National Health Service mental health
trusts36
Mindfulness meditation is an integrative form of meditation that aims to cultivate awareness of the participantrsquos current experience (notably their thoughts and feelings) as well as an attitude of non-
judgement towards this experience As many authors have acknowledged the practice is a hybrid
between lsquoWestern cognitive science and Eastern practicesrsquo37
and while MBSR and MBCT courses
are effectively non-religious they draw in elements of Buddhist practice particularly insight
(Vipassana) meditation Most courses including the ones attended by our participants tend to focus
on three areas of (classroom andor homework) practice First they aim to teach participants a
number of mindful meditation techniques (such as breathing meditation the body scan mindful
eating and mindful walking) Secondly working with a group format (usually of 8-12 participants)they try to foster discussion and feedback about these techniques and to provide a space for self-
reflection Thirdly lsquohomeworkrsquo is set and learning materials are provided in the hope that
participants will establish a daily meditation practice (of about 40 minutes per day) and put the
techniques into practice during their daily life routines While we do not wish to go into the specific
details of each session during a course ndash not least because they are adapted by individual teachers ndash
in the following we outline some of the techniques central to these courses and outline the rationale
given for them38
Key to the course is for participants to become aware of a tendency to be on automatic pilot in their
thoughts feelings and actions ndash in other words not being present in your body while you are doing
something The aim instead is to cultivate a way of staying within and increasing awareness of the
lsquopresent momentrsquo Mindfulness of the breath meditation is one way to cultivate this skill39
a
lsquoBring your awareness to the level of physical sensations by focusing your attention on the
sensations of touch and pressure in your body where it makes contact with the floor and
whatever you are sitting on
b
Now bring your awareness to the changing patterns of physical sensations in the lower
abdomen as the breath moves in and out of your body
c Focus your awareness on the sensations of slight stretching as the abdominal wall rises with
each inbreath and of gentle deflation as it falls with each outbreath
d There is no need to try to control the breathing in any way ndash simply let the breath breathe
itself As best you can also bring this attitude of allowing to the rest of your experience
There is nothing to be fixed no particular state to be achieved As best you can simply allow
your experience to be your experience without needing it to be other than it is
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983095
e Sooner or later (usually sooner) your mind will wander away from the focus on the breath in
the lower abdomen to thoughts planning daydreams drifting along ndash whatever This is
perfectly OK ndash itrsquos simply what minds do hellipWhen you notice that your awareness is no
longer on the breath gently congratulate yourself ndash you have come back and are once more
aware of your experience hellip Then gently escort the awareness back to a focus on the
changing pattern of physical sensations in the lower abdomen renewing the intention to pay
attention to the ongoing inbreath and outbreath whichever you find
f
hellipAs best you can bring a quality of kindliness to your awareness perhaps seeing the
repeated wanderings of the mind as opportunities to bring patience and gentle curiosity to
your experiencersquo40
In another key practice which seeks simply to bring a lsquocuriousrsquo and lsquofriendlyrsquo awareness to
whatever is happening in the present the participant lies down for a body scan A teacher (in person
or via a CD) directs the participant to focus their attention around all the areas of their body in turn
lsquothe challenge is can you feel the toes of your left foot without wiggling them You tune
into the toes then gradually move your attention to the bottom of the foot and the heel and
feel the contact with the floor Then you move to the ankle and slowly up the leg to the pelvis Then you go to the toes of the right foot and move up the right leg Very slowly you
move up the torso through the lower back and abdomen then the upper back and chest and
the shoulders Then you go to the fingers on both hands and move up the arms to the
shoulders Then you move through the neck and throat the face and the back of the head
and then right on up through the top of the headrsquo41
The purpose of this is for the participant to become mindful of their experiences in the present
moment including their bodily sensations and the mindrsquos commentary (the lsquodiscursive mindrsquo as it
has been termed by writers on mindfulness meditation42
) Being mindful in everyday life is
practised through such techniques as mindful eating and mindful walking Both of these involve full
attention being given to the process of eating or walking the attention is paid to the food (how it
looks how it smells the act of cutting it the muscles used to bring it to the mouth the taste and
texture of the food as it is chewed slowly) or to the body walking (the feel of the ground as the foot
meets it the feel of the foot meeting the ground breathing the feel of the wind on the skin)
In the following section we draw on in-depth interviews with four mindfulness meditation
teachers43
and seven meditation students44
along with reference to some of the secondary literature
relating to MBSR and MBCT45
in order to look at two things first the shift from Crossleyrsquos
understanding of a discursive dialogue with the (habitual) self ndash which mindfulness meditation
understands to actually increase forms of mental suffering ndash towards the opening up of a non-
discursive form of self-reflexivity and secondly the significance of everyday (space-time) contexts
for the ability of the participants to develop this self-reflexive stance
4) Practising Mindfulness meditation
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i) Dialogue with the self towards habitual self-reflexivity
The lsquoproblemsrsquo that these practices are designed to address are those of particular mental patterns
which create and perpetuate stress unhappiness depression and dissatisfaction As already
introduced in the previous section fundamental to these problems is a kind of habitual lsquoautomatic
pilotrsquo operative at a sub- or semi-conscious level
46
This is generally the first thing introduced in theMBCT and MBSR courses and concerns a state in which the mind is passive lsquoallowing itself to be
ldquocaughtrdquo by thoughts memories plans or feelingsrsquo47
Our habitual patterns of thought transform
what might otherwise be a fleeting negative feelingthought into a more enduring form of negativity
or rumination Ruminative thought attempts to lsquoproblem solversquo by taking us back to past times
where we might previously have felt like this in lsquoan effort to understand what went wrongrsquo48
and to
project us into imagined futures Teacher 2 a female psychotherapist and teacher of MBCT clearly
describes this
ldquoyou know a lot of us just spend so much time flying out of our bodies trying to be in the
next place trying to be in the last place upset because you know wersquore thinking in the
past wersquore planning for the future wersquore not really presentrdquo49
(teacher 2)
The writing on mindfulness suggests that rumination does not solve our problems but rather is
likely to precipitate a lsquocascade of mental events that draws us down into a depressionrsquo50
The
lsquoproblemrsquo is not the feeling but rather how the mind reacts to the feeling51
This habit of mind is
seen to persist because of wider cultural beliefs that this is the best hope of revealing a lsquoway to
solve our problemsrsquo52
The hinge of the techniques is to teach the participants to recognise when their minds are running
on automatic pilot and lsquoto teach them to intentionally to shift their awareness to something elsersquo53
thus intervening in habits of thought and allowing the (agentic) reflexive self to change their
relation to these habits This change is made possible in mindfulness meditation by a focus on the
present moment accessed via attention to physical experiences of the immediate context The
objective of situating attention in the body is to lsquoget out of our heads and learn to experience the
world directly experientially without the relentless commentary of our thoughtsrsquo54
The diarists
reported that the practices had indeed had an effect on their habits of thought For instance diarist 5
a male musician between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with his partner and children and
practices mindfulness meditation and yoga said this
ldquoI think itrsquos actually noticing your thoughts and not letting them run away with you all the
time I think thatrsquos what has happened since Irsquove had the breakdown is that I was one of
these people whose thoughts raced a million miles an hour They still do to a degree but
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983097
much less so Now that could be the medicationhellip But maybe the combination of
medication and meditation slowed me down for the first time ever reallyrdquo (diarist 5)
Diarist 25 a female full time mother between the ages of 26 and 35 who lives with her partner and
child and practices mindfulness meditation noted that her life had been given a different rhythm
ldquoA lot of my life Irsquove just been running from one thing to another like in a frantic kind of
excited way because Irsquom quite an hellip energetic sort of person hellip I was doing lots of differentthings But I feel like Irsquod just been running from one thing to another and never stopping
And so this maybe has given me a chance to stoprdquo (diarist 25 interview)
Participants are trained to notice automatic pilot and in so doing to generate an alternative lsquohabitrsquo
of acute awareness of what is going on in the present (both in the world and in onersquos mind and
body) thus developing an interplay between attention (to the present moment) and a meta-
awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind (in the present moment) Still this
reflexivity often only became apparent after the individual had noticed that they had drifted off into
their usual state of autopilot Notable here is one of the assumptions of mindfulness that due to theinherently discursive nature of the mind the practice constantly fails As Segal et al put it
lsquowandering is what minds dorsquo55
and rather than berating the self for lsquofailingrsquo the teachers described
how an attitude of acceptance rather than judgement needs to be cultivated
ldquoAnd actually the core of mindfulness hellip is the letting go Is the being with hellip the
accepting of how things are and then just allowing things to be helliprdquo (teacher 2 interview)
ldquopeople come in distressed because of the judgements theyrsquore making about certain things
hellip lsquoOkay this is what is happening to your thinking style when yoursquore anxious or yoursquore
upset or you know someonersquos cut you up as you were driving into workrsquo Itrsquos hellip those
judgements that are driving the way that we react to life so yeah in terms of mindfulness
itrsquos just about noticing thatrsquos happening and not getting hooked in hellip to our dramas and our
reactionsrdquo (teacher 1 interview)
Changing the relationship between the self and these habits of thought so that the participant can
see them lsquoas they are simply streams of thinking events in the mind rather than getting lost in
themrsquo56
is seen as crucial to removing suffering
lsquoThat thing of if your thoughts drift off hellip most people think hellip [meditationrsquos] about
clearing your mind and being relaxed But no sometimes your headrsquos just full of stuff hellip If
you give yourself a hard time or you get self-critical about something yoursquove done yoursquore just making the whole problem a whole lot worse arenrsquot yoursquo (teacher 1 interview)
The reflexive subject emergent here differs from the one mapped out by Crossley in a number of
ways Firstly while Crossleyrsquos reflexive subject is constituted through dialogue (in particular the
ability to ask oneself questions and pose answers to them) mindfulness meditation sees these kinds
of dialogue to be problematic (inasmuch as they obscure the present moment and encourage
individuals to become caught up in ruminations) Secondly mindfulness meditation suspends the
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form of judgement that Crossley identifies as central to this self-reflexive dialogue (in which we
evaluate ourselves via the questions we ask ourselves and effect a change in our habits as a result)
In contrast mindfulness meditation cultivates a non-judgemental form of paying attention to the
self which doesnrsquot necessarily have to result in a change in habits Thirdly Crossleyrsquos version of
agency is characterised by a clear intentionality albeit shaped by habit In contrast agency is
constructed in mindfulness meditation via an ongoing dialogue between the mindful activity (ie
the attention to actions in the present moment ndash breathing walking eating and so forth) and a
wider meta-awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind as this activity proceeds
This gives agency a less purposive and more exploratory form
As a result of these differences the desired end-point of the transformation also differs Crossleyrsquos
reflexive self aims towards an end-point of a different body-mind generally constructed relative to
dominant norms around what a body-mind should be This has consequences for the social status
(within a particular lsquofieldrsquo) of an individual57
In contrast the reflexive self advocated inmindfulness meditation sets up an expansive sense of awareness in order to be more accepting of
the body-mind as it is and espouses an attitude of lsquonon-strivingrsquo58
This does not necessarily entail a
desire for change in status or position but rather the development of a different attitude towards
onersquos current position59
The reflexive self of mindfulness meditation thus offers a different model
of transformation while Crossleyrsquos reflexive self entails willing transformation in the self
mindfulness meditation absolutely does not involve this kind of will to transformation but rather
the transformation of the relationship to the self as it is This is not to say that the participant
becomes resigned to the current form of their selfhood ndash or framed in terms of habit they remain a
passive body helplessly drawn along by existing habits ndash but rather that their current form of
selfhood becomes something to be explored (by developing an active relationship to their embodied
habits)
Reflexive practices are always lsquodonersquo in specific material spatio-temporal contexts and the habits
that they are designed to reshape are always situated in and clearly related to these contexts While
Crossley gestures towards the material circumstances within which a reflexive self might engage
with habits (as he assesses how transformations in the self might relate to the socialcultural norms
that structure) his engagement with contexts is limited We suggest there is a need for a more
geographically sensitive engagement with habit and reflexivity As such it is important to look at
the relations that exist between body and world in such practices and so the following section will
trace two different relations that exist between bodies and contexts First it will examine how the
contexts within which reflexive body practices are undertaken shape the agency of habit andor the
reflexive self enabling or frustrating our abilities to relate tointervene in habits of thoughtbody
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983089983089
The section will trace how participants negotiate the techniques alongside the wider contexts of
their everyday lives attending to the relation between habits at the individual scale and wider
habitual geographies (eg working routines sleep childcare) Secondly it will look at how such
reflexive practices might change the relationship that we have with the material contexts within
which we live While Crossley suggests that we might experience a change in our position within
the field(s) where we are located by engagement with reflexive practices mindfulness meditation
potentially offers a different relation to context in which we do not change position but rather
change our relationship with the (existent) contexts where we are located
ii) Relationship with context intervening in geographies of habit
Looking at the experiences of a number of diarists is instructive in beginning to understand some of
the negotiations made between their practice and the routines of their wider lives For each diarist it
is useful to explore both of these relations first how wider contexts shape engagement with
mindfulness meditation and secondly how the practices change relations with these wider
contexts For example diarist 23 a female housing support worker between the ages of 36 and 45
who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation was seemingly able to experience the lsquoidealrsquo fit
between her practice and her wider life in that she could lsquofitrsquo it into her everyday working routine
(albeit in a relatively fraught way) and in turn it shaped her relationship with that work in a manner
that she experienced as positive She described how her workplace was close to the Buddhist Centre
and how she would normally
ldquohelliprush to the Buddhist Centre one minute before meditation starts and then hope that Irsquovegot some money to pay them and run upstairs trying to look calm try and remember how
many cushions I need sit down pant a bit and then kind of think I always do this and next
time Irsquoll try and get here a bit earlier But at least Irsquom here and yeah itrsquos better than nothingrdquo
(diarist 23 interview)
As well as being able to fit her practice into her working day her space-time diary described how
the practice at lunchtime had an impact on her subsequent working activities
ldquo2072010 230-500 Back to the office for another client appt Felt more calm and centre
after meditation and also more confident than usual with this client who I can find
challengingrdquo (diarist 23 diary)
In this instance diarist 23 can be seen to embody the lsquointentionrsquo of mindfulness meditation in
which she maintained her current place within the lsquofieldrsquo (and indeed the proximity of her work to
the Buddhist Centre facilitated her practice) and changed her relationship to it via her practice
Impromptu informal mindfulness practices were also seen to lsquofitrsquo in the participantsrsquo everyday
routines enabling them to develop alternative relationships with events which they had habitually
