champasak heritage management plan - part i
TRANSCRIPT
CH A M PASAK HE R I TAGE MANAGEMENT PL A N
c z o d k o 7 5 h , 7 v ’ , = ] t f q d 9 e x k l a d
Prepared by the Laotian National Inter-Ministerial Co-ordinating Committee for Vat Phou (NIMCC) with
support from the Office of the UNESCO Regional Advisor for Culture in Asia and the Pacific
© Government of the Lao PDR 1999
First published by the
Government of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic,
Ministry of Information and Culture, Vientiane, Lao PDR
Design and production:
Keen Publishing (Thailand) Co., Ltd.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise without the prior permission of
the Government of the Lao PDR.
The Government of the
Lao People’s Democratic Republic
Vientiane, Lao PDR 1999
444 p.
Champasak Heritage Management Plan
Printed with the support and generous contribution of the Government of Italy and UNESCO
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THE CHAMPASAK HERITAGE AND CULTURAL LANDSCAPE MANAGEMENT PLAN
WAS ADOPTED BY THE GOVERNMENT OF THE LAO PDR
ON 28 SEPTEMBER 1998
The Plan was supervised by the National Inter-Ministerial Co-ordinating Committee
for Vat Phou (NIMCC), Government of the Lao PDR
Siluer Bounkham Minister of Information and Culture
Sisamuth Namkenthao Vice Governor of Champasak Province
Boualiane Sikhanxay Chief of Cabinet of the Ministry of Information and Culture
Heng Daovannary Secretary General of the Laotian National Commission for UNESCO
Bounhom Chanthamat Head of the NIMCC, Deputy Director, Department of Museums and
Archaeology, Ministry of Information and Culture
Sipraseut Sensavath Deputy Head of the NIMCC, Head of the Provincial Information and
Culture Service of Champasak Province
Bounhieng Suksamlane Deputy Head of the NIMCC, Head of Champasak District
Bounlab Keokalya Deputy Head of the NIMCC, Head of Vat Phou Site Museum
Phouvong Sayarat Institute of Science, Technology and Environment
Khom Dongchantha National Tourism Authority
Sengdara Douangchantha Ministry of Communication, Transport, Post and Construction
Kaseumsy Thammavongsa Ministry of Finance
Viengkeo Souksavatdy Division for Conservation Archaeology, Ministry of Information and
Culture
Phakhanxay Sikhanxay Secretary of the NIMCC, Vat Phou Project Coordinator, Division of
Preservation of Historical Monuments, Ministry of Information and
Culture
Phouvong Sourya Secretary of the NIMCC, Division of Preservation of Museums,
Ministry of Information and Culture
The Plan was prepared by:
Phakhanxay Sikhanxay Vat Phou National Project Coordinator, Ministry of Information and
Culture
Phonphan Sichanthongthip Cartographer, Ministry of Information and Culture
Phouvong Sourya Computer Specialist, Ministry of Information and Culture
Thonglith Luangkhot Draftsman, Ministry of Information and Culture
Samlane Luangaphay Archaeologist, Ministry of Information and Culture
Sintheva Sayasane Structural Engineer, Ministry of Information and Culture
Oudomsi Keosacsith Vat Phou Site Management and Training Centre
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Technical assistance provided by:
Mauro Cucarzi Geophysicist, Director of Lerici Foundation
Patrizia Zolese Archaeologist, Project Chief Technical Advisor, Lerici Foundation
Masao Nishimura Anthropologist, International Project Coordinator
Carlo Rosa Geophysicist, Lerici Foundation
Oscar Nalesini Archaeologist, Lerici Foundation
Paola Conti Geologist, Lerici Foundation
Laura Giuliano Art Historian, Lerici Foundation
Fabio Parenti Archaeologist, Lerici Foundation
Konstantini Ermonhin Geophysicist, Lerici Foundation
Vladimir Glazunov Geophysicist, Lerici Foundation
Paul Box GIS expert, UNESCO Consultant
Christopher Young Cultural Heritage Management Expert, English Heritage
Frank Preusser Structural Expert, Cultural Heritage Preservation Consultatnts
Pierre Pichard Architect, Ecole Francaise d’Extreme-Orient (EFEO)
Francis Engelmann UNESCO Consultant
Cliff Ogleby Department of Geomatics, University of Melbourne
John Guy Deputy Curator, Southeast Asian Department, Victoria and Albert
Museum
Editorial assistance provided by:
Bounluen Boupha Deputy Head, Division of External Relations, Ministry of Information
and Culture
Christopher Young, Editor Culture Heritage Management Expert, English Heritage
Beatrice Kaldun UNESCO Consultant for Culture
Kumiko Kuribayashi UNESCO Associate Expert
Jamie M. Donahoe UNESCO Consultant for Culture
Preparation of the Plan was advised by Richard A. Engelhardt, UNESCO Regional Advisor
for Culture in Asia and the Pacific.
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Carlo Rosa oadm=]toulkf0v’,6ooymy Lerici
Oscar Nalesini oad;af45[6Iko0v’,6ooymy Lerici
Paola Conti oadm=]toulkf0v’,6ooymy Lerici
Laura Giuliano oadxts;aflkfly]txt0v’,6ooymy Lerici
Fabio Parenti oad;af45[6Iko0v’,6ooymy Lerici
Constantine Ermonhin oadm=]toulkf0v’,6ooymy Lerici
Vladimie Glazunov oadm=]toulkf0v’,6ooymy Lerici
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John Guy Iv’sq;sohk[aook]adF rtcodvk-u8kg;aovvdlP’.8h
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Production assistance provided by:
David Keen Publication Manager
Suki Dixon Editorial
Visarut Yugala Art Direction and Cover Design
Niphon Penplugsakul Layout
Photography courtesy of:
Phakhanxay Sikhanxay Richard A Engelhardt
Oudomsi Keosaksit Beatrice Kaldun
Thonglith Luongkhoth R. Ian Lloyd
Dej Thumthong Masao Nishimura
Nipon Arjpothi Patrizia Zolese
Financial support for this Management Plan was provided by:
The Government of Lao PDR The Government of Italy
The Government of Japan UNESCO
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David Keen z6h9afdkodkory,
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v5fq,lu cdh;ladly Beatrice Kaldun
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Lao PDR has a long, rich and splendid cultural heritage, which reflects its civilization and its national
history inherited from millennia. This cultural heritage is not only seen in the life-style, in traditional customs
and in the diverse activities of the Lao people, but also in innumerable historical and archaeological sites such
as buildings, historic cities, city walls and streets, and other constructions.