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experienced as difficult For example diarist 19 a female administrator between the ages of 56 and
65 who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation described how she was able to do the
techniques when she needed them during her working day
ldquoAnd I think that having meditation throughout your day is probably far better than having
to do it every day It is a tool that you can just use any minute of the day Sometimes if
yoursquove got a really terrible time at work you shut yourself in the toilet and just breathe Andthen you can come out and go lsquoyes finersquo Because otherwise you might lose itrdquo (diarist 19
interview)
Other diarists however had not been able to lsquofitrsquo their practice easily within their everyday lives
and had developed other ways to negotiate the relationship between their practice and their context
For example diarist 4 a female academic between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with her partner
and practices mindfulness meditation and yoga identified a number of tensions arising as she tried
to accommodate the practice within her domestic routines She told us that she found it hard to
create a lsquospacersquo (literally and metaphorically) within her home to practise
Diarist 4 ldquoItrsquos really just a desire to be in that hellip place where itrsquos quiet hellip but Irsquom not very
good at it (and I think a lot of people have this problem) Irsquom not very good at taking myself
away from a very hectic environment where there seems to be lots going on and where lots
needs doing like you know supper needs cooking and the kitchen needs clearing and I
havenrsquot quite finished my emails Irsquom not very good at saying lsquoright yoga or meditationrsquo I
mean I am if Irsquove got a class (which is presumably why a lot of people use classes hellip) but
hellip just to extricate myself from all that and just go up to my room and sit there I still find
that quite difficultrdquo
Interviewer ldquoWhat do you mean To negotiate with others to do itrdquo
Diarist 4 ldquoNo just myself really I mean everyone elsersquod be fine lsquogo on go go awayrsquo
[laughs] hellip but erm I know Irsquom someone who needs to ndash whatever it is Irsquom trying to do if
Irsquom trying to sit and write ndash everything has to be cleared up first You have to have done the
laundry and got the breakfast and cleared that up and thatrsquos just the way I seem to be And I
thought that getting into meditation things might change that and I would just be able to
float through the kitchen see all the mess and float out the other side [laughs] It hasnrsquot quite
worked that way In fact you know in some ways I need to be more prepared and organised
in other ways to enjoy the meditationrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
What she describes here is how the space-time routines through which her life is structured and the
material contexts within which she lives make it difficult for her to practise at home (therefore
obscuring the potential for her to change her relation to those space-time routines and material
contexts) Her habits for doing work (ie needing to clear up before writing) also persist for doing
meditation A class ndash where ldquothe space would be organised by somebody else for usrdquo (diarist 4
interview) ndash would offer this clutter- and task-free space thereby circumventing her habitual
inability to do something where there are still domestic tasks remaining undone Yet she noted in
her interview that she ldquodoesnrsquot go to a class for that anymorerdquo60
She also told us that she had been
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983089983091
able to squeeze meditation into her already existing routines outside of the home aided by some
guided mindfulness meditation exercises downloaded on to her iPod so that she could listen to them
on the bus journey to work
ldquoIrsquove put [the guided meditation CDs] on my iPod as well now so I can have them I take
sometimes I have my iPod like on the bus hellip I sometimes do a little bit hellip of meditation on
the way out to [campus] on the bus because itrsquos just time that Irsquove got to myself so itrsquos quitenice helliprdquo (diarist 4 interview)
Her space-time diary showed that when she felt she really needed the practice she did manage to fit
it in at home
ldquo3152010 900-1100 up to do yogameditation 900-945 (home) Determined not to miss
this today as yesterday didnrsquot turn out so well with rushed start and no yogameditation
practicerdquo (diarist 4 diary)
Diarist 25 found that her current lifestyle both enabled and complicated her practice She had given
up work due to anxiety and then started meditation three months later (as a response to difficulties
that she was experiencing in her life) Giving up work had enabled her meditation and yoga
practice giving her time to attend sessions at the Buddhist centre on an almost daily basis Later
becoming a mother had also shaped her practice
ldquoHaving Baba has enabled me to do what Irsquom doing Actually having a kid and staying at
home has enabled me to get into meditation When he was little I used to take him along
to the Buddhist Centre and hersquod sleep and Irsquod go upstairs to one of the sessions and people
wouldnrsquot mind me leaving him in the buggy downstairs I mean I havenrsquot been doing that
so much recently but thatrsquos when Baba was [six months to 18 months] But now Baba will
go to sleep two hours in the middle of the day and I can do some thenrdquo (diarist 25interview)
The routine of her day with her child in combination with the support offered by the Buddhist
Centre enabled her to devote discrete time and space to her meditation She also used time with her
child to practice walking meditation saying ldquoI do walking meditation when Irsquom walking to the park
with Babardquo But this was not straightforwardly easy as she found pushing the pushchair
frustrated her practice ldquowhen Irsquom not pushing the buggy I can concentrate like on my feet - the
feelings of my feet ndash much easier than if Irsquom pushing the buggyrdquo
The experiences of these diarists show that it is not perhaps as straightforward as simply fitting the
practice within current space-time routines in order to alter onersquos experience of an existing life as
structured via those space-time routines (the kind of reflexive relation entailed in mindfulness
meditation) The teachers pragmatically acknowledged that fitting a formal daily meditation
practice in was difficult For instance teacher 2 explained that the main work done by students on
the MBSR and MBCT courses is in the time between the sessions rather than the sessions
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themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
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983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
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mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
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3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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983095
e Sooner or later (usually sooner) your mind will wander away from the focus on the breath in
the lower abdomen to thoughts planning daydreams drifting along ndash whatever This is
perfectly OK ndash itrsquos simply what minds do hellipWhen you notice that your awareness is no
longer on the breath gently congratulate yourself ndash you have come back and are once more
aware of your experience hellip Then gently escort the awareness back to a focus on the
changing pattern of physical sensations in the lower abdomen renewing the intention to pay
attention to the ongoing inbreath and outbreath whichever you find
f
hellipAs best you can bring a quality of kindliness to your awareness perhaps seeing the
repeated wanderings of the mind as opportunities to bring patience and gentle curiosity to
your experiencersquo40
In another key practice which seeks simply to bring a lsquocuriousrsquo and lsquofriendlyrsquo awareness to
whatever is happening in the present the participant lies down for a body scan A teacher (in person
or via a CD) directs the participant to focus their attention around all the areas of their body in turn
lsquothe challenge is can you feel the toes of your left foot without wiggling them You tune
into the toes then gradually move your attention to the bottom of the foot and the heel and
feel the contact with the floor Then you move to the ankle and slowly up the leg to the pelvis Then you go to the toes of the right foot and move up the right leg Very slowly you
move up the torso through the lower back and abdomen then the upper back and chest and
the shoulders Then you go to the fingers on both hands and move up the arms to the
shoulders Then you move through the neck and throat the face and the back of the head
and then right on up through the top of the headrsquo41
The purpose of this is for the participant to become mindful of their experiences in the present
moment including their bodily sensations and the mindrsquos commentary (the lsquodiscursive mindrsquo as it
has been termed by writers on mindfulness meditation42
) Being mindful in everyday life is
practised through such techniques as mindful eating and mindful walking Both of these involve full
attention being given to the process of eating or walking the attention is paid to the food (how it
looks how it smells the act of cutting it the muscles used to bring it to the mouth the taste and
texture of the food as it is chewed slowly) or to the body walking (the feel of the ground as the foot
meets it the feel of the foot meeting the ground breathing the feel of the wind on the skin)
In the following section we draw on in-depth interviews with four mindfulness meditation
teachers43
and seven meditation students44
along with reference to some of the secondary literature
relating to MBSR and MBCT45
in order to look at two things first the shift from Crossleyrsquos
understanding of a discursive dialogue with the (habitual) self ndash which mindfulness meditation
understands to actually increase forms of mental suffering ndash towards the opening up of a non-
discursive form of self-reflexivity and secondly the significance of everyday (space-time) contexts
for the ability of the participants to develop this self-reflexive stance
4) Practising Mindfulness meditation
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8
i) Dialogue with the self towards habitual self-reflexivity
The lsquoproblemsrsquo that these practices are designed to address are those of particular mental patterns
which create and perpetuate stress unhappiness depression and dissatisfaction As already
introduced in the previous section fundamental to these problems is a kind of habitual lsquoautomatic
pilotrsquo operative at a sub- or semi-conscious level
46
This is generally the first thing introduced in theMBCT and MBSR courses and concerns a state in which the mind is passive lsquoallowing itself to be
ldquocaughtrdquo by thoughts memories plans or feelingsrsquo47
Our habitual patterns of thought transform
what might otherwise be a fleeting negative feelingthought into a more enduring form of negativity
or rumination Ruminative thought attempts to lsquoproblem solversquo by taking us back to past times
where we might previously have felt like this in lsquoan effort to understand what went wrongrsquo48
and to
project us into imagined futures Teacher 2 a female psychotherapist and teacher of MBCT clearly
describes this
ldquoyou know a lot of us just spend so much time flying out of our bodies trying to be in the
next place trying to be in the last place upset because you know wersquore thinking in the
past wersquore planning for the future wersquore not really presentrdquo49
(teacher 2)
The writing on mindfulness suggests that rumination does not solve our problems but rather is
likely to precipitate a lsquocascade of mental events that draws us down into a depressionrsquo50
The
lsquoproblemrsquo is not the feeling but rather how the mind reacts to the feeling51
This habit of mind is
seen to persist because of wider cultural beliefs that this is the best hope of revealing a lsquoway to
solve our problemsrsquo52
The hinge of the techniques is to teach the participants to recognise when their minds are running
on automatic pilot and lsquoto teach them to intentionally to shift their awareness to something elsersquo53
thus intervening in habits of thought and allowing the (agentic) reflexive self to change their
relation to these habits This change is made possible in mindfulness meditation by a focus on the
present moment accessed via attention to physical experiences of the immediate context The
objective of situating attention in the body is to lsquoget out of our heads and learn to experience the
world directly experientially without the relentless commentary of our thoughtsrsquo54
The diarists
reported that the practices had indeed had an effect on their habits of thought For instance diarist 5
a male musician between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with his partner and children and
practices mindfulness meditation and yoga said this
ldquoI think itrsquos actually noticing your thoughts and not letting them run away with you all the
time I think thatrsquos what has happened since Irsquove had the breakdown is that I was one of
these people whose thoughts raced a million miles an hour They still do to a degree but
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F o r P
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983097
much less so Now that could be the medicationhellip But maybe the combination of
medication and meditation slowed me down for the first time ever reallyrdquo (diarist 5)
Diarist 25 a female full time mother between the ages of 26 and 35 who lives with her partner and
child and practices mindfulness meditation noted that her life had been given a different rhythm
ldquoA lot of my life Irsquove just been running from one thing to another like in a frantic kind of
excited way because Irsquom quite an hellip energetic sort of person hellip I was doing lots of differentthings But I feel like Irsquod just been running from one thing to another and never stopping
And so this maybe has given me a chance to stoprdquo (diarist 25 interview)
Participants are trained to notice automatic pilot and in so doing to generate an alternative lsquohabitrsquo
of acute awareness of what is going on in the present (both in the world and in onersquos mind and
body) thus developing an interplay between attention (to the present moment) and a meta-
awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind (in the present moment) Still this
reflexivity often only became apparent after the individual had noticed that they had drifted off into
their usual state of autopilot Notable here is one of the assumptions of mindfulness that due to theinherently discursive nature of the mind the practice constantly fails As Segal et al put it
lsquowandering is what minds dorsquo55
and rather than berating the self for lsquofailingrsquo the teachers described
how an attitude of acceptance rather than judgement needs to be cultivated
ldquoAnd actually the core of mindfulness hellip is the letting go Is the being with hellip the
accepting of how things are and then just allowing things to be helliprdquo (teacher 2 interview)
ldquopeople come in distressed because of the judgements theyrsquore making about certain things
hellip lsquoOkay this is what is happening to your thinking style when yoursquore anxious or yoursquore
upset or you know someonersquos cut you up as you were driving into workrsquo Itrsquos hellip those
judgements that are driving the way that we react to life so yeah in terms of mindfulness
itrsquos just about noticing thatrsquos happening and not getting hooked in hellip to our dramas and our
reactionsrdquo (teacher 1 interview)
Changing the relationship between the self and these habits of thought so that the participant can
see them lsquoas they are simply streams of thinking events in the mind rather than getting lost in
themrsquo56
is seen as crucial to removing suffering
lsquoThat thing of if your thoughts drift off hellip most people think hellip [meditationrsquos] about
clearing your mind and being relaxed But no sometimes your headrsquos just full of stuff hellip If
you give yourself a hard time or you get self-critical about something yoursquove done yoursquore just making the whole problem a whole lot worse arenrsquot yoursquo (teacher 1 interview)
The reflexive subject emergent here differs from the one mapped out by Crossley in a number of
ways Firstly while Crossleyrsquos reflexive subject is constituted through dialogue (in particular the
ability to ask oneself questions and pose answers to them) mindfulness meditation sees these kinds
of dialogue to be problematic (inasmuch as they obscure the present moment and encourage
individuals to become caught up in ruminations) Secondly mindfulness meditation suspends the
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form of judgement that Crossley identifies as central to this self-reflexive dialogue (in which we
evaluate ourselves via the questions we ask ourselves and effect a change in our habits as a result)
In contrast mindfulness meditation cultivates a non-judgemental form of paying attention to the
self which doesnrsquot necessarily have to result in a change in habits Thirdly Crossleyrsquos version of
agency is characterised by a clear intentionality albeit shaped by habit In contrast agency is
constructed in mindfulness meditation via an ongoing dialogue between the mindful activity (ie
the attention to actions in the present moment ndash breathing walking eating and so forth) and a
wider meta-awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind as this activity proceeds
This gives agency a less purposive and more exploratory form
As a result of these differences the desired end-point of the transformation also differs Crossleyrsquos
reflexive self aims towards an end-point of a different body-mind generally constructed relative to
dominant norms around what a body-mind should be This has consequences for the social status
(within a particular lsquofieldrsquo) of an individual57
In contrast the reflexive self advocated inmindfulness meditation sets up an expansive sense of awareness in order to be more accepting of
the body-mind as it is and espouses an attitude of lsquonon-strivingrsquo58
This does not necessarily entail a
desire for change in status or position but rather the development of a different attitude towards
onersquos current position59
The reflexive self of mindfulness meditation thus offers a different model
of transformation while Crossleyrsquos reflexive self entails willing transformation in the self
mindfulness meditation absolutely does not involve this kind of will to transformation but rather
the transformation of the relationship to the self as it is This is not to say that the participant
becomes resigned to the current form of their selfhood ndash or framed in terms of habit they remain a
passive body helplessly drawn along by existing habits ndash but rather that their current form of
selfhood becomes something to be explored (by developing an active relationship to their embodied
habits)
Reflexive practices are always lsquodonersquo in specific material spatio-temporal contexts and the habits
that they are designed to reshape are always situated in and clearly related to these contexts While
Crossley gestures towards the material circumstances within which a reflexive self might engage
with habits (as he assesses how transformations in the self might relate to the socialcultural norms
that structure) his engagement with contexts is limited We suggest there is a need for a more
geographically sensitive engagement with habit and reflexivity As such it is important to look at
the relations that exist between body and world in such practices and so the following section will
trace two different relations that exist between bodies and contexts First it will examine how the
contexts within which reflexive body practices are undertaken shape the agency of habit andor the
reflexive self enabling or frustrating our abilities to relate tointervene in habits of thoughtbody
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983089983089
The section will trace how participants negotiate the techniques alongside the wider contexts of
their everyday lives attending to the relation between habits at the individual scale and wider
habitual geographies (eg working routines sleep childcare) Secondly it will look at how such
reflexive practices might change the relationship that we have with the material contexts within
which we live While Crossley suggests that we might experience a change in our position within
the field(s) where we are located by engagement with reflexive practices mindfulness meditation
potentially offers a different relation to context in which we do not change position but rather
change our relationship with the (existent) contexts where we are located
ii) Relationship with context intervening in geographies of habit
Looking at the experiences of a number of diarists is instructive in beginning to understand some of
the negotiations made between their practice and the routines of their wider lives For each diarist it
is useful to explore both of these relations first how wider contexts shape engagement with
mindfulness meditation and secondly how the practices change relations with these wider
contexts For example diarist 23 a female housing support worker between the ages of 36 and 45
who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation was seemingly able to experience the lsquoidealrsquo fit
between her practice and her wider life in that she could lsquofitrsquo it into her everyday working routine
(albeit in a relatively fraught way) and in turn it shaped her relationship with that work in a manner
that she experienced as positive She described how her workplace was close to the Buddhist Centre
and how she would normally
ldquohelliprush to the Buddhist Centre one minute before meditation starts and then hope that Irsquovegot some money to pay them and run upstairs trying to look calm try and remember how
many cushions I need sit down pant a bit and then kind of think I always do this and next
time Irsquoll try and get here a bit earlier But at least Irsquom here and yeah itrsquos better than nothingrdquo
(diarist 23 interview)
As well as being able to fit her practice into her working day her space-time diary described how
the practice at lunchtime had an impact on her subsequent working activities
ldquo2072010 230-500 Back to the office for another client appt Felt more calm and centre
after meditation and also more confident than usual with this client who I can find
challengingrdquo (diarist 23 diary)
In this instance diarist 23 can be seen to embody the lsquointentionrsquo of mindfulness meditation in
which she maintained her current place within the lsquofieldrsquo (and indeed the proximity of her work to
the Buddhist Centre facilitated her practice) and changed her relationship to it via her practice
Impromptu informal mindfulness practices were also seen to lsquofitrsquo in the participantsrsquo everyday
routines enabling them to develop alternative relationships with events which they had habitually
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experienced as difficult For example diarist 19 a female administrator between the ages of 56 and
65 who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation described how she was able to do the
techniques when she needed them during her working day
ldquoAnd I think that having meditation throughout your day is probably far better than having
to do it every day It is a tool that you can just use any minute of the day Sometimes if
yoursquove got a really terrible time at work you shut yourself in the toilet and just breathe Andthen you can come out and go lsquoyes finersquo Because otherwise you might lose itrdquo (diarist 19
interview)
Other diarists however had not been able to lsquofitrsquo their practice easily within their everyday lives
and had developed other ways to negotiate the relationship between their practice and their context
For example diarist 4 a female academic between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with her partner
and practices mindfulness meditation and yoga identified a number of tensions arising as she tried
to accommodate the practice within her domestic routines She told us that she found it hard to
create a lsquospacersquo (literally and metaphorically) within her home to practise
Diarist 4 ldquoItrsquos really just a desire to be in that hellip place where itrsquos quiet hellip but Irsquom not very
good at it (and I think a lot of people have this problem) Irsquom not very good at taking myself
away from a very hectic environment where there seems to be lots going on and where lots
needs doing like you know supper needs cooking and the kitchen needs clearing and I
havenrsquot quite finished my emails Irsquom not very good at saying lsquoright yoga or meditationrsquo I
mean I am if Irsquove got a class (which is presumably why a lot of people use classes hellip) but
hellip just to extricate myself from all that and just go up to my room and sit there I still find
that quite difficultrdquo
Interviewer ldquoWhat do you mean To negotiate with others to do itrdquo
Diarist 4 ldquoNo just myself really I mean everyone elsersquod be fine lsquogo on go go awayrsquo
[laughs] hellip but erm I know Irsquom someone who needs to ndash whatever it is Irsquom trying to do if
Irsquom trying to sit and write ndash everything has to be cleared up first You have to have done the
laundry and got the breakfast and cleared that up and thatrsquos just the way I seem to be And I
thought that getting into meditation things might change that and I would just be able to
float through the kitchen see all the mess and float out the other side [laughs] It hasnrsquot quite
worked that way In fact you know in some ways I need to be more prepared and organised
in other ways to enjoy the meditationrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
What she describes here is how the space-time routines through which her life is structured and the
material contexts within which she lives make it difficult for her to practise at home (therefore
obscuring the potential for her to change her relation to those space-time routines and material
contexts) Her habits for doing work (ie needing to clear up before writing) also persist for doing
meditation A class ndash where ldquothe space would be organised by somebody else for usrdquo (diarist 4
interview) ndash would offer this clutter- and task-free space thereby circumventing her habitual
inability to do something where there are still domestic tasks remaining undone Yet she noted in
her interview that she ldquodoesnrsquot go to a class for that anymorerdquo60
She also told us that she had been
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983089983091
able to squeeze meditation into her already existing routines outside of the home aided by some
guided mindfulness meditation exercises downloaded on to her iPod so that she could listen to them
on the bus journey to work
ldquoIrsquove put [the guided meditation CDs] on my iPod as well now so I can have them I take
sometimes I have my iPod like on the bus hellip I sometimes do a little bit hellip of meditation on
the way out to [campus] on the bus because itrsquos just time that Irsquove got to myself so itrsquos quitenice helliprdquo (diarist 4 interview)
Her space-time diary showed that when she felt she really needed the practice she did manage to fit
it in at home
ldquo3152010 900-1100 up to do yogameditation 900-945 (home) Determined not to miss
this today as yesterday didnrsquot turn out so well with rushed start and no yogameditation
practicerdquo (diarist 4 diary)
Diarist 25 found that her current lifestyle both enabled and complicated her practice She had given
up work due to anxiety and then started meditation three months later (as a response to difficulties
that she was experiencing in her life) Giving up work had enabled her meditation and yoga
practice giving her time to attend sessions at the Buddhist centre on an almost daily basis Later
becoming a mother had also shaped her practice
ldquoHaving Baba has enabled me to do what Irsquom doing Actually having a kid and staying at
home has enabled me to get into meditation When he was little I used to take him along
to the Buddhist Centre and hersquod sleep and Irsquod go upstairs to one of the sessions and people
wouldnrsquot mind me leaving him in the buggy downstairs I mean I havenrsquot been doing that
so much recently but thatrsquos when Baba was [six months to 18 months] But now Baba will
go to sleep two hours in the middle of the day and I can do some thenrdquo (diarist 25interview)
The routine of her day with her child in combination with the support offered by the Buddhist
Centre enabled her to devote discrete time and space to her meditation She also used time with her
child to practice walking meditation saying ldquoI do walking meditation when Irsquom walking to the park
with Babardquo But this was not straightforwardly easy as she found pushing the pushchair
frustrated her practice ldquowhen Irsquom not pushing the buggy I can concentrate like on my feet - the
feelings of my feet ndash much easier than if Irsquom pushing the buggyrdquo
The experiences of these diarists show that it is not perhaps as straightforward as simply fitting the
practice within current space-time routines in order to alter onersquos experience of an existing life as
structured via those space-time routines (the kind of reflexive relation entailed in mindfulness
meditation) The teachers pragmatically acknowledged that fitting a formal daily meditation
practice in was difficult For instance teacher 2 explained that the main work done by students on
the MBSR and MBCT courses is in the time between the sessions rather than the sessions
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14
themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
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983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
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mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
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983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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18
22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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8
i) Dialogue with the self towards habitual self-reflexivity
The lsquoproblemsrsquo that these practices are designed to address are those of particular mental patterns
which create and perpetuate stress unhappiness depression and dissatisfaction As already
introduced in the previous section fundamental to these problems is a kind of habitual lsquoautomatic
pilotrsquo operative at a sub- or semi-conscious level
46
This is generally the first thing introduced in theMBCT and MBSR courses and concerns a state in which the mind is passive lsquoallowing itself to be
ldquocaughtrdquo by thoughts memories plans or feelingsrsquo47
Our habitual patterns of thought transform
what might otherwise be a fleeting negative feelingthought into a more enduring form of negativity
or rumination Ruminative thought attempts to lsquoproblem solversquo by taking us back to past times
where we might previously have felt like this in lsquoan effort to understand what went wrongrsquo48
and to
project us into imagined futures Teacher 2 a female psychotherapist and teacher of MBCT clearly
describes this
ldquoyou know a lot of us just spend so much time flying out of our bodies trying to be in the
next place trying to be in the last place upset because you know wersquore thinking in the
past wersquore planning for the future wersquore not really presentrdquo49
(teacher 2)
The writing on mindfulness suggests that rumination does not solve our problems but rather is
likely to precipitate a lsquocascade of mental events that draws us down into a depressionrsquo50
The
lsquoproblemrsquo is not the feeling but rather how the mind reacts to the feeling51
This habit of mind is
seen to persist because of wider cultural beliefs that this is the best hope of revealing a lsquoway to
solve our problemsrsquo52
The hinge of the techniques is to teach the participants to recognise when their minds are running
on automatic pilot and lsquoto teach them to intentionally to shift their awareness to something elsersquo53
thus intervening in habits of thought and allowing the (agentic) reflexive self to change their
relation to these habits This change is made possible in mindfulness meditation by a focus on the
present moment accessed via attention to physical experiences of the immediate context The
objective of situating attention in the body is to lsquoget out of our heads and learn to experience the
world directly experientially without the relentless commentary of our thoughtsrsquo54
The diarists
reported that the practices had indeed had an effect on their habits of thought For instance diarist 5
a male musician between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with his partner and children and
practices mindfulness meditation and yoga said this
ldquoI think itrsquos actually noticing your thoughts and not letting them run away with you all the
time I think thatrsquos what has happened since Irsquove had the breakdown is that I was one of
these people whose thoughts raced a million miles an hour They still do to a degree but
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983097
much less so Now that could be the medicationhellip But maybe the combination of
medication and meditation slowed me down for the first time ever reallyrdquo (diarist 5)
Diarist 25 a female full time mother between the ages of 26 and 35 who lives with her partner and
child and practices mindfulness meditation noted that her life had been given a different rhythm
ldquoA lot of my life Irsquove just been running from one thing to another like in a frantic kind of
excited way because Irsquom quite an hellip energetic sort of person hellip I was doing lots of differentthings But I feel like Irsquod just been running from one thing to another and never stopping
And so this maybe has given me a chance to stoprdquo (diarist 25 interview)
Participants are trained to notice automatic pilot and in so doing to generate an alternative lsquohabitrsquo
of acute awareness of what is going on in the present (both in the world and in onersquos mind and
body) thus developing an interplay between attention (to the present moment) and a meta-
awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind (in the present moment) Still this
reflexivity often only became apparent after the individual had noticed that they had drifted off into
their usual state of autopilot Notable here is one of the assumptions of mindfulness that due to theinherently discursive nature of the mind the practice constantly fails As Segal et al put it
lsquowandering is what minds dorsquo55
and rather than berating the self for lsquofailingrsquo the teachers described
how an attitude of acceptance rather than judgement needs to be cultivated
ldquoAnd actually the core of mindfulness hellip is the letting go Is the being with hellip the
accepting of how things are and then just allowing things to be helliprdquo (teacher 2 interview)
ldquopeople come in distressed because of the judgements theyrsquore making about certain things
hellip lsquoOkay this is what is happening to your thinking style when yoursquore anxious or yoursquore
upset or you know someonersquos cut you up as you were driving into workrsquo Itrsquos hellip those
judgements that are driving the way that we react to life so yeah in terms of mindfulness
itrsquos just about noticing thatrsquos happening and not getting hooked in hellip to our dramas and our
reactionsrdquo (teacher 1 interview)
Changing the relationship between the self and these habits of thought so that the participant can
see them lsquoas they are simply streams of thinking events in the mind rather than getting lost in
themrsquo56
is seen as crucial to removing suffering
lsquoThat thing of if your thoughts drift off hellip most people think hellip [meditationrsquos] about
clearing your mind and being relaxed But no sometimes your headrsquos just full of stuff hellip If
you give yourself a hard time or you get self-critical about something yoursquove done yoursquore just making the whole problem a whole lot worse arenrsquot yoursquo (teacher 1 interview)
The reflexive subject emergent here differs from the one mapped out by Crossley in a number of
ways Firstly while Crossleyrsquos reflexive subject is constituted through dialogue (in particular the
ability to ask oneself questions and pose answers to them) mindfulness meditation sees these kinds
of dialogue to be problematic (inasmuch as they obscure the present moment and encourage
individuals to become caught up in ruminations) Secondly mindfulness meditation suspends the
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form of judgement that Crossley identifies as central to this self-reflexive dialogue (in which we
evaluate ourselves via the questions we ask ourselves and effect a change in our habits as a result)
In contrast mindfulness meditation cultivates a non-judgemental form of paying attention to the
self which doesnrsquot necessarily have to result in a change in habits Thirdly Crossleyrsquos version of
agency is characterised by a clear intentionality albeit shaped by habit In contrast agency is
constructed in mindfulness meditation via an ongoing dialogue between the mindful activity (ie
the attention to actions in the present moment ndash breathing walking eating and so forth) and a
wider meta-awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind as this activity proceeds
This gives agency a less purposive and more exploratory form
As a result of these differences the desired end-point of the transformation also differs Crossleyrsquos