The Vat Phou historic site, a cultural heritage site situated on the west bank of Mekong River, about
500 km to the south-east of Vientiane municipality, has its origin in the Khom ‘Khmer’ civilization dating back
to the Angkorian era. The Vat Phou site includes many components scattered on the slopes of Phou Kao
Mountain and on the Champasak Plain.
Due to the impact of rapid socio-economic development, much of the Lao PDR’s cultural heritage has
been changed or disappeared over time. The historic cities, the architecture and the traditional local way of life
are sadly, step by step, being destroyed by development.
Being conscious of the meaning and importance of the national cultural heritage, the Government of
Lao PDR charges the Ministry of Information and Culture, in co-operation with UNESCO in the Asia-Pacific
Region, to undertake a study and the collection of necessary information to make a master plan for the protec-
tion and the preservation of Vat Phou historic sites.
The present Champasak heritage protection programme is a good example for the protection of many
other cultural heritage sites existing in the country. It represents the basic rule that everyone, at home and
abroad, on government and private staffs should cordially co-operate.
The master plan has been adopted by the Government of Lao PDR. The Ministry of Information and
Culture seizes this opportunity to thank everyone who has participated in the success of the Champasak cul-
tural heritage protection programme, and hopes that UNESCO will consider adding the Champasak cultural
sites to the World Heritage List.
Vientiane, 4 Dec 1998
Minister of Information and Culture
LETTER FROM THE MINISTER OF INFORMATION AND CULTURE
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UNESCO first became involved with the preservation of the monumental complex of Vat Phou in 1987
when the Government of the Lao PDR requested assistance for the preservation of the site. An initial
UNESCO/UNDP project conducted between 1987 and 1990 resulted in the delimitation of a protected area
around the main temple, the establishment of a site office and the drafting of technical proposals for the
restoration of the main monuments.
Subsequent archaeological research on the banks of the Mekong River and in the Champasak Plain sur-
rounding the temple complex has revealed an extensive archaeological and cultural landscape, including the
remains of two ancient urban settlements dating from the 5th to the 12th centuries, tentatively identified as
the sites of the ancient Khmer cities of Shestrapura and Lingapura. These recent discoveries are evidence that
the Champasak Plain was a centre of early urban development in mainland Southeast Asia and the most likely
location of the capital of the fabled ancient kingdom of Land Chenla, heretofore known principally from
enigmatic stone inscriptions and fragmented accounts written by Chinese travellers of the period.
Environmental and geophysical research has helped to explicate the planning template used by the
ancient builders of the site. Settlements, roads, canals, water tanks and temples were all planned in alignment
with the peak of Phou Kao Mountain – a natural linga sacred to the god Shiva – which gave the site its
natural sanctity. The slopes of Phou Kao Mountain are studded with ancient meditation caves, rock inscrip-
tions and other archaeological evidence that demonstrate the importance the mountain had in the intellectual
and spiritual life of the ancient inhabitants of the site.
The sanctity of Phou Kao Mountain is still observed today by the people of Champasak, who contin-
ue to respect and preserve the natural environment of this abode of ancient gods, and who celebrate their con-
tinued relationship to the past at the annual Vat Phou Festival.
The Mekong River and the riverside temple of Tomo, dedicated to Shiva’s consort Rudrani, are also an
integral part of the ancient cultural landscape settlement and complete the physical expression of the cosmo-
logical template used to plan the site. Today, carved linga placed in the river more than 1,000 years ago con-
tinue to sanctify the water as it flows by the site, bringing fertility to the Champasak Plain.
As knowledge has grown of the importance of the archaeological and monumental remains in the
Champasak Plain, it has become evident that there is the need to have a detailed, long-term plan for the man-
aged conservation, presentation and sustainable development of this unique archaeological heritage.
PREFACE
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Therefore, in 1996, UNESCO, with support from the governments of Italy and Japan and assisted by
experts from Italy, Japan, France, Australia, and the United Kingdom, embarked on a second phase of assistance
to the Government of the Lao PDR for the safeguarding of not only the monuments of the Vat Phou temple
complex, but of all the associated archaeological remains, relic cultural landscapes and sacred environment com-
ponents of the Champasak Plain, the banks of the Mekong River and Phou Kao Mountain massif.
Under the guidance of the UNESCO-Lao Project entitled Capacity Building in Cultural Resource
Management through the Preparation of a Zoning and Environmental Management Plan for the Preservation of
Vat Phou and Associated Archaeological Sites within the Framework for Sustainable Development of
Champasak, Lao PDR, extensive hydrological, anthropological, archaeological and enviromental research has
been conducted to understand the evolution of the ancient Khmer land-use practices which have resulted in
one of the best preserved relic cultural landscapes in all of Asia. To integrate the data, a computerized geo-
graphical information system (GIS) has been developed for the site and the site office has become a national
centre for research and training in archaeology.
The result of this process has been the production of the Champasak Heritage Management Plan which
defines the boundaries and sub-zones of the Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone and
sets forth regulations and an action programme for the safeguarding and development of the Heritage
Protection Zones. The Plan is intended as the definitive document to guide national and international
researchers, tourism promoters and regional development planners to ensure that the heritage of Champasak
is preserved and utilized as the basis for sustainable development of the region.
Throughout the period of field research and data analysis as well as during the writing of the Plan, the
Lao Government’s National Inter-ministerial Co-ordinating Committee for the Protection of Vat Phou (NIMCC),
the Champasak Provincial Heritage Committee and the Champasak Villages Liaison Committee have been
extremely supportive and have offered very useful advice and guidance. The Minister of Information and
Culture and the President of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic have both also given their personal attention
to the content and completion of the Plan.