reflexive self aims towards an end-point of a different body-mind generally constructed relative to
dominant norms around what a body-mind should be This has consequences for the social status
(within a particular lsquofieldrsquo) of an individual57
In contrast the reflexive self advocated inmindfulness meditation sets up an expansive sense of awareness in order to be more accepting of
the body-mind as it is and espouses an attitude of lsquonon-strivingrsquo58
This does not necessarily entail a
desire for change in status or position but rather the development of a different attitude towards
onersquos current position59
The reflexive self of mindfulness meditation thus offers a different model
of transformation while Crossleyrsquos reflexive self entails willing transformation in the self
mindfulness meditation absolutely does not involve this kind of will to transformation but rather
the transformation of the relationship to the self as it is This is not to say that the participant
becomes resigned to the current form of their selfhood ndash or framed in terms of habit they remain a
passive body helplessly drawn along by existing habits ndash but rather that their current form of
selfhood becomes something to be explored (by developing an active relationship to their embodied
habits)
Reflexive practices are always lsquodonersquo in specific material spatio-temporal contexts and the habits
that they are designed to reshape are always situated in and clearly related to these contexts While
Crossley gestures towards the material circumstances within which a reflexive self might engage
with habits (as he assesses how transformations in the self might relate to the socialcultural norms
that structure) his engagement with contexts is limited We suggest there is a need for a more
geographically sensitive engagement with habit and reflexivity As such it is important to look at
the relations that exist between body and world in such practices and so the following section will
trace two different relations that exist between bodies and contexts First it will examine how the
contexts within which reflexive body practices are undertaken shape the agency of habit andor the
reflexive self enabling or frustrating our abilities to relate tointervene in habits of thoughtbody
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The section will trace how participants negotiate the techniques alongside the wider contexts of
their everyday lives attending to the relation between habits at the individual scale and wider
habitual geographies (eg working routines sleep childcare) Secondly it will look at how such
reflexive practices might change the relationship that we have with the material contexts within
which we live While Crossley suggests that we might experience a change in our position within
the field(s) where we are located by engagement with reflexive practices mindfulness meditation
potentially offers a different relation to context in which we do not change position but rather
change our relationship with the (existent) contexts where we are located
ii) Relationship with context intervening in geographies of habit
Looking at the experiences of a number of diarists is instructive in beginning to understand some of
the negotiations made between their practice and the routines of their wider lives For each diarist it
is useful to explore both of these relations first how wider contexts shape engagement with
mindfulness meditation and secondly how the practices change relations with these wider
contexts For example diarist 23 a female housing support worker between the ages of 36 and 45
who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation was seemingly able to experience the lsquoidealrsquo fit
between her practice and her wider life in that she could lsquofitrsquo it into her everyday working routine
(albeit in a relatively fraught way) and in turn it shaped her relationship with that work in a manner
that she experienced as positive She described how her workplace was close to the Buddhist Centre
and how she would normally
ldquohelliprush to the Buddhist Centre one minute before meditation starts and then hope that Irsquovegot some money to pay them and run upstairs trying to look calm try and remember how
many cushions I need sit down pant a bit and then kind of think I always do this and next
time Irsquoll try and get here a bit earlier But at least Irsquom here and yeah itrsquos better than nothingrdquo
(diarist 23 interview)
As well as being able to fit her practice into her working day her space-time diary described how
the practice at lunchtime had an impact on her subsequent working activities
ldquo2072010 230-500 Back to the office for another client appt Felt more calm and centre
after meditation and also more confident than usual with this client who I can find
challengingrdquo (diarist 23 diary)
In this instance diarist 23 can be seen to embody the lsquointentionrsquo of mindfulness meditation in
which she maintained her current place within the lsquofieldrsquo (and indeed the proximity of her work to
the Buddhist Centre facilitated her practice) and changed her relationship to it via her practice
Impromptu informal mindfulness practices were also seen to lsquofitrsquo in the participantsrsquo everyday
routines enabling them to develop alternative relationships with events which they had habitually
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experienced as difficult For example diarist 19 a female administrator between the ages of 56 and
65 who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation described how she was able to do the
techniques when she needed them during her working day
ldquoAnd I think that having meditation throughout your day is probably far better than having
to do it every day It is a tool that you can just use any minute of the day Sometimes if
yoursquove got a really terrible time at work you shut yourself in the toilet and just breathe Andthen you can come out and go lsquoyes finersquo Because otherwise you might lose itrdquo (diarist 19
interview)
Other diarists however had not been able to lsquofitrsquo their practice easily within their everyday lives
and had developed other ways to negotiate the relationship between their practice and their context
For example diarist 4 a female academic between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with her partner
and practices mindfulness meditation and yoga identified a number of tensions arising as she tried
to accommodate the practice within her domestic routines She told us that she found it hard to
create a lsquospacersquo (literally and metaphorically) within her home to practise
Diarist 4 ldquoItrsquos really just a desire to be in that hellip place where itrsquos quiet hellip but Irsquom not very
good at it (and I think a lot of people have this problem) Irsquom not very good at taking myself
away from a very hectic environment where there seems to be lots going on and where lots
needs doing like you know supper needs cooking and the kitchen needs clearing and I
havenrsquot quite finished my emails Irsquom not very good at saying lsquoright yoga or meditationrsquo I
mean I am if Irsquove got a class (which is presumably why a lot of people use classes hellip) but
hellip just to extricate myself from all that and just go up to my room and sit there I still find
that quite difficultrdquo
Interviewer ldquoWhat do you mean To negotiate with others to do itrdquo
Diarist 4 ldquoNo just myself really I mean everyone elsersquod be fine lsquogo on go go awayrsquo
[laughs] hellip but erm I know Irsquom someone who needs to ndash whatever it is Irsquom trying to do if
Irsquom trying to sit and write ndash everything has to be cleared up first You have to have done the
laundry and got the breakfast and cleared that up and thatrsquos just the way I seem to be And I
thought that getting into meditation things might change that and I would just be able to
float through the kitchen see all the mess and float out the other side [laughs] It hasnrsquot quite
worked that way In fact you know in some ways I need to be more prepared and organised
in other ways to enjoy the meditationrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
What she describes here is how the space-time routines through which her life is structured and the
material contexts within which she lives make it difficult for her to practise at home (therefore
obscuring the potential for her to change her relation to those space-time routines and material
contexts) Her habits for doing work (ie needing to clear up before writing) also persist for doing
meditation A class ndash where ldquothe space would be organised by somebody else for usrdquo (diarist 4
interview) ndash would offer this clutter- and task-free space thereby circumventing her habitual
inability to do something where there are still domestic tasks remaining undone Yet she noted in
her interview that she ldquodoesnrsquot go to a class for that anymorerdquo60
She also told us that she had been
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able to squeeze meditation into her already existing routines outside of the home aided by some
guided mindfulness meditation exercises downloaded on to her iPod so that she could listen to them
on the bus journey to work
ldquoIrsquove put [the guided meditation CDs] on my iPod as well now so I can have them I take
sometimes I have my iPod like on the bus hellip I sometimes do a little bit hellip of meditation on
the way out to [campus] on the bus because itrsquos just time that Irsquove got to myself so itrsquos quitenice helliprdquo (diarist 4 interview)
Her space-time diary showed that when she felt she really needed the practice she did manage to fit
it in at home
ldquo3152010 900-1100 up to do yogameditation 900-945 (home) Determined not to miss
this today as yesterday didnrsquot turn out so well with rushed start and no yogameditation
practicerdquo (diarist 4 diary)
Diarist 25 found that her current lifestyle both enabled and complicated her practice She had given
up work due to anxiety and then started meditation three months later (as a response to difficulties
that she was experiencing in her life) Giving up work had enabled her meditation and yoga
practice giving her time to attend sessions at the Buddhist centre on an almost daily basis Later
becoming a mother had also shaped her practice
ldquoHaving Baba has enabled me to do what Irsquom doing Actually having a kid and staying at
home has enabled me to get into meditation When he was little I used to take him along
to the Buddhist Centre and hersquod sleep and Irsquod go upstairs to one of the sessions and people
wouldnrsquot mind me leaving him in the buggy downstairs I mean I havenrsquot been doing that
so much recently but thatrsquos when Baba was [six months to 18 months] But now Baba will
go to sleep two hours in the middle of the day and I can do some thenrdquo (diarist 25interview)
The routine of her day with her child in combination with the support offered by the Buddhist
Centre enabled her to devote discrete time and space to her meditation She also used time with her
child to practice walking meditation saying ldquoI do walking meditation when Irsquom walking to the park
with Babardquo But this was not straightforwardly easy as she found pushing the pushchair
frustrated her practice ldquowhen Irsquom not pushing the buggy I can concentrate like on my feet - the
feelings of my feet ndash much easier than if Irsquom pushing the buggyrdquo
The experiences of these diarists show that it is not perhaps as straightforward as simply fitting the
practice within current space-time routines in order to alter onersquos experience of an existing life as
structured via those space-time routines (the kind of reflexive relation entailed in mindfulness
meditation) The teachers pragmatically acknowledged that fitting a formal daily meditation
practice in was difficult For instance teacher 2 explained that the main work done by students on
the MBSR and MBCT courses is in the time between the sessions rather than the sessions
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themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
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983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
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16
mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
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3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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983097
much less so Now that could be the medicationhellip But maybe the combination of
medication and meditation slowed me down for the first time ever reallyrdquo (diarist 5)
Diarist 25 a female full time mother between the ages of 26 and 35 who lives with her partner and
child and practices mindfulness meditation noted that her life had been given a different rhythm
ldquoA lot of my life Irsquove just been running from one thing to another like in a frantic kind of
excited way because Irsquom quite an hellip energetic sort of person hellip I was doing lots of differentthings But I feel like Irsquod just been running from one thing to another and never stopping
And so this maybe has given me a chance to stoprdquo (diarist 25 interview)
Participants are trained to notice automatic pilot and in so doing to generate an alternative lsquohabitrsquo
of acute awareness of what is going on in the present (both in the world and in onersquos mind and
body) thus developing an interplay between attention (to the present moment) and a meta-
awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind (in the present moment) Still this
reflexivity often only became apparent after the individual had noticed that they had drifted off into
their usual state of autopilot Notable here is one of the assumptions of mindfulness that due to theinherently discursive nature of the mind the practice constantly fails As Segal et al put it
lsquowandering is what minds dorsquo55
and rather than berating the self for lsquofailingrsquo the teachers described
how an attitude of acceptance rather than judgement needs to be cultivated
ldquoAnd actually the core of mindfulness hellip is the letting go Is the being with hellip the
accepting of how things are and then just allowing things to be helliprdquo (teacher 2 interview)
ldquopeople come in distressed because of the judgements theyrsquore making about certain things
hellip lsquoOkay this is what is happening to your thinking style when yoursquore anxious or yoursquore
upset or you know someonersquos cut you up as you were driving into workrsquo Itrsquos hellip those
judgements that are driving the way that we react to life so yeah in terms of mindfulness
itrsquos just about noticing thatrsquos happening and not getting hooked in hellip to our dramas and our
reactionsrdquo (teacher 1 interview)
Changing the relationship between the self and these habits of thought so that the participant can
see them lsquoas they are simply streams of thinking events in the mind rather than getting lost in
themrsquo56
is seen as crucial to removing suffering
lsquoThat thing of if your thoughts drift off hellip most people think hellip [meditationrsquos] about
clearing your mind and being relaxed But no sometimes your headrsquos just full of stuff hellip If
you give yourself a hard time or you get self-critical about something yoursquove done yoursquore just making the whole problem a whole lot worse arenrsquot yoursquo (teacher 1 interview)
The reflexive subject emergent here differs from the one mapped out by Crossley in a number of
ways Firstly while Crossleyrsquos reflexive subject is constituted through dialogue (in particular the
ability to ask oneself questions and pose answers to them) mindfulness meditation sees these kinds
of dialogue to be problematic (inasmuch as they obscure the present moment and encourage
individuals to become caught up in ruminations) Secondly mindfulness meditation suspends the
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10
form of judgement that Crossley identifies as central to this self-reflexive dialogue (in which we
evaluate ourselves via the questions we ask ourselves and effect a change in our habits as a result)
In contrast mindfulness meditation cultivates a non-judgemental form of paying attention to the
self which doesnrsquot necessarily have to result in a change in habits Thirdly Crossleyrsquos version of
agency is characterised by a clear intentionality albeit shaped by habit In contrast agency is
constructed in mindfulness meditation via an ongoing dialogue between the mindful activity (ie
the attention to actions in the present moment ndash breathing walking eating and so forth) and a
wider meta-awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind as this activity proceeds
This gives agency a less purposive and more exploratory form
As a result of these differences the desired end-point of the transformation also differs Crossleyrsquos
reflexive self aims towards an end-point of a different body-mind generally constructed relative to
dominant norms around what a body-mind should be This has consequences for the social status
(within a particular lsquofieldrsquo) of an individual57
In contrast the reflexive self advocated inmindfulness meditation sets up an expansive sense of awareness in order to be more accepting of
the body-mind as it is and espouses an attitude of lsquonon-strivingrsquo58
This does not necessarily entail a
desire for change in status or position but rather the development of a different attitude towards
onersquos current position59
The reflexive self of mindfulness meditation thus offers a different model
of transformation while Crossleyrsquos reflexive self entails willing transformation in the self
mindfulness meditation absolutely does not involve this kind of will to transformation but rather
the transformation of the relationship to the self as it is This is not to say that the participant
becomes resigned to the current form of their selfhood ndash or framed in terms of habit they remain a
passive body helplessly drawn along by existing habits ndash but rather that their current form of
selfhood becomes something to be explored (by developing an active relationship to their embodied
habits)
Reflexive practices are always lsquodonersquo in specific material spatio-temporal contexts and the habits
that they are designed to reshape are always situated in and clearly related to these contexts While
Crossley gestures towards the material circumstances within which a reflexive self might engage
with habits (as he assesses how transformations in the self might relate to the socialcultural norms
that structure) his engagement with contexts is limited We suggest there is a need for a more
geographically sensitive engagement with habit and reflexivity As such it is important to look at
the relations that exist between body and world in such practices and so the following section will
trace two different relations that exist between bodies and contexts First it will examine how the
contexts within which reflexive body practices are undertaken shape the agency of habit andor the
reflexive self enabling or frustrating our abilities to relate tointervene in habits of thoughtbody
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983089983089
The section will trace how participants negotiate the techniques alongside the wider contexts of
their everyday lives attending to the relation between habits at the individual scale and wider
habitual geographies (eg working routines sleep childcare) Secondly it will look at how such
reflexive practices might change the relationship that we have with the material contexts within
which we live While Crossley suggests that we might experience a change in our position within
the field(s) where we are located by engagement with reflexive practices mindfulness meditation
potentially offers a different relation to context in which we do not change position but rather
change our relationship with the (existent) contexts where we are located
ii) Relationship with context intervening in geographies of habit
Looking at the experiences of a number of diarists is instructive in beginning to understand some of
the negotiations made between their practice and the routines of their wider lives For each diarist it
is useful to explore both of these relations first how wider contexts shape engagement with
mindfulness meditation and secondly how the practices change relations with these wider
contexts For example diarist 23 a female housing support worker between the ages of 36 and 45
who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation was seemingly able to experience the lsquoidealrsquo fit
between her practice and her wider life in that she could lsquofitrsquo it into her everyday working routine
(albeit in a relatively fraught way) and in turn it shaped her relationship with that work in a manner
that she experienced as positive She described how her workplace was close to the Buddhist Centre
and how she would normally
ldquohelliprush to the Buddhist Centre one minute before meditation starts and then hope that Irsquovegot some money to pay them and run upstairs trying to look calm try and remember how
many cushions I need sit down pant a bit and then kind of think I always do this and next
time Irsquoll try and get here a bit earlier But at least Irsquom here and yeah itrsquos better than nothingrdquo
(diarist 23 interview)
As well as being able to fit her practice into her working day her space-time diary described how
the practice at lunchtime had an impact on her subsequent working activities
ldquo2072010 230-500 Back to the office for another client appt Felt more calm and centre
after meditation and also more confident than usual with this client who I can find
challengingrdquo (diarist 23 diary)
In this instance diarist 23 can be seen to embody the lsquointentionrsquo of mindfulness meditation in
which she maintained her current place within the lsquofieldrsquo (and indeed the proximity of her work to
the Buddhist Centre facilitated her practice) and changed her relationship to it via her practice
Impromptu informal mindfulness practices were also seen to lsquofitrsquo in the participantsrsquo everyday
routines enabling them to develop alternative relationships with events which they had habitually
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12
experienced as difficult For example diarist 19 a female administrator between the ages of 56 and
65 who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation described how she was able to do the
techniques when she needed them during her working day
ldquoAnd I think that having meditation throughout your day is probably far better than having
to do it every day It is a tool that you can just use any minute of the day Sometimes if
yoursquove got a really terrible time at work you shut yourself in the toilet and just breathe Andthen you can come out and go lsquoyes finersquo Because otherwise you might lose itrdquo (diarist 19
interview)
Other diarists however had not been able to lsquofitrsquo their practice easily within their everyday lives
and had developed other ways to negotiate the relationship between their practice and their context
For example diarist 4 a female academic between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with her partner
and practices mindfulness meditation and yoga identified a number of tensions arising as she tried
to accommodate the practice within her domestic routines She told us that she found it hard to
create a lsquospacersquo (literally and metaphorically) within her home to practise
Diarist 4 ldquoItrsquos really just a desire to be in that hellip place where itrsquos quiet hellip but Irsquom not very
good at it (and I think a lot of people have this problem) Irsquom not very good at taking myself
away from a very hectic environment where there seems to be lots going on and where lots
needs doing like you know supper needs cooking and the kitchen needs clearing and I
havenrsquot quite finished my emails Irsquom not very good at saying lsquoright yoga or meditationrsquo I
mean I am if Irsquove got a class (which is presumably why a lot of people use classes hellip) but
hellip just to extricate myself from all that and just go up to my room and sit there I still find
that quite difficultrdquo
Interviewer ldquoWhat do you mean To negotiate with others to do itrdquo
Diarist 4 ldquoNo just myself really I mean everyone elsersquod be fine lsquogo on go go awayrsquo
[laughs] hellip but erm I know Irsquom someone who needs to ndash whatever it is Irsquom trying to do if
Irsquom trying to sit and write ndash everything has to be cleared up first You have to have done the
laundry and got the breakfast and cleared that up and thatrsquos just the way I seem to be And I
thought that getting into meditation things might change that and I would just be able to
float through the kitchen see all the mess and float out the other side [laughs] It hasnrsquot quite
worked that way In fact you know in some ways I need to be more prepared and organised
in other ways to enjoy the meditationrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
What she describes here is how the space-time routines through which her life is structured and the
material contexts within which she lives make it difficult for her to practise at home (therefore
obscuring the potential for her to change her relation to those space-time routines and material
contexts) Her habits for doing work (ie needing to clear up before writing) also persist for doing
meditation A class ndash where ldquothe space would be organised by somebody else for usrdquo (diarist 4
interview) ndash would offer this clutter- and task-free space thereby circumventing her habitual
inability to do something where there are still domestic tasks remaining undone Yet she noted in
her interview that she ldquodoesnrsquot go to a class for that anymorerdquo60
She also told us that she had been
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983089983091
able to squeeze meditation into her already existing routines outside of the home aided by some
guided mindfulness meditation exercises downloaded on to her iPod so that she could listen to them
on the bus journey to work
ldquoIrsquove put [the guided meditation CDs] on my iPod as well now so I can have them I take
sometimes I have my iPod like on the bus hellip I sometimes do a little bit hellip of meditation on
the way out to [campus] on the bus because itrsquos just time that Irsquove got to myself so itrsquos quitenice helliprdquo (diarist 4 interview)
Her space-time diary showed that when she felt she really needed the practice she did manage to fit
it in at home
ldquo3152010 900-1100 up to do yogameditation 900-945 (home) Determined not to miss
this today as yesterday didnrsquot turn out so well with rushed start and no yogameditation
practicerdquo (diarist 4 diary)
Diarist 25 found that her current lifestyle both enabled and complicated her practice She had given
up work due to anxiety and then started meditation three months later (as a response to difficulties
that she was experiencing in her life) Giving up work had enabled her meditation and yoga
practice giving her time to attend sessions at the Buddhist centre on an almost daily basis Later
becoming a mother had also shaped her practice
ldquoHaving Baba has enabled me to do what Irsquom doing Actually having a kid and staying at
home has enabled me to get into meditation When he was little I used to take him along
to the Buddhist Centre and hersquod sleep and Irsquod go upstairs to one of the sessions and people
wouldnrsquot mind me leaving him in the buggy downstairs I mean I havenrsquot been doing that
so much recently but thatrsquos when Baba was [six months to 18 months] But now Baba will
go to sleep two hours in the middle of the day and I can do some thenrdquo (diarist 25interview)
The routine of her day with her child in combination with the support offered by the Buddhist
Centre enabled her to devote discrete time and space to her meditation She also used time with her
child to practice walking meditation saying ldquoI do walking meditation when Irsquom walking to the park
with Babardquo But this was not straightforwardly easy as she found pushing the pushchair
frustrated her practice ldquowhen Irsquom not pushing the buggy I can concentrate like on my feet - the
feelings of my feet ndash much easier than if Irsquom pushing the buggyrdquo
The experiences of these diarists show that it is not perhaps as straightforward as simply fitting the
practice within current space-time routines in order to alter onersquos experience of an existing life as
structured via those space-time routines (the kind of reflexive relation entailed in mindfulness
meditation) The teachers pragmatically acknowledged that fitting a formal daily meditation
practice in was difficult For instance teacher 2 explained that the main work done by students on
the MBSR and MBCT courses is in the time between the sessions rather than the sessions
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14
themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
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983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
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mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
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983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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10
form of judgement that Crossley identifies as central to this self-reflexive dialogue (in which we
evaluate ourselves via the questions we ask ourselves and effect a change in our habits as a result)
In contrast mindfulness meditation cultivates a non-judgemental form of paying attention to the
self which doesnrsquot necessarily have to result in a change in habits Thirdly Crossleyrsquos version of
agency is characterised by a clear intentionality albeit shaped by habit In contrast agency is
constructed in mindfulness meditation via an ongoing dialogue between the mindful activity (ie
the attention to actions in the present moment ndash breathing walking eating and so forth) and a
wider meta-awareness of what is happening in the (habitual) body-mind as this activity proceeds
This gives agency a less purposive and more exploratory form
As a result of these differences the desired end-point of the transformation also differs Crossleyrsquos
reflexive self aims towards an end-point of a different body-mind generally constructed relative to
dominant norms around what a body-mind should be This has consequences for the social status
(within a particular lsquofieldrsquo) of an individual57
In contrast the reflexive self advocated inmindfulness meditation sets up an expansive sense of awareness in order to be more accepting of
the body-mind as it is and espouses an attitude of lsquonon-strivingrsquo58
This does not necessarily entail a
desire for change in status or position but rather the development of a different attitude towards
onersquos current position59
The reflexive self of mindfulness meditation thus offers a different model
of transformation while Crossleyrsquos reflexive self entails willing transformation in the self
mindfulness meditation absolutely does not involve this kind of will to transformation but rather
the transformation of the relationship to the self as it is This is not to say that the participant
becomes resigned to the current form of their selfhood ndash or framed in terms of habit they remain a
passive body helplessly drawn along by existing habits ndash but rather that their current form of
selfhood becomes something to be explored (by developing an active relationship to their embodied
habits)
Reflexive practices are always lsquodonersquo in specific material spatio-temporal contexts and the habits
that they are designed to reshape are always situated in and clearly related to these contexts While
Crossley gestures towards the material circumstances within which a reflexive self might engage
with habits (as he assesses how transformations in the self might relate to the socialcultural norms
that structure) his engagement with contexts is limited We suggest there is a need for a more
geographically sensitive engagement with habit and reflexivity As such it is important to look at
the relations that exist between body and world in such practices and so the following section will
trace two different relations that exist between bodies and contexts First it will examine how the
contexts within which reflexive body practices are undertaken shape the agency of habit andor the
reflexive self enabling or frustrating our abilities to relate tointervene in habits of thoughtbody
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983089983089
The section will trace how participants negotiate the techniques alongside the wider contexts of
their everyday lives attending to the relation between habits at the individual scale and wider
habitual geographies (eg working routines sleep childcare) Secondly it will look at how such
reflexive practices might change the relationship that we have with the material contexts within
which we live While Crossley suggests that we might experience a change in our position within
the field(s) where we are located by engagement with reflexive practices mindfulness meditation
potentially offers a different relation to context in which we do not change position but rather
change our relationship with the (existent) contexts where we are located
ii) Relationship with context intervening in geographies of habit
Looking at the experiences of a number of diarists is instructive in beginning to understand some of
the negotiations made between their practice and the routines of their wider lives For each diarist it
is useful to explore both of these relations first how wider contexts shape engagement with
mindfulness meditation and secondly how the practices change relations with these wider
contexts For example diarist 23 a female housing support worker between the ages of 36 and 45
who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation was seemingly able to experience the lsquoidealrsquo fit
between her practice and her wider life in that she could lsquofitrsquo it into her everyday working routine
(albeit in a relatively fraught way) and in turn it shaped her relationship with that work in a manner
that she experienced as positive She described how her workplace was close to the Buddhist Centre
and how she would normally
ldquohelliprush to the Buddhist Centre one minute before meditation starts and then hope that Irsquovegot some money to pay them and run upstairs trying to look calm try and remember how
many cushions I need sit down pant a bit and then kind of think I always do this and next
time Irsquoll try and get here a bit earlier But at least Irsquom here and yeah itrsquos better than nothingrdquo
(diarist 23 interview)
As well as being able to fit her practice into her working day her space-time diary described how
the practice at lunchtime had an impact on her subsequent working activities
ldquo2072010 230-500 Back to the office for another client appt Felt more calm and centre
after meditation and also more confident than usual with this client who I can find
challengingrdquo (diarist 23 diary)
In this instance diarist 23 can be seen to embody the lsquointentionrsquo of mindfulness meditation in
which she maintained her current place within the lsquofieldrsquo (and indeed the proximity of her work to
the Buddhist Centre facilitated her practice) and changed her relationship to it via her practice
Impromptu informal mindfulness practices were also seen to lsquofitrsquo in the participantsrsquo everyday
routines enabling them to develop alternative relationships with events which they had habitually
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experienced as difficult For example diarist 19 a female administrator between the ages of 56 and
65 who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation described how she was able to do the
techniques when she needed them during her working day
ldquoAnd I think that having meditation throughout your day is probably far better than having
to do it every day It is a tool that you can just use any minute of the day Sometimes if
yoursquove got a really terrible time at work you shut yourself in the toilet and just breathe Andthen you can come out and go lsquoyes finersquo Because otherwise you might lose itrdquo (diarist 19
interview)
Other diarists however had not been able to lsquofitrsquo their practice easily within their everyday lives
and had developed other ways to negotiate the relationship between their practice and their context
For example diarist 4 a female academic between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with her partner
and practices mindfulness meditation and yoga identified a number of tensions arising as she tried
to accommodate the practice within her domestic routines She told us that she found it hard to
create a lsquospacersquo (literally and metaphorically) within her home to practise
Diarist 4 ldquoItrsquos really just a desire to be in that hellip place where itrsquos quiet hellip but Irsquom not very
good at it (and I think a lot of people have this problem) Irsquom not very good at taking myself
away from a very hectic environment where there seems to be lots going on and where lots
needs doing like you know supper needs cooking and the kitchen needs clearing and I
havenrsquot quite finished my emails Irsquom not very good at saying lsquoright yoga or meditationrsquo I
mean I am if Irsquove got a class (which is presumably why a lot of people use classes hellip) but
hellip just to extricate myself from all that and just go up to my room and sit there I still find
that quite difficultrdquo
Interviewer ldquoWhat do you mean To negotiate with others to do itrdquo
Diarist 4 ldquoNo just myself really I mean everyone elsersquod be fine lsquogo on go go awayrsquo
[laughs] hellip but erm I know Irsquom someone who needs to ndash whatever it is Irsquom trying to do if
Irsquom trying to sit and write ndash everything has to be cleared up first You have to have done the