The Champasak Heritage Management Plan was officially adopted by the Government of Lao PDR on
28 September 1998 to operationalize the 1997 Decree of the President of the Lao PDR on the Preservation of
Cultural, Historical and Natural Heritage No. 03/PR. As such the Plan has the force of law. The Plan also con-
forms to the requirements for site management plans as set forth in the Operational Guidelines for the
Implementation of the 1972 UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage,
as one of the steps towards the nomination and inscription of Vat Phou and Associated Sites in the Champasak
Plain on the UNESCO World Heritage List.
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I would like to add my personal congratulations to the project’s national coordinator, Mr. Phakhanxay
Sikhanxay and to the rest of the Lao PDR national team for their dedicated hard work over the past four years
to ensure that the best possible management plan would be written and that it would reflect the concerns for
sustainable development as well as heritage conservation expressed by all stakeholders at the national level as
well as at the local level in Champasak. I would also like to thank the project’s chief technical advisor, Dr.
Patrizia Zolese for her leadership both intellectual and inspirational. Dr. Zolese’s technical team from Italy’s
Fondazione Ing. Carlo Maurilio Lerici, under the directorship of Dr. Mauro Cucarzi, has brought an unprece-
dented level of sophistication to the archaeological research work of the project and has pioneered non-
invasive techniques of archaeological investigation at this site which will surely set new standards for all of
Southeast Asia.
I would also like to acknowledge the contributions of Paul Box in establishing the GIS database for
the project; Prof. Masao Nishimura of Waseda University for connecting the archaeological database to anthro-
pological realities in the field; Prof. Cliff Ogleby and his students from Melbourne University for their work in
surveying the Tomo temple site; Mr. Pierre Pichard for his wise advice concerning the stabilization and consol-
idation of the standing monuments; Profs. Annamaria Cividini, Giancarlo Cioda, Giulio Ballio and Silvio
Franzetti of the Politechnico Di Milano for their geotechnical and hydrological engineering studies which will
guide future restoration work on the site; Dr. John Guy of London’s Victoria and Albert Museum for assisting
with the identification and inventorying of artefacts from the site;, and Mr. Francis Engelman for drafting a vis-
itor’s guide to the site. A final special thanks goes to Dr. Christopher Young of English Heritage for his work
drafting the English version of the Plan itself, and to my two most able assistants within the Office of the
UNESCO Regional Advisor for Culture in Asia and the Pacfic, Dr. Kumiko Kuribayashi Shimotsuma and Ms.
Beatrice Kaldun, without whose hard work to coordinate all inputs the UNESCO-Lao Project could not have
been sucessfully implemented. It is thanks to cooperation and dedication of all members of this large and
diverse team that the Champasak Heritage Mangement Plan has seen the light of day.
It is my hope that the Plan will serve as a useful guide and definitive tool for the government and peo-
ple of Champasak and the Lao PDR to use in the ambitious and worthy task of preserving for all time and for
all people everywhere the unique and beautiful heritage of Vat Phou and the surrounding Champasak Plain.
Richard A. Engelhardt
UNESCO Regional Advisor for Culture
in Asia and the Pacific
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Richard A. Engelhardt
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THE LAO PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
PEACE INDEPENDENCE DEMOCRACY UNITY PROSPERITY
Prime Minister’s Cabinet No. 2692 / PMC
NOTES
ATT : H.E Minister of Information and Culture.
Re : Request for the approval of Champasak Heritage Management Plan before
presenting to UNESCO in consideration on becoming the 2nd World Heritage site
in Lao PDR.
With reference to the note No. 386 / CCP dated September 24, 1998 of the Cabinet of
Party Central Committee,
The Prime Minister’s Cabinet has proposed the above subject to the Government who with
consideration gave its “approval”.
Therefore, this note has been sent to the concerned organizations for acknowledgement
and implementation.
Vientiane 28 September 1998
Minister
C.C : of Prime Minister’s Cabinet
- Party Central Committee 1 copy
- Champasak Province 1 copy
- Archive 6 copies
Saysomphone Phomvihane
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................... 30
OVERVIEW............................................................................................................................................... 32
PART I: THE SITE
Page
CHAPTER 1: SITE DESCRIPTION AND SIGNIFICANCE........................................................................... 40
1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 40
1.2 Topography, Land Use and Geomorphology................................................................................. 44
1.3 The Archaeological Sites of the Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape
Protection Zone ............................................................................................................................. 52
1.4 The Significance of the Cultural Landscape of the Champasak Area.......................................... 80
PART II: THE BACKGROUND
Page
CHAPTER 2: PRESENT SITUATION............................................................................................................ 92
2.1 Present State of Knowledge........................................................................................................... 92
2.2 Development of Protection of the Area......................................................................................... 96
2.3 The Need for and Role of the Management Plan......................................................................... 100
CHAPTER 3: ISSUES..................................................................................................................................... 104
3.1 Pressures on Standing Structures.................................................................................................. 104
3.2 Pressures on Buried Archaeology.................................................................................................. 108
3.3 Environmental Pressures............................................................................................................... 110
3.4 Future Development Pressures...................................................................................................... 112
3.5 Tourism and Site Development..................................................................................................... 116
3.6 Public Awareness and Understanding........................................................................................... 120
3.7 Funding, Resources and Capacity Development........................................................................... 122
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PART III: THE PLAN
Page
CHAPTER 4: STATUS, SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PLAN............................................................ 126
4.1 Scope and Status of the Plan......................................................................................................... 126
4.2 Long-term Aims............................................................................................................................. 132
4.3 Objectives for the First Five Years (1999-2004)............................................................................ 136
CHAPTER 5: DATA AND RESEARCH......................................................................................................... 146
5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................... 146
5.2 The GIS and Database.................................................................................................................. 150
5.3 The Research Strategy.................................................................................................................... 156
5.4 The Site Manager’s Responsibilities for Archaeological Research................................................ 160
5.5 The Work of External Teams........................................................................................................ 162
CHAPTER 6: BOUNDARIES, ZONES AND DEVELOPMENT CONTROL................................................. 168
6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 168
6.2 Zone 1: Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone...................................... 174
6.3 Zone 2: Sacred Environment Conservation Zone......................................................................... 184
6.4 Zone 3: Archaeological Research Zone.......................................................................................... 188
6.5 Zone 4: Monument Management Zone......................................................................................... 196
CHAPTER 7: CONSERVATION AND ENHANCEMENT............................................................................. 202
7.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 202
7.2 Recommended Conservation Measures......................................................................................... 204
7.3 Movable Antiquities....................................................................................................................... 210