laundry and got the breakfast and cleared that up and thatrsquos just the way I seem to be And I
thought that getting into meditation things might change that and I would just be able to
float through the kitchen see all the mess and float out the other side [laughs] It hasnrsquot quite
worked that way In fact you know in some ways I need to be more prepared and organised
in other ways to enjoy the meditationrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
What she describes here is how the space-time routines through which her life is structured and the
material contexts within which she lives make it difficult for her to practise at home (therefore
obscuring the potential for her to change her relation to those space-time routines and material
contexts) Her habits for doing work (ie needing to clear up before writing) also persist for doing
meditation A class ndash where ldquothe space would be organised by somebody else for usrdquo (diarist 4
interview) ndash would offer this clutter- and task-free space thereby circumventing her habitual
inability to do something where there are still domestic tasks remaining undone Yet she noted in
her interview that she ldquodoesnrsquot go to a class for that anymorerdquo60
She also told us that she had been
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983089983091
able to squeeze meditation into her already existing routines outside of the home aided by some
guided mindfulness meditation exercises downloaded on to her iPod so that she could listen to them
on the bus journey to work
ldquoIrsquove put [the guided meditation CDs] on my iPod as well now so I can have them I take
sometimes I have my iPod like on the bus hellip I sometimes do a little bit hellip of meditation on
the way out to [campus] on the bus because itrsquos just time that Irsquove got to myself so itrsquos quitenice helliprdquo (diarist 4 interview)
Her space-time diary showed that when she felt she really needed the practice she did manage to fit
it in at home
ldquo3152010 900-1100 up to do yogameditation 900-945 (home) Determined not to miss
this today as yesterday didnrsquot turn out so well with rushed start and no yogameditation
practicerdquo (diarist 4 diary)
Diarist 25 found that her current lifestyle both enabled and complicated her practice She had given
up work due to anxiety and then started meditation three months later (as a response to difficulties
that she was experiencing in her life) Giving up work had enabled her meditation and yoga
practice giving her time to attend sessions at the Buddhist centre on an almost daily basis Later
becoming a mother had also shaped her practice
ldquoHaving Baba has enabled me to do what Irsquom doing Actually having a kid and staying at
home has enabled me to get into meditation When he was little I used to take him along
to the Buddhist Centre and hersquod sleep and Irsquod go upstairs to one of the sessions and people
wouldnrsquot mind me leaving him in the buggy downstairs I mean I havenrsquot been doing that
so much recently but thatrsquos when Baba was [six months to 18 months] But now Baba will
go to sleep two hours in the middle of the day and I can do some thenrdquo (diarist 25interview)
The routine of her day with her child in combination with the support offered by the Buddhist
Centre enabled her to devote discrete time and space to her meditation She also used time with her
child to practice walking meditation saying ldquoI do walking meditation when Irsquom walking to the park
with Babardquo But this was not straightforwardly easy as she found pushing the pushchair
frustrated her practice ldquowhen Irsquom not pushing the buggy I can concentrate like on my feet - the
feelings of my feet ndash much easier than if Irsquom pushing the buggyrdquo
The experiences of these diarists show that it is not perhaps as straightforward as simply fitting the
practice within current space-time routines in order to alter onersquos experience of an existing life as
structured via those space-time routines (the kind of reflexive relation entailed in mindfulness
meditation) The teachers pragmatically acknowledged that fitting a formal daily meditation
practice in was difficult For instance teacher 2 explained that the main work done by students on
the MBSR and MBCT courses is in the time between the sessions rather than the sessions
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14
themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
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983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
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mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
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3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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983089983089
The section will trace how participants negotiate the techniques alongside the wider contexts of
their everyday lives attending to the relation between habits at the individual scale and wider
habitual geographies (eg working routines sleep childcare) Secondly it will look at how such
reflexive practices might change the relationship that we have with the material contexts within
which we live While Crossley suggests that we might experience a change in our position within
the field(s) where we are located by engagement with reflexive practices mindfulness meditation
potentially offers a different relation to context in which we do not change position but rather
change our relationship with the (existent) contexts where we are located
ii) Relationship with context intervening in geographies of habit
Looking at the experiences of a number of diarists is instructive in beginning to understand some of
the negotiations made between their practice and the routines of their wider lives For each diarist it
is useful to explore both of these relations first how wider contexts shape engagement with
mindfulness meditation and secondly how the practices change relations with these wider
contexts For example diarist 23 a female housing support worker between the ages of 36 and 45
who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation was seemingly able to experience the lsquoidealrsquo fit
between her practice and her wider life in that she could lsquofitrsquo it into her everyday working routine
(albeit in a relatively fraught way) and in turn it shaped her relationship with that work in a manner
that she experienced as positive She described how her workplace was close to the Buddhist Centre
and how she would normally
ldquohelliprush to the Buddhist Centre one minute before meditation starts and then hope that Irsquovegot some money to pay them and run upstairs trying to look calm try and remember how
many cushions I need sit down pant a bit and then kind of think I always do this and next
time Irsquoll try and get here a bit earlier But at least Irsquom here and yeah itrsquos better than nothingrdquo
(diarist 23 interview)
As well as being able to fit her practice into her working day her space-time diary described how
the practice at lunchtime had an impact on her subsequent working activities
ldquo2072010 230-500 Back to the office for another client appt Felt more calm and centre
after meditation and also more confident than usual with this client who I can find
challengingrdquo (diarist 23 diary)
In this instance diarist 23 can be seen to embody the lsquointentionrsquo of mindfulness meditation in
which she maintained her current place within the lsquofieldrsquo (and indeed the proximity of her work to
the Buddhist Centre facilitated her practice) and changed her relationship to it via her practice
Impromptu informal mindfulness practices were also seen to lsquofitrsquo in the participantsrsquo everyday
routines enabling them to develop alternative relationships with events which they had habitually
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experienced as difficult For example diarist 19 a female administrator between the ages of 56 and
65 who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation described how she was able to do the
techniques when she needed them during her working day
ldquoAnd I think that having meditation throughout your day is probably far better than having
to do it every day It is a tool that you can just use any minute of the day Sometimes if
yoursquove got a really terrible time at work you shut yourself in the toilet and just breathe Andthen you can come out and go lsquoyes finersquo Because otherwise you might lose itrdquo (diarist 19
interview)
Other diarists however had not been able to lsquofitrsquo their practice easily within their everyday lives
and had developed other ways to negotiate the relationship between their practice and their context
For example diarist 4 a female academic between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with her partner
and practices mindfulness meditation and yoga identified a number of tensions arising as she tried
to accommodate the practice within her domestic routines She told us that she found it hard to
create a lsquospacersquo (literally and metaphorically) within her home to practise
Diarist 4 ldquoItrsquos really just a desire to be in that hellip place where itrsquos quiet hellip but Irsquom not very
good at it (and I think a lot of people have this problem) Irsquom not very good at taking myself
away from a very hectic environment where there seems to be lots going on and where lots
needs doing like you know supper needs cooking and the kitchen needs clearing and I
havenrsquot quite finished my emails Irsquom not very good at saying lsquoright yoga or meditationrsquo I
mean I am if Irsquove got a class (which is presumably why a lot of people use classes hellip) but
hellip just to extricate myself from all that and just go up to my room and sit there I still find
that quite difficultrdquo
Interviewer ldquoWhat do you mean To negotiate with others to do itrdquo
Diarist 4 ldquoNo just myself really I mean everyone elsersquod be fine lsquogo on go go awayrsquo
[laughs] hellip but erm I know Irsquom someone who needs to ndash whatever it is Irsquom trying to do if
Irsquom trying to sit and write ndash everything has to be cleared up first You have to have done the
laundry and got the breakfast and cleared that up and thatrsquos just the way I seem to be And I
thought that getting into meditation things might change that and I would just be able to
float through the kitchen see all the mess and float out the other side [laughs] It hasnrsquot quite
worked that way In fact you know in some ways I need to be more prepared and organised
in other ways to enjoy the meditationrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
What she describes here is how the space-time routines through which her life is structured and the
material contexts within which she lives make it difficult for her to practise at home (therefore
obscuring the potential for her to change her relation to those space-time routines and material
contexts) Her habits for doing work (ie needing to clear up before writing) also persist for doing
meditation A class ndash where ldquothe space would be organised by somebody else for usrdquo (diarist 4
interview) ndash would offer this clutter- and task-free space thereby circumventing her habitual
inability to do something where there are still domestic tasks remaining undone Yet she noted in
her interview that she ldquodoesnrsquot go to a class for that anymorerdquo60
She also told us that she had been
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983089983091
able to squeeze meditation into her already existing routines outside of the home aided by some
guided mindfulness meditation exercises downloaded on to her iPod so that she could listen to them
on the bus journey to work
ldquoIrsquove put [the guided meditation CDs] on my iPod as well now so I can have them I take
sometimes I have my iPod like on the bus hellip I sometimes do a little bit hellip of meditation on
the way out to [campus] on the bus because itrsquos just time that Irsquove got to myself so itrsquos quitenice helliprdquo (diarist 4 interview)
Her space-time diary showed that when she felt she really needed the practice she did manage to fit
it in at home
ldquo3152010 900-1100 up to do yogameditation 900-945 (home) Determined not to miss
this today as yesterday didnrsquot turn out so well with rushed start and no yogameditation
practicerdquo (diarist 4 diary)
Diarist 25 found that her current lifestyle both enabled and complicated her practice She had given
up work due to anxiety and then started meditation three months later (as a response to difficulties
that she was experiencing in her life) Giving up work had enabled her meditation and yoga
practice giving her time to attend sessions at the Buddhist centre on an almost daily basis Later
becoming a mother had also shaped her practice
ldquoHaving Baba has enabled me to do what Irsquom doing Actually having a kid and staying at
home has enabled me to get into meditation When he was little I used to take him along
to the Buddhist Centre and hersquod sleep and Irsquod go upstairs to one of the sessions and people
wouldnrsquot mind me leaving him in the buggy downstairs I mean I havenrsquot been doing that
so much recently but thatrsquos when Baba was [six months to 18 months] But now Baba will
go to sleep two hours in the middle of the day and I can do some thenrdquo (diarist 25interview)
The routine of her day with her child in combination with the support offered by the Buddhist
Centre enabled her to devote discrete time and space to her meditation She also used time with her
child to practice walking meditation saying ldquoI do walking meditation when Irsquom walking to the park
with Babardquo But this was not straightforwardly easy as she found pushing the pushchair
frustrated her practice ldquowhen Irsquom not pushing the buggy I can concentrate like on my feet - the
feelings of my feet ndash much easier than if Irsquom pushing the buggyrdquo
The experiences of these diarists show that it is not perhaps as straightforward as simply fitting the
practice within current space-time routines in order to alter onersquos experience of an existing life as
structured via those space-time routines (the kind of reflexive relation entailed in mindfulness
meditation) The teachers pragmatically acknowledged that fitting a formal daily meditation
practice in was difficult For instance teacher 2 explained that the main work done by students on
the MBSR and MBCT courses is in the time between the sessions rather than the sessions
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14
themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
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983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
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16
mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
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983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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18
22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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12
experienced as difficult For example diarist 19 a female administrator between the ages of 56 and
65 who lives alone and practices yoga and meditation described how she was able to do the
techniques when she needed them during her working day
ldquoAnd I think that having meditation throughout your day is probably far better than having
to do it every day It is a tool that you can just use any minute of the day Sometimes if
yoursquove got a really terrible time at work you shut yourself in the toilet and just breathe Andthen you can come out and go lsquoyes finersquo Because otherwise you might lose itrdquo (diarist 19
interview)
Other diarists however had not been able to lsquofitrsquo their practice easily within their everyday lives
and had developed other ways to negotiate the relationship between their practice and their context
For example diarist 4 a female academic between the ages of 46 and 55 who lives with her partner
and practices mindfulness meditation and yoga identified a number of tensions arising as she tried
to accommodate the practice within her domestic routines She told us that she found it hard to
create a lsquospacersquo (literally and metaphorically) within her home to practise
Diarist 4 ldquoItrsquos really just a desire to be in that hellip place where itrsquos quiet hellip but Irsquom not very
good at it (and I think a lot of people have this problem) Irsquom not very good at taking myself
away from a very hectic environment where there seems to be lots going on and where lots
needs doing like you know supper needs cooking and the kitchen needs clearing and I
havenrsquot quite finished my emails Irsquom not very good at saying lsquoright yoga or meditationrsquo I
mean I am if Irsquove got a class (which is presumably why a lot of people use classes hellip) but
hellip just to extricate myself from all that and just go up to my room and sit there I still find
that quite difficultrdquo
Interviewer ldquoWhat do you mean To negotiate with others to do itrdquo
Diarist 4 ldquoNo just myself really I mean everyone elsersquod be fine lsquogo on go go awayrsquo
[laughs] hellip but erm I know Irsquom someone who needs to ndash whatever it is Irsquom trying to do if
Irsquom trying to sit and write ndash everything has to be cleared up first You have to have done the
laundry and got the breakfast and cleared that up and thatrsquos just the way I seem to be And I
thought that getting into meditation things might change that and I would just be able to
float through the kitchen see all the mess and float out the other side [laughs] It hasnrsquot quite
worked that way In fact you know in some ways I need to be more prepared and organised
in other ways to enjoy the meditationrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
What she describes here is how the space-time routines through which her life is structured and the
material contexts within which she lives make it difficult for her to practise at home (therefore
obscuring the potential for her to change her relation to those space-time routines and material
contexts) Her habits for doing work (ie needing to clear up before writing) also persist for doing
meditation A class ndash where ldquothe space would be organised by somebody else for usrdquo (diarist 4
interview) ndash would offer this clutter- and task-free space thereby circumventing her habitual
inability to do something where there are still domestic tasks remaining undone Yet she noted in
her interview that she ldquodoesnrsquot go to a class for that anymorerdquo60
She also told us that she had been
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983089983091
able to squeeze meditation into her already existing routines outside of the home aided by some
guided mindfulness meditation exercises downloaded on to her iPod so that she could listen to them
on the bus journey to work
ldquoIrsquove put [the guided meditation CDs] on my iPod as well now so I can have them I take
sometimes I have my iPod like on the bus hellip I sometimes do a little bit hellip of meditation on
the way out to [campus] on the bus because itrsquos just time that Irsquove got to myself so itrsquos quitenice helliprdquo (diarist 4 interview)
Her space-time diary showed that when she felt she really needed the practice she did manage to fit
it in at home
ldquo3152010 900-1100 up to do yogameditation 900-945 (home) Determined not to miss
this today as yesterday didnrsquot turn out so well with rushed start and no yogameditation
practicerdquo (diarist 4 diary)
Diarist 25 found that her current lifestyle both enabled and complicated her practice She had given
up work due to anxiety and then started meditation three months later (as a response to difficulties
that she was experiencing in her life) Giving up work had enabled her meditation and yoga
practice giving her time to attend sessions at the Buddhist centre on an almost daily basis Later
becoming a mother had also shaped her practice
ldquoHaving Baba has enabled me to do what Irsquom doing Actually having a kid and staying at
home has enabled me to get into meditation When he was little I used to take him along
to the Buddhist Centre and hersquod sleep and Irsquod go upstairs to one of the sessions and people
wouldnrsquot mind me leaving him in the buggy downstairs I mean I havenrsquot been doing that
so much recently but thatrsquos when Baba was [six months to 18 months] But now Baba will
go to sleep two hours in the middle of the day and I can do some thenrdquo (diarist 25interview)
The routine of her day with her child in combination with the support offered by the Buddhist
Centre enabled her to devote discrete time and space to her meditation She also used time with her
child to practice walking meditation saying ldquoI do walking meditation when Irsquom walking to the park
with Babardquo But this was not straightforwardly easy as she found pushing the pushchair
frustrated her practice ldquowhen Irsquom not pushing the buggy I can concentrate like on my feet - the
feelings of my feet ndash much easier than if Irsquom pushing the buggyrdquo
The experiences of these diarists show that it is not perhaps as straightforward as simply fitting the
practice within current space-time routines in order to alter onersquos experience of an existing life as
structured via those space-time routines (the kind of reflexive relation entailed in mindfulness
meditation) The teachers pragmatically acknowledged that fitting a formal daily meditation
practice in was difficult For instance teacher 2 explained that the main work done by students on
the MBSR and MBCT courses is in the time between the sessions rather than the sessions
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14
themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
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983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
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mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
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983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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983089983091
able to squeeze meditation into her already existing routines outside of the home aided by some
guided mindfulness meditation exercises downloaded on to her iPod so that she could listen to them
on the bus journey to work
ldquoIrsquove put [the guided meditation CDs] on my iPod as well now so I can have them I take
sometimes I have my iPod like on the bus hellip I sometimes do a little bit hellip of meditation on
the way out to [campus] on the bus because itrsquos just time that Irsquove got to myself so itrsquos quitenice helliprdquo (diarist 4 interview)
Her space-time diary showed that when she felt she really needed the practice she did manage to fit
it in at home
ldquo3152010 900-1100 up to do yogameditation 900-945 (home) Determined not to miss
this today as yesterday didnrsquot turn out so well with rushed start and no yogameditation
practicerdquo (diarist 4 diary)
Diarist 25 found that her current lifestyle both enabled and complicated her practice She had given
up work due to anxiety and then started meditation three months later (as a response to difficulties
that she was experiencing in her life) Giving up work had enabled her meditation and yoga
practice giving her time to attend sessions at the Buddhist centre on an almost daily basis Later
becoming a mother had also shaped her practice
ldquoHaving Baba has enabled me to do what Irsquom doing Actually having a kid and staying at
home has enabled me to get into meditation When he was little I used to take him along
to the Buddhist Centre and hersquod sleep and Irsquod go upstairs to one of the sessions and people
wouldnrsquot mind me leaving him in the buggy downstairs I mean I havenrsquot been doing that
so much recently but thatrsquos when Baba was [six months to 18 months] But now Baba will
go to sleep two hours in the middle of the day and I can do some thenrdquo (diarist 25interview)
The routine of her day with her child in combination with the support offered by the Buddhist
Centre enabled her to devote discrete time and space to her meditation She also used time with her
child to practice walking meditation saying ldquoI do walking meditation when Irsquom walking to the park
with Babardquo But this was not straightforwardly easy as she found pushing the pushchair
frustrated her practice ldquowhen Irsquom not pushing the buggy I can concentrate like on my feet - the
feelings of my feet ndash much easier than if Irsquom pushing the buggyrdquo
The experiences of these diarists show that it is not perhaps as straightforward as simply fitting the
practice within current space-time routines in order to alter onersquos experience of an existing life as
structured via those space-time routines (the kind of reflexive relation entailed in mindfulness
meditation) The teachers pragmatically acknowledged that fitting a formal daily meditation
practice in was difficult For instance teacher 2 explained that the main work done by students on
the MBSR and MBCT courses is in the time between the sessions rather than the sessions
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14
themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
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983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
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mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
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983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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18
22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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14
themselves All the teachers set lsquohomeworkrsquo and then facilitated group discussions around what the
participants felt had gone right or wrong for them in doing this homework
ldquoOne of the things people struggle with most is how to integrate it into their lives and
thatrsquos whatrsquos dealt with each session in terms of reviewing homework lsquoHow are we
getting on with practice hellip what obstacles are there How might you continue this
forwardrsquordquo (teacher 1 interview)ldquoAnd people will always say theyrsquore struggling to fit it in So we have to then work
on a bit of problem solving about practicalities about making a space in your dayrdquo
(teacher 1 interview)
ldquoItrsquos never going to be easier to start a sustainable practice than it is when yoursquore on a
course Thatrsquos the best time because yoursquove got the support yoursquove got
encouragement you know therersquos trouble shooting possibilitiesrdquo (teacher 3 interview
male mindfulness teacher and cognitive behavioural therapist)
A complex interplay exists between the enduring habits of mind and body the space-time routines
within which they have been laid down and the ability of the participant to engage and cultivate a
different relation with such habits Participants sought to find support for their mindfulness practise
within the wider routines of their lives thus working within their existent constraints (eg work
caring obligations) rather than attempting to change them The diaries and interviews show that
each diarist was working towards a personal solution (combining designated space-times with more
impromptu practise) to enable them to fit these new reflexive habits within their existing lives61
perhaps enabling the formation of a different relationship with those existing lives That said they
found this shift difficult precisely because mindfulness meditation does not desire to change
existing space-time routines The difficulty exists partly because their ongoing space-time routineswere often already full to capacity so there was literally no space to add anything new in they were
complex and very well established and so difficult to alter and also because these enduring routines
themselves often supported and played a part in creating the familiar habits which the participants
were using mindfulness meditation to break away from Attending to such contexts (and the
relationship of bodies and subjects to contexts) is therefore very important when thinking about
reflexive practices and habit
While it is hard to change our relation to bodily scale habits because they are rooted in and
constituted via enduring space-time routines changing our relation to existing forms of life (rather
than striving for a new form of life) holds great potential As noted in the previous section this
might harbour a critical potential whereby the individual is accepting of the mind-body as it is but
attempting to alter onersquos relationship with the contexts in which the individual might operate In
theory herein lies the potential to set up a different critical relation to the social and cultural norms
that arguably become hidden from view by their incorporation in habitual ways of being By
Page 14
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cultural geographies
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F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
ge 15 of 23
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16
mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
Page 16
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7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
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F o r P
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e v i e w
983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
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e v i e w
18
22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
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e v i e w
983089983097
42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
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20
62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
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e v i e w
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
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Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
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e e r R
e v i e w
ge 23 of 23 cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
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F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
983089983093
bringing invisible power relations to visibility the opportunity to challenge them is also potentially
opened up While a more sustained discussion of this consideration is outside the remit of this paper
and research it is possible to point towards some such moments Extracts from diarists 4 and 25 are
instructive here
ldquo262010 1700-1900 bus home shower meditation (home) Was meeting colleague andhaving supper with visiting researcher I reflect that lsquoin the old daysrsquo I would have stayed on
and worked right through at University But today I came home took a shower and
practised my meditation for frac12 hour It helped to restore my energy and I went out and had a
good eveningrdquo (diarist 4 diary)
ldquoYeah I havenrsquot been like hellip lsquooh itrsquos so awkward you know hellip having a kidrsquos meant that I
donrsquot get enough time to do meditationrsquo you know Irsquom actually hellip seeing it like oh itrsquos
really good Irsquove got a kid because he goes to sleep in the middle of the day you know and
what else am I going to do except cleanrdquo (diarist 25 interview)
In both of these extracts it is possible to see the development of a critical relation to the social and
cultural norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of work and parenting While on the one hand diarist 4uses mindfulness meditation to help her juggle the demands of her busiest working days (so
reproducing the norms of long working and after office hours sociability that produce value in the
field of academia) at the same time her mindfulness meditation enables her to make an intervention
in and reflect upon these norms In a similar way diarist 25 both reflects on and makes an
intervention in the norms that structure the lsquofieldsrsquo of parenting and household labour Clearly the
question of making visible and challenging problematic power relations (which might otherwise be
hidden within habitual structures of everyday life) via reflexive practices (such as mindfulness
meditation) deserves more attention
5) Conclusion
This paper discusses a contemporary practice that aims for participants to develop awareness of
enduring embodied habits (including lsquoexternalrsquo routines and lsquointernalrsquo mental processes) which
may be unhealthy or even damaging for them Doing mindfulness meditation can offer not only an
immediate break from stressful routines of work and home but can also potentially shift the
participantrsquos relation to these stressors However difficulties arise because the very lifestyles that
create or exacerbate these (damaging) habits ndash stimulating the natural habit of the mind to ruminate
and create negative judgments ndash are the contexts within which these new habits (of corporeal
conduct and mental life) are pursued This is why it is significant to examine how everyday lives
facilitate andor confound the aims of mindfulness meditation
The key relation addressed here is that between habits and agency Clearly habits are not hidden
mysterious and beyond agentic intervention but neither are they easily accessible and readily
ge 15 of 23
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cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 1724
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
16
mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
Page 16
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cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
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F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
ge 17 of 23
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F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
18
22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
Page 18
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cultural geographies
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F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
983089983097
42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
ge 19 of 23
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cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
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F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
20
62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
Page 20
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2224
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
ge 21 of 23
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2324
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
Page 22
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cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2424
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
ge 23 of 23 cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
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F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
16
mutable Rather agency can be seen to shift between habits ndash which as they repeat reproduce
corporeal and cognitive regimes ndash and the reflexive self who manages successfully to deploy a
particular technique enabling them to change their relation to these habits Agency is therefore also
influenced by the worldly contexts which shape the relations between habits and reflexivity This
kind of agency (distributed across body mind and context) is not fixed over time (shifting as old
habits of thought attempt to withstand new habits of awareness and vice versa) or space (as the
contexts within which the techniques are practised variously and variably support or confound such
habits) Examining the practices in the context of the participantrsquos everyday lives leads us to
suggest that Crossleyrsquos analysis tends to overemphasise or perhaps oversimplify our ability to
intervene in and change our habits Habits endure and are supported by everyday day routines
which exert a resistance to change and while a person at the height of their capacities might be able
to alter their habits not everyone will have the capacity to do this62
The case study of mindfulness meditation also refigures Crossleyrsquos seeming assumption about thekinds of transformation that might be at the heart of reflexive techniques We found that the practice
encourages a less purposefully transformational relation of (mindful) self to embodied habit than is
envisaged by Crossley not least because the reflexive self in formation here is continually asked to
silence or still its dialogical (worrisome) reflexivity to cultivate a new habit of attention that allows
the reflexive self to lsquosit withrsquo concerns (which might otherwise have impelled them to damaging
thoughts and actions) This new habit also attends to the immediacy of the contexts in which
mindfulness is being practised whatever those contexts might contain in the way of material
entities spiritual presences or secular worries but the guidance is to be attentive in a thoroughly
descriptive and accepting as opposed to a more analytic problem-solving manner The study
undertaken here has the potential to remind geographers that intimate bodily experiences are
invariably situated within wider space-time routines and contexts which variously support the
development of new habits or make existing habits more robust
1 See eg D Bissell lsquoThinking habits for uncertain subjects movement stil lness and susceptibilityrsquo Environment and
Planning A 43 (2011) pp 2649-2665 D Bissell lsquoHabit misplaced The disruption of skilful performancersquo
Geographical Research Online Early (2012) D Bissell Virtual infrastructures of habit the changing intensities of
habit through gracefulness restlessness and clumsiness Cultural Geographies Online Early (2014) J-D Dewsbury
lsquoThe Deleuze-Guattarian assemblage plastic habitsrsquo Area 43 (2011) pp 148-153