7.4 Site Maintenance Programmes...................................................................................................... 212
7.5 Site Security.................................................................................................................................... 214
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Page
CHAPTER 8: ACCESS AND TOURISM........................................................................................................ 222
8.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................... 222
8.2 Sustainable Tourism Development of the Cultural Sites.............................................................. 224
8.3 Interpretation, Education and Publication..................................................................................... 228
8.4 Development of Tourism Infrastructure........................................................................................ 230
8.5 The Vat Phou Festival.................................................................................................................... 232
CHAPTER 9: COMMUNITY AWARENESS AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT...................................... 236
9.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................... 236
9.2 The HATCH Programme................................................................................................................ 240
9.3 Next Steps...................................................................................................................................... 242
CHAPTER 10: MAKING THINGS HAPPEN................................................................................................ 248
10.1Introduction................................................................................................................................... 248
10.2Adoption and Endorsement of the Plan....................................................................................... 254
10.3The Roles of the NIMCC, the Provincial Heritage Committee and the District Committee
within the Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone................................. 256
10.4The Role of the Site Manager and the Site Management and Training Centre........................... 268
10.5The Role of the Local Communities in the Implementation of the Champasak Heritage
Management Plan.......................................................................................................................... 284
10.6 Training and Capacity Development............................................................................................. 286
10.7Funding Arrangements.................................................................................................................. 288
10.8Revision of the Plan....................................................................................................................... 290
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Page
ACTIONS AND POLICIES.................................................................................................................... 294
FIGURES..................................................................................................................................................... 340
PRESIDENTIAL DECREE ON THE PRESERVATION OF CULTURAL,
HISTORICAL AND NATURAL HERITAGE, NO. 03/PR (1997).............................................. 368
PROVINCIAL DECREE ON THE REGULATIONS FOR THE PRESERVATION
OF THE HISTORICAL SITE OF VAT PHOU AND THE AREAS RELATED
TO VAT PHOU, NO. 38/88.................................................................................................................. 392
GLOSSARY................................................................................................................................................. 410
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................ 433
TECHNICAL REPORTS.......................................................................................................................... 435
RELEVANT CONVENTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE UNESCO GENERAL
ASSEMBLY............................................................................................................................................. 437
BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................................................................... 439
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Page
Fig 1. Location Map of Champasak Area.................................................................................................. 340
Fig 2. Map of Champasak Protection Zone Boundary............................................................................... 341
Fig 3. Map of Champasak Protection Zone: Land Use.............................................................................. 342
Fig 4. Map of Champasak Protection Zone: Geomorphology................................................................... 343
Fig 5. Vat Phou Temple Site Plan.............................................................................................................. 344
Fig 6. Map of Vat Phou, Hong Nang Sida and Associated Monuments: Distribution of
Archaeological Features................................................................................................................... 345
Fig 7. Map of Ancient City: Distribution of Archaeological Features...................................................... 346
Fig 8. Map of Champasak Protection Zone: Distribution of Archaeological Features............................. 347
Fig 9. Tomo Temple Site Plan.................................................................................................................... 348
Fig 10. The Plan-Making Process................................................................................................................. 349
Fig 11. The Zoning Concept......................................................................................................................... 350
Fig 12. Map of Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zones ...................................... 351
Fig 13. Map of Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone 1 .................................... 352
Fig 14. Map of Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone 2: Sacred
Environment Conservation Zone ................................................................................................... 353
Fig 15. Map of Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone 3: Archaeological
Research Zone.................................................................................................................................. 354
Fig 16. Map of Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone 4: Monument
Management Zone.......................................................................................................................... 355
Fig 17. Map of Vat Phou, Hong Nang Sida and Associated Monument: Zone 3 and Zone 4
Boundaries........................................................................................................................................ 356
Fig 18. Map of Ancient City: Zone 3 and Zone 4 Boundaries.................................................................... 357
Fig 19. Map of Tomo Temple: Zone 3 and Zone 4 Boundaries................................................................... 358
Fig 20. Map of Thao Tao: Zone 4 Boundaries............................................................................................. 359
Fig 21. Organogram of Structure of Approval and Interrelationship between Government
and other Stakeholders.................................................................................................................... 360
Fig 22. Flowchart of the Decision-Making Process..................................................................................... 362
Fig 23. Vat Phou Site Management and Training Centre: Recommended Structure and Staffing............ 364
LIST OF FIGURES
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I6[ltcf’D
INTRODUCTION30
INTRODUCTION
The Champasak Heritage Management Plan was produced to provide a protection and development
framework for the significant and precious Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone. The
Plan will guide the future management of the site and will support the nomination of the site for inscription as
a World Heritage site.
The drafting of the Management Plan was made possible through assistance from UNESCO and went
through a number of stages over the course of more than four years with input from foreign experts, the
NIMCC, Laotian national staff from the Department of Museums and Archaeology of the Ministry of
Information and Culture, the local staff in Champasak as well as informal consultations with officials at district,
provincial and national levels and the village heads from the Champasak area.
The third and the final draft of the Champasak Heritage Management Plan was presented to our gov-
ernment on 21 July 1998 and was formally adopted on 28 September 1998. All the regulations within this
Champasak Heritage Management Plan are given legal force under the provisions of the 1997 Decree of the
President of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic on the Preservation of Cultural, Historical and Natural
Heritage.
The Champasak Heritage Management Plan presents details about the regulations for the management
and development of the site within the organizational structures and responsibilities at all levels and will be a
useful tool and model for the safeguarding, management and development of one of our country’s most
precious heritage sites.