2 As informed for example by the time geography of A Giddens lsquoThe Constitution of Societyrsquo (Berkeley University of
California Press 1984) A Pred lsquoSocial reproduction and the time-geography of everyday lifersquo Geografiska Annaler
Series B 63 (1981) pp 5-22 N Thrift lsquoAn introduction to time geographyrsquo (Norwich Geo Abstracts Ltd 1977)
Page 16
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cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
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F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
ge 17 of 23
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F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
18
22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
Page 18
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cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2024
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
983089983097
42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
ge 19 of 23
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cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2124
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
20
62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
Page 20
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2224
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
ge 21 of 23
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2324
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
Page 22
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2424
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
ge 23 of 23 cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 1824
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
983089983095
3 See P Harrison lsquoMaking Sense embodiment and the sensibilities of the everydayrsquo Environment and Planning D
Society and Space 18 (2000) pp 497-517 T Ingold lsquoThe perception of the environment essays on livelihood
dwelling and skillrsquo (London Routledge 2000) Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo Bissell lsquoHabit misplacedrsquo
4 C Carlisle and M Sinclair lsquoEditors Introductionrsquo in F Ravaisson lsquoOf Habitrsquo (London Continuum 2008) pp1-21
5 W James lsquoThe principles of psychology volume 1rsquo (New York Cosimo 20071890)
6 P Bourdieu lsquoThe Logic of Practicersquo (Stanford Stanford University Press 1990)
7 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
8 J Lea lsquoLiberation or limitation Understanding Iyengar Yoga as a practice of the selfrsquo Body and Society 15 pp 71-
92
9 E Shove lsquoHabits and their creaturesrsquo httpwwwlancsacukstaffshovetransitionsinpractice
papersHabits20and20their20creaturespdf (2009) T Schwanen D Banister and J Anable lsquoRethinking habits
and their role in behaviour change the case of low-carbon mobilityrsquo Journal of Transport Geography 24 (2012)
pp522-532
10 C Barnett Cloke P Clarke N and Malpass A lsquoConsuming ethics Articulating the subjects and spaces of ethical
consumptionrsquo Antipode 37 (2005) pp 23ndash45
11 N Crossley lsquoReflexive Embodiment in Contemporary Societyrsquo (Maidenhead Open University Press 2006) p104
see also R Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousness a philosophy of mindfulness and somaestheticsrsquo (Cambridge Cambridge
University Press 2008) who seeks to question and supplement Merleau Pontyrsquos unreflexive lsquolived bodyrsquo with the
possibility for somatic training and reflective body consciousness
12 Bissell lsquoThinking habitsrsquo p 2650
13 T Creswell lsquoldquoYou cannot shake that shimmie here producing mobility on the dance floorrdquo cultural geographies 13
(2006) pp55- 77 P Adey D Bissell D McCormack and P Merriman lsquoProfiling the passenger mobilities identities
embodimentsrsquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 169-193 J Middleton lsquoldquoIrsquom on autopilot I just follow the routerdquo
exploring the habits routines and decision-making practices of everyday urban mobilitiesrsquo Environment and Planning
A 43 (2011) pp 2857 ndash 2877 A Latham lsquoThe history of a habit jogging as a palliative to sedentariness in 1960s
Americarsquo cultural geographies online early (2013) J Lea lsquoBecoming skilled the cultural and corporeal geographies of
teaching and learning Thai Yoga Massagersquo Geoforum 3 (2009) 465-474 J Hill lsquoArchaeologies and geographies of
the post-industrial past landscape memory and the spectralrsquo cultural geographies 20 (2013) pp 379-396 M PearsonldquoRaindogs performing the cityrdquo cultural geographies 19 (2012) pp 55-69
14 An abundance of research has emerged in recent years over the clinical effectiveness and practical applicability of
mindfulness meditation and it is increasingly being integrated into Western psychotherapy (in particular the behavioural
therapies) and health care (for UK based research see for example mindfulness meditation research centres at
Liverpool John Moores University (httpwwwljmuacukmindfulness) the University of Exeter (httpwwwexeter-
mindfulness-networkorgresearchphp) and Bangor University (httpwwwbangoracukmindfulness) Rather than
contribute directly to this volume of work this case study offers the opportunity to look at the role and function of habit
in mindfulness practice
15 N Crossley lsquoThe social body habit identity and desirersquo (London Sage 2001) p 93
16 L Wacquant lsquoHabitusrsquo in J Becket and Z Milan eds lsquoInternational Encyclopaedia of Economic Sociologyrsquo
(London Routledge 2005) p 316
17 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 104
18 1984 466 in Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 93
19 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 114
20 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p113
21 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p115
ge 17 of 23
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cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 1924
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
18
22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
Page 18
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cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2024
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
983089983097
42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
ge 19 of 23
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2124
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
20
62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
Page 20
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2224
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
ge 21 of 23
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2324
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
Page 22
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2424
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
ge 23 of 23 cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 1924
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
18
22 eg R Jenkins lsquoPierre Bourdieu and the reproduction of determinismrsquo lsquoSociologyrsquo 16 (1982) pp 270-281
23 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p116
24 In which agency might be thought in terms of lsquopurposive and meaningful conductrsquo (Crossley lsquoThe Social body
p136) Such a claim might be disputed in light of various theses about distributed agency and more-than-human
geographies wherein which the locus of action is either completely decentred from the human (being distributed across
a range of different non-human objects) or the emphasis is shifted away from human lsquowillpower or cognitive
deliberationrsquo and action is situated across shifting relations between the human and the environment (B Anderson andP Harrison lsquoThe promise of Non-Representational Theoriesrsquo in B Anderson and P Harrison eds lsquoTaking-Place Non-
Representational theories and geographyrsquo (Aldershot Ashgate 2010) p7) Unfortunately however there is not space
to fully examine these debates here
25 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p 118
26 Bourdieu himself was heavily influenced by Merleau Pontyrsquos phenomenology and overcoming of Cartesian dualism
which suggests that in relation to embodiment habit and reflexivity there is not one Merleau Ponty but several See also
Shusterman lsquoBody Consciousnessrsquo
27 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p136
28 Bissell (lsquoVirtual Infrastructuresrsquo) argues that geographical accounts of habit have tended to overemphasise the
reproductive nature of habit without fully exploring the transformative potential that is entailed within habit29 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p137
30 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p134
31 While there has been an explosion of psychological research into the use of mindfulness as a tool for mental
wellbeing little research from a social scientific perspective exists
32 See for instance P Heelas and L Woodhead lsquoThe Spiritual Revolution why religion is giving way to spiritualityrsquo
(Oxford Blackwell 2005)
33 Participants kept diaries of days when they practised yoga and meditation reflecting on how they lsquofittedrsquo into their
days and what ramifications they might possess for how these days went Some of these diaries were followed up with
in-depth interviews often referring explicitly back to the diaries (see L Cadman C Philo and J Lea lsquoUsing space-time
diaries and interviews to research spiritualties in an lsquoeverydayrsquo contextrsquo in L Woodhead ed lsquoInnovative methods in thestudy of religionrsquo (Oxford Oxford University Press forthcoming) Below we use evidence and some direct quotes
taken from these sources (always in double-quote marks and distinguishing between diary entries and interviews for
participants)
34 see J Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Living How to cope with stress pain and illness using mindfulness meditationrsquo
(London Piatkus 2001)
35 see Z Segal M Williams J Teasdale lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapy for depression a new approach to
preventing relapsersquo (New York Guildford Press 2002)
36 MBCT is recommended by the National Institute for Clinical and Health Excellence (NICE) as an effective treatment
for people who suffer from recurrent episodes of depression (see wwwniceorgukCG90)
37 M Williams J Teasdale Z Segal and J Kabat-Zinn lsquoThe mindful way through depression freeing yourself from
chronic unhappinessrsquo (New York Guildford Press 2007) p5
38 As described in the key texts - Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo for MBCT Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull
Catastrophe livingrsquo for MBSR
39 Specific instructions may vary between teachers
40 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p 150-151
41 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoPain without suffering interview with Jon Kabat-Zinnrsquo (httpwwwtricyclecomonpracticepain-
without-sufferingpage=01 2002 no pagination)
Page 18
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2024
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
983089983097
42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
ge 19 of 23
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2124
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
20
62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
Page 20
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2224
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
ge 21 of 23
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2324
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
Page 22
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2424
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
ge 23 of 23 cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2024
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
983089983097
42
This relation to the discursive mind immediately distances the reflexive self constituted via mindfulness meditation
from the reflexive self that Crossley outlines This will be explored further in the following section
43 18 teachers were interviewed of whom 14 taught yoga and 4 mindfulness meditation The teachers taught
mindfulness courses in Brighton and Hove
44 26 diarists took part (of whom 3 dropped out) and 14 of these took part in a in-depth interview related to themes that
were raised in the diary entries 7 of these 14 interviewees took part in meditation The students were recruited via the
centres and classes they attended Aged between 26 and 55 years we asked all participants about their occupations and
their domestic arrangements (ie living with a partner living with friends) and these details are included here to give an
idea of the respondentrsquos everyday lives Names have been remove to protect the participantrsquos anonymity
45 Along with MBSR and MBCT mindfulness as an approach underpins Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy (DBT)
46 There are clearly overlaps andor contrasts between this sub- or semi-conscious realm and the non-cognitive realm
that has taken on such significance in non-representational geographies Unfortunately however there is not space here
to do this
47 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p99
48 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p42
49 For the purposes of this paper the interview quotations have had repetitions and superfluous words removed to make
them clearer to read
50 Crossley lsquoThe social bodyrsquo p47
51 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p34
52 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p43
53 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p101
54 Williams lsquoThe mindful way through depressionrsquo p45
55 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
56 Segal lsquoMindfulness-based cognitive therapyrsquo p134
57 Drawing on Bourdieursquos writing Crossley notes that one of the motivations for engaging in reflexive practices is the
development of lsquophysical capitalrsquo Certain qualities of the body (eg fitness strength stamina toughness) are seen to
have value in the sociological contexts (lsquofieldsrsquo) within which the individuals are involved Giving the example of
boxing he outlines how working on and modifying the habitual body via reflexive practices can have the effect of
changing (positively) the position of the self within the context in which they are located
58 J Kabat-Zinn lsquoComing to our senses healing ourselves and the world through mindfulnessrsquo (New York Hyperion
2005)
59 Secular mindfulness practice is not about developing physical (or any other kind of) capital by becoming more
relaxed sleeping better or becoming enlightened but rather has no other immediate goal than lsquobringing back awandering attention over and over againrsquo Kabat-Zinn lsquoFull Catastrophe Livingrsquo p117 While changes may occur (eg
depression or anxiety lessening) these are as a consequence of the practice rather than the aim
60 This was because she had been practicing first thing in the morning She however found this problematic because it
meant she had to get up earlier ldquoWith the mindfulness class they were quite keen on us doing something first thing in
the morning before any other stuff had come in hellip but I have to get up a lot earlier to do that I canrsquot just get up my
normal time and do it because my normal timersquos already committed to other thingsrdquo (diarist 4 interview)
61 Although of course not all people will be able to develop a sustainable practice This is interesting in itself but
outside the remit of this paper (as we recruited students with a practice rather than following those who didnrsquot practice
any longer)
ge 19 of 23
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2124
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
20
62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
Page 20
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2224
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
ge 21 of 23
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2324
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
Page 22
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2424
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
ge 23 of 23 cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2124
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
20
62 See the user report for further discussion of the relationship between health and mindfulness meditation (C Philo L
Cadman and J Lea lsquoThe Everyday Urban Spiritual Placing Spiritual Practices in Context - Project Summaryrsquo (2012) ndash
available from the authors)
Page 20
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2224
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
ge 21 of 23
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2324
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
Page 22
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2424
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
ge 23 of 23 cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2224
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to the AHRC-ESRC Religion and Society Research Programme
which provided funding for this project (award number AHH0091081) We would
like to extend our thanks to the diarists teachers and centre owners who gave their
time to be part of the research Thanks also to Tim Cresswell and the editors of this
special issue for their guidance and patience
ge 21 of 23
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2324
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
Page 22
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2424
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
ge 23 of 23 cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2324
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
Biographical notes
Jennifer Lea (University of Exeter) is interested in geographies of bodies and
embodiment particularly in relation to producing consuming and experiencing
health and disability Empirically she has focussed on yoga and therapeutic massage
and her research into the former helped to form the basis of the research project
which we discuss here
Chris Philo (University of Glasgow) has a range of established academic interests
spanning the history theory and practice of human geography Key to the research
presented here is his long standing work on mental ill health and health care
Foucauldian studies and the historiography and theoretical development of the
discipline
Louisa Cadman (Sheffield Hallam University) has worked within the field of
Foucauldian and poststructural geographies with a particular interest in questions of
power and resistance in relation to health care and mental health
Page 22
httpmcmanuscriptcentralcomculturalgeog
cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2424
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
ge 23 of 23 cultural geographies
7252019 Changing the Habits of a Lifetime Mindfu
httpslidepdfcomreaderfullchanging-the-habits-of-a-lifetime-mindfu 2424
F o r P
e e r R
e v i e w
ge 23 of 23 cultural geographies