Phakhanxay Sikhanxay
National Project Coordinator for Vat Phou
7evtmy[kp31
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m u j , u 1 6 j . o c z o d k o 7 5 h , 7 v ’ , = ] t f q d 9 e x k l a d l t [ a [ o U c , j o o v o 1 6 j [ q o r N o 4 k o 0 v ’ [ a o f k 0 = h d e o q f . o ] a f 4 t [ a o p a f x t m k o x t g m f
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rafmtoklt4komuj rhv,ma’deoqf37’Ijk’dko9af8A’ c]t rk]tsohkmuj0v’vq’dko9af8A’muj,ulj;orq;raom5dM0AoD rhv,oAo
czodko75h,7v’oUpa’9tgxaog7njv’,nrNo4ko c]t gxaoc[[1jk’vaole7ao.shcdjdkoxqdxadIadlkF dko75h,7v’ c]t dkorafmtok
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OVERVIEW32
The ancient monument complex of Vat Phou lies close to the Mekong River in Champasak District in the
south-west of the Lao PDR, some 500 km from Vientiane. While the Vat Phou temple is the most famous of
the archaeological sites in Champasak, it is only one component of a rich and dense archaeological and
cultural landscape extending along both banks of the Mekong River and up to the mountains west of the river.
Many of these temple sites and ritual features have long been known. Fieldwork in recent years has revealed
that many other archaeological sites survive, including a walled city on the west bank of the Mekong River,
another walled area near the Phou Kao Mountain, numerous other settlement sites, and traces of former
planned watercourses, roads and field systems as well as industrial features such as quarries and kilns.
This extensive cultural landscape was planned around an axis aligning the mountain peak of Phou Kao with
the temple of Vat Phou. The natural linga of Phou Kao Mountain which embued the site with a natural
sanctity was clearly the inspiration and stimulus to the ancient builders of the monuments. The Mekong River
was also of great sacred and symbolic as well as economic importance. The Vat Phou area is therefore not
simply a historic landscape with very high survival of archaeological features, it is also one of the world’s great
examples of the planning and management of a landscape to reflect the beliefs and concerns of its rulers and
inhabitants.
The ancient walled city on the right (west) bank of the Mekong River is one of the earliest known urban set-
tlements in mainland Southeast Asia and the only one of its type to have been extensively investigated. As
such, the site provides unique and valuable evidence for the origins of urbanism in the region.
The archaeological sites of the Champasak Plain date principally from the 5th century AD onwards. Their dis-
tribution is dense and the quality of survival is high. The standing monuments are of great beauty and impor-
tance, while the buried archaeological sites are of equally high importance as a future source of knowledge and
research for the benefit of the peoples of the Lao PDR and the world.
OVERVIEW
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s];’;P’9ao xt,ko &WW dy3]c,af c]t gxaog,nv’muj8A’16j]P[8k,c7,c,joE0v’D ;afr6,u7;k,le7aomujl5f
.o[aofklt4ko[6Ikomuj16j.o0q’g0f9exkladF gxaovq’xtdv[vaosobj’muj,u7;k,sokcsoho c]t v5fq,lq,[6omk’
[6Iko7tfu c]t ,urNomjumk’;afmtotme0tspkp16j8k,lv’/aj’c,joE0v’9qog4y’lkpr6muj16jfhko8kg;ao8qd0v’
c,joE0v’D ovdoAopa’,u[aofklt4ko[6Iko c]t lt4komujladdk]t[6-kvnjoM g-yj’gxaomujI6h9ad,kgxaog;]kfqooko
c]h;D zjkodkoxt8y[af;Pd’koltsok,.o-5,xuzjko,kwfhltcf’.shgsao;jkpa’,u[aofkIjv’Ivpmk’fhko[6Iko7tfu
s]kpcsj’mujpa’7q’8q;16j .ooAo];,ma’decr’g,nv’[6Ikomuj16jc7,c,joE0v’fhko8kg;ao8qd c]t decr’g,nv’vud
csj’sobj’16j.dhda[r6gdQkF Iv’Ivp0v’]t[q[dko9aflaoIjv’]t[kpoEF glAomk’[6IkoF lt4komju8A’4yjo4ko0v’-5,-qo
c]t ]t[q[dko9af;k’rNomujg-ajoG g8qkgzqkg7njv’xAofyogzqk c]t c~’8afsuoD
r N o m u j ; a f m t o t m e v a o s ; h k ’ 0 ; k ’ o U w f h 4 n d 9 a f ; k ’ w ; h v h v , I v [ g l A o c d j o f P ; 9 k d 9 v , r 6 g d Q k 3 f p , u ; a f r 6 g x a o 9 5 f l 5 , D
me,t-kf0v’r6gdQkwfhltcf’.shgsao1jk’9tc9h’g4y’lyj’mujfqo[aofko c]t dt85d-5dp6h.shcdjdkod+lhk’d5j,lt4ko
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vao,tsklko c]t ma’gxaolaopk]advaofumjuu,u7;k,le7ao.shcdjfhkoglf4tdyfD 0q’g0f;afr69bj’[+rP’c8jgxaorNomuj
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ltcf’g4y’7;k,g-njv4nmjudjP;raog4y’dkoxqd7v’ c]t -k’g,nv’D
d e c r ’ g , n v ’ [ 6 I k o 8 A ’ 1 6 j c 7 , 2 a j ’ c , j o E 0 v ’ x P [ l t g s o n v o 8 Q o d e g o u f m u j [ q j ’ [ v d . s h I 6 h g 4 y ’ d k o 8 A ’ 4 j y o 4 k o 0 v ’ - k ;
g,nv’16j.oznoczjofyovaod;hk’.spj0v’vk-u8kg;aovvdlP’.8hF g-yj’gxaorP’csj’fP;mujwfhIa[dkoles];f1jk’
d;hk’0;k’g-ajoGdkog]nvdgvqklt4komuj8A’vao,u75o7jk c]t skmujvnjoxP[ltgs,nvo[+wfh0v’-k;g,nv’D
[aofklt4ko[6Ikooa[9kdlaf8t;afmu & gxao8Qo,koAopa’,u7;k,csohosok c]t 7q’8q;16j9eo;os^;’s^kp g-yj’
[aofklt4ko[6Ikomujpa’7q’8q;16joAoc,jo,u7;k,le7ao c]t l;p’k,mujl5fD .ooAo[aofk[6Iko7tfumujpa’/a’16jrNo
fyoc,jo,u7;k,le7aomujl5f.shcdjdko8v[ltsov’cs]j’0=h,6o c]t dko7Qo7;hk.ovtok7qf grnjvlyfzqoxt3spf0v’xt-k
-qo]k; c]t -k;3]dD
rkdltgsou
OVERVIEW34
Conservation of the surviving landscape and preservation of the individual archaeological sites and monu-
ments are therefore of immense cultural importance because of their historical associations, the evidence of
ancient urban planning on a large scale, and the holiness attributed to the landscape by its planners. Also of
significance is the way in which that formality has over time decayed and been adapted into a living and thriv-
ing agrarian landscape. While the adaptations reflect the changing needs and priorities of the Laotian people
over the centuries, the landscape still preserves the framework of its earlier planning and is dominated by the
remains of the great ceremonial sites, which still have a residual sacred role.
The present land use is primarily agricultural throughout the river plain with scattered villages and consider-
able amounts of woodland surviving, particularly on the mountains. However, the area as a whole is now sub-
ject to increasing pressures for change and economic growth which will have adverse effects on the preserva-
tion of this significant archaeological landscape if not carefully managed. The standing ruins have decayed
and, in some cases, are at risk of major collapse. The quickening pace of development with the onset of road
building, irrigation schemes and proposals for localized industrial development places the less obvious archae-
ological sites, particularly those close to the river, at risk of damage. There are also problems of fluvial ero-
sion from both the Mekong River and its tributaries which criss-cross the landscape.
Another factor is tourism, which is likely to grow substantially in coming decades. If managed sustainably,
tourism can be an asset for the management of Vat Phou and its associated archaeological sites and for the
charm of the riverine villages, both likely to be attractive to visitors. Income from tourism provides an eco-
nomic justification for conserving the archaeology. However, if not managed sensitively, tourism, too, is like-
ly to be highly damaging to the long-term future of this landscape and its archaeology.
rkdltgsou35
dkovto5]admy;maf.sh7q’16j c]t dkolts’;odko75h,7v’fhko;af45[6Iko c]t lt4ko[6Ikoc,jogxaolyj’muj9egxao
c]t le7aomujl5fmk’fhko;afmtotme grktdjP;raog4y’dko9af;k’czodko0tsokf.spj0v’zh6;k’za’g,nv’
ma’gxaodkogrU,7;k,laflyf.shcdjlt4komujvaogxaomujladdt]t[6-kD ovd9kd7;k,le7aofaj’djk;c]h;pa’gxao-jv’
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vao.spjs];’D 9kdvaf8kdkogrU,0No1jk’w;;k0v’;Pd’kodkolhk’4tsoqosqomk’F -qo]txtmkoF vk7ko
[hkogInvo c]t 37’dkorafmtokmk’fhkov5flkstded=jc,jo[aosksobj’muj9tlqj’zqoltmhvo.shcdj[aofklt4ko
[6IkoD 3fpltgrktc,jolt4komjuM16j.dhda[c,joEc,jo9t,u7;k,ljP’wr8+dkora’mt]kpl6’mujl5f 9kddkog-ktg9njvo
0v’c,joE0v’ c]t lkpoEvnjoMmujcpdrNomujvvd9kddaoD
dkomjv’mjP;d+c,joxaf.9sobj’muj,uco;3oh,9t0tspkp8q;1jk’w;;k.omqflt;afsohkD g-yj’4hkskd,udko75h,7v’
1jk’gs,ktlq, d+ltgIaf.sh;Pd’kodkomjv’mjP;lk,kfdkpgxaolyj’muj,uzqoxt3spf.shcdj ;Pd’kodko
75h,7v’mk’fhko[6Iko7tfu c]t ma’gxaodkolhk’7;k,fb’f6f9yf.9.shcdjz6h,k1hP,-q,fh;pgvdt]ad0v’s,6j[hko
8ts]vfg4y’dkoltsoa[ltso6o1jk’gs,ktlq,9kddkoxa[x5’mk’fhkoglf4tdyf.shcdj;Pd’kodkovto5]ad 3fp,u
]kpIa[9kddkodtme faj’djk;dq’dao0hk,4hkskd[+,udko75h,7v’gxao1jk’fudkomjv’mjP;d+vkf9tlhk’7;k,glpskp-
vao,tsklko.shcdj;Pd’komk’fhko[6Iko7tfu.ovkok7qfD
OVERVIEW36
The archaeology and landscape of the Champasak area are therefore at a turning point. Recognizing its
importance, the Government of the Lao PDR have placed Vat Phou on their Tentative List for World Heritage
nomination, and, with support from UNESCO, have decided to produce and implement a Management Plan
for the area. The purpose of this Plan is to conserve the archaeological sites and their landscape character
along with the best of the traditional character of the land use and settlement of the area, within the overall
development and economic growth of the region, for future research and for the benefit of the local
communities and the wider world.
The Plan introduces controls to prevent activities that would be damaging and policies for using the sites in a
sustainable way for economic development of the local communities. The Plan also defines ways to increase
public awareness and support for these policies, so that Vat Phou can become an exemplar of site management
within Southeast Asia. In creating the Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone, the Plan
recognizes the importance of using preservation to improve the local economy and local living conditions with-
in the overall needs of conservation. The Plan establishes regulations within the Champasak Heritage and
Cultural Landscape Protection Zone for the application of the 1997 Decree of the President of the Lao PDR on
the Preservation of Cultural, Historical and Natural Heritage No. 03/PR.
Aerial photograph showing the relationship of
the Vat Phou temple complex to the two defin-
ing natural landscape features of the Champasak
Heritage and Cultural Landscape Pro t e c t i o n
Zone: Phou Kao Mountain and the Mekong River
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0v’mhv’4yjo grnjvlhk’g’njvow0vaofu.shcdjdkofe]q’-u;yf0v’xt-k-qoc,jo7;k,8hv’dko0v’czodko75h,7v’oUD
l t o A o d k o I j k ’ ] t [ P [ d k o 0 v ’ c z o d k o o U 9 b j ’ w f h v u ’ . l j [ a o f k 0 = h d e o q f . o ] a f 4 t [ a o p a f 0 v ’ x t m k o x t g m fl t [ a [
g]dmu W#}xx djP;da[dkovto5]ad,=]tfqdmk’;afmtotmeF xts;aflkf c]t me,t-kfcsj’-kf .oxu !__(D
The Vat Phou temple complex was intentionally
set within a planned landscape reflecting the
ancient Khmer interpretation of the cosmic
world
d 5 j , l t 4 k o [ 6 I k o ; a f r 6 4 n d l h k ’ 0 N o f h ; p 9 y o 8 t
o k d k o . o d k o 9 a f ; k ’ c z o z a ’ r N o m j u 0 v ’ - k ;
0tc, grnjvvtmy[kpg4y’]t[q[9addt;koD
CHAPTER 1:
SITE DESCRIPTION AND SIGNIFICANCE
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Topography, Land Use and Geomorphology
1.3 The Archaeological Sites of the Champasak
Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone
1.4 The Significance of the Cultural Landscape of
the Champasak Area
sq;0=hmu !G
7;k,le7ao c]t ]kp]tvPf0v’lt4komuj
!D! [qfltgsou
!D@ muj8A’]tvPfF dkooe.-hgoNvmuj c]t
dkoxtdv[lhk’fhkor6,ulkf
!D# rNomujMfegouodkolbdlkfhko[6Iko7tfu
!D$ 7;k,le7ao0v’rNomuj,=]tfqd
mk’;afmtotme9exklad
PART I
rkdmu I
PART I: THE SITE40
PART ONE: THE SITE
1. SITE DESCRIPTION AND SIGNIFICANCE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Champasak District in the Lao PDR lies 500 km south-east of Vientiane on the right (west)
bank of the Mekong River (Fig 1). It has long been noted for the existence of the Vat Phou
Temple complex, a major example of both early and classical Khmer architecture dating
from the 7th to the 12th centuries AD. Recent research has demonstrated that Vat Phou
is the focal point of a complex cultural landscape centred on the Champasak Plain and tak-
ing in Phou Kao Mountain to the west and the banks of the Mekong River to the east.
Other features include temples, water tanks (baray), water channels, quarries, field systems
and settlement sites as well as an ancient road to Angkor. The area includes a planned,
early Khmer period city (hereafter re f e rred to as the Ancient City) of some four hundre d
h e c t a res on the right (west) bank of the Mekong River as well as a second urban settlement
d i rectly to the south of Vat Phou dating from the Angkor period.
1.1.2 These features have been laid out in a careful planning of the landscape to reflect its sacred
character as perceived by the builders of Vat Phou. Using the natural linga of Phou Kao
Mountain, with the temple of Vat Phou at its foot as the fulcrum, the ancient builders
p l a n n e d the other features of the landscape, such as roads, canals, baray, the Ancient City
itself, and many other temples and features on an axial layout, incorporating the whole
landscape.
1.1.3 The evidence for this landscape is well preserved, whether as standing ruins, visible
e a rthworks, or buried archaeological sites, detectable only by aerial photography, field surv e y,
remote sensing or excavation. The grand concept of the original design and the relatively
high degree of survival combine to make the Champasak area one of the great surviving
cultural landscapes of the world.
rkdmu IG lt4komuj41
! ]kp]tvPf c]t 7;k,le7ao0v’lt4komuj8A’
rkdmu IG lt4komuj
!D! [qfltgsou
!D!D! g,nv’9exklad0v’ lxx ]k; 8A’16jmk’/aj’0;k X8kg;ao8qd? 0v’c,joE0v’sjk’9kddecr’
o t 7 v o;P’9aowxmk’myf8kg;aovvdlP’.8h xt,ko &WW dy3]c,af Xczomu !? d5j,lt4ko
[6Iko;afr64ndIa[I6h c]t ,u-njlP’,kgxaog;]kfqookoc]h;F ,aogxao8q;cmovaole7aomk’fhkolt4k
x a f8yptde.op5dlt.s,djvoltws,va’d=;afc]tp5dltws,va’d=;af.olaf8ts;afmu ( sk !@D
vu’8k,dko7Qo7;hkg,njv[+fqo,koUwfhltcf’.shgsao;jkd5j,lt4ko[6Iko;afr6 c,jo95f.9dk’0v’
r N o m u j m k ’ ; a f m t o t m e . o 0 q ’ g 0 f m q j ’ r P ’ 9 e x k l a d 3 f p 4 n g v q k 9 v , r 6 g d Q k g x a o 9 5 f l 5 , c ] h ; 0 t s p k p
v v d w x g 4 y ’ f j k o 8 k g ; a o 8 q d 0 v ’ l k p r 6 g d Q k c]t myf8kg;aovvd0v’/aj’c,joE0v’ g-yj’xt
d v [ , u ; a f ; k v k I k , F vjk’gd a[oE Xsov’lt[6Iko?F Ijv’]t[kpoEF c~j’8afsuoF
c~j’muj8A’0v’-5,-qoF 4tsoqo[6Ikomujg-njv,8+wxpa’va’d=;af ];,ma’czoza’g,nv’gdqjk.op5d
g]U,8Qo0v’vkok9ad0tc, Xg-yj’8+,kwfhdkpgxaog,nv’[6Iko? ,ugoNvmujxt,kolujIhvpgIad8k
16jmk’/aj’0;k X8kg;ao8qd? 0v’c,joE0v’D ovdoAopa’,ucs]j’8A’4yjo4ko0v’-5,-qocsj’mulv’
.op5dltws,va’d=;af16jmk’myf.8h0v’;afr6D
!D!D@ z 6 h d + l h k ’ ; a f r 6 w f h 9 a f ; k ’ [ a o f k x a f . 9 8 j k ’ M . s h d q , d n o d a [ l t r k [ c ; f ] h v , 0 v ’ r N o m u j w f h 1 j k ’ g s , k t l q ,
grnjvltmhvo.shgsaogvdt]adltgrkt0v’lt4komujD g-jy’gIqklk,kfla’gdfwfh9kddkooe.-h
me,t-kf0v’r6gdQkg-njv,pq’g0Qkda[;afr6D ovdoAogryjopa’wfh;k’czoza’dkod+lhk’vnjoMvud3fp4ngvqk
9v,r6gdQkgxaocdodk’0v’my;mafma’s,qfwfh1jk’]q’8q;g-ajoG 4tsoqo[6IkoF Ijv’]t[kpoEF
sov’lt[6IkoF 8q;g,nv’[6Iko c]t ;af;kvkIk,vnjoMD
!D!D# [aofk0=h,6oF s]ad4ko0v’rNomujpa’wfhIa[dkovto5]adw;h1jk’7q’8q;[+;jk9tgxao-kdlts]adsadra’
mujpa’7q’s]q’gs]nv16jF -kd;af45[6Iko8jk’Mmuj16jrNofyo g-yj’lk,kf7Qoskwfhfh;pdko.-hr k [ 4 j k p
mk’vkdkfF dkogfuoles;frkdltsok,F dkoleraf s]n dko05f7QoD co;7;k,7yfrNo4ko
.odkovvdc[[ grnjvgIaf.sh,u7;k,lk,kf7q’8q;oAowfh4ndxtlq,xtlkodaog0QkgrnjvgIaf.sh
rNomuj9exklad,u-njlP’rQogfajo0Bo c]t 7q’8q;16j.orNomuj;afmtotmecsj’sobj’0v’3]dD
PART I: THE SITE42
1.1.4 Over the last few years, the evidence has been systematically studied as the basis for a
fuller understanding and better management of the archaeological resources and the
cultural landscape. The Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone
(Fig 2) covers the Champasak Plain, the Phou Kao Mountain massif to the west, and the
immediate area around Tomo Temple on the east bank of the Mekong River. Parts of the
area have been systematically surveyed to high levels of detail, using a variety of non-
destructive techniques, while the rest of the area has been more generally surveyed.
1.1.5 The whole landscape was planned and utilized from its inception in the 5th century and
thereafter not just for practical purposes but in accordance with the symbolic world view
of its rulers. They saw the landscape in terms of Hindu cosmology with Phou Kao
Mountain as the home of the gods, particularly of Shiva, while the Mekong River repre-
sented the River Ganges and the surrounding Universal Ocean. The planned engineering
of the plain around the Temple of Vat Phou articulates these beliefs.
The Champasak cultural landscape, from the
Mekong River, fore g round, to Phou Kao
Mountain with its natural stone linga atop
rNomjumk’fhko;afmtotme9exkladF g[yj’9kd
c,joE0v’skr6gdQk muj,u9v,]y’7tsuome,t-kf
gxao95fgfajoD
rkdmu IG lt4komuj43
!D!D$ [aofk0=h,6o c]t s]ad4ko8jk’Mmuj7Qorq[.os]kpxuzjko,kc,jowfhIa[dkolbdlk1jk’gxao]t[q[
grnjvgxaorNo4ko.shcdj7;k,g0Qk.91jk’mjv’cmh c]t grnjvgxaodkoIa[xtdaodko75h,7v’;Pd’ko
dko7Qo7;hkmk’[6Iko7tfu c]t rNomuj;afmtotmeD g0fxqdxadIadlk,=]tfqd9exklad
Xczomuj @? d;,gvqk[=]yg;omqJ’jrP’9exkladF 3fp,ulkpr6gdQk8A’16jmk’8kg;ao8qd c]t g-njv,
8+wxg4y’/aj’8kg;aovvd0v’c,joE0v’vhv,Iv[;af38t3,tD ovdoAorkdlj;ovnjoM0v’rNomujd+pa’wfh
I a [d k o l e s ; f 1 j k ’ g x a o ] t [ q [ g r n j v f e g o u o d k o 7 Q o 7 ; h k . s h ] t v P f 3 f p o e . - h g 8 a d o y d v a o m a o l t w s ,
muj[+me]kp c]t lqj’zqoltmhvocdjrkdlj;ovnjoM0v’lt4ko[6IkoD
! D ! D & rNomujma’s,qfc,jowfhIa[dko;k’czogrnjvoe.-h,kdjvop5dltws,va’d=;af c]t ltws,va’d=;af
g - y j ’ , a o [ + r P ’ c 8 j g x a o d k o 8 v [ l t s o v ’ . s h c d j 9 5 f x t l q ’ v a o 9 e g x a o g m q j k o A o c 8 j p a ’ g x a o l a o p k ] a d c s j ’
7;k,lvf7jv’0v’z6hxqd7v’D g-yj’g0qkg9Qkgsaowfhg’njvow00v’rNomujc,jolk,kf8v[ltsov’
wfh8k,mafltot0v’37’lhk’ c]t dkodegouf9addt;ko0v’lkfltsokIuof6 3fp4n;jkr6gdQk
xP[ltgs,nvo[jvo16j0v’gm[rtg9Qk3fpltgrktc,jort-u;tF c,joE0v’gxao8q;cmo
0v’mtg]mujvhv,Iv[faj’oAodko;k’czoza’vhv,0hk’ma’s,qf 9bj’]h;oc8j,udkodjP;rao c]t
g-njv,3p’daoD
The Mekong River, vital transportation route as
well as a symbolic representation of the sacred
River Ganges
c,joE0v’F glAomk’]e]P’mjule7aog-yj’xP[
ltgs,nvolaopk]ad mjugxao8q;cmo0v’c,joE
mujladdk]t[6-k c,j GangesD
PART I: THE SITE44
1.2 TOPOGRAPHY, LAND USE AND GEOMORPHOLOGY
1.2.1 Topography: the Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone is divided
into a number of distinct topographic and land use subdivisions. The western edge of the
area is dominated by the mountain chain running north from Phou Kao Mountain, the most
distinctive feature of the landscape. To the east of this is the river flood plain where the
bulk of the archaeological sites are found, bounded on its eastern edge by the Mekong
River, the other great natural feature of the landscape. Toward the base of the mountains,
the plain rises and is dissected by numerous watercourses, permanent or seasonal, running
off the mountain to the Mekong River in small but steep-sided valleys.
1.2.2 Land Use (Fig 3): the mountain zone is largely covered by old forest (probably not
primary) and has not been in use in recent years for slash-and-burn agriculture. The
plain is primarily paddy field, interspersed by secondary or bamboo forest, generally
where there has been severe river erosion. Woodland becomes a more dominant feature of
the landscape towards the base of the mountains because of the lower availability of water.
In recent years there have been an increasing number of clay quarries dug and brick
factories built in response to growing demand for buildings in more durable materials. The
number of ponds for fish farming is also growing. These ponds, as well as several new
access roads and some new style houses, have been constructed using bulldozers, which fre -
quently uncover and destroy archaeological deposits in the process.
1.2.3 On the east bank of the Mekong River, the land use is primarily forest with clearings
around villages.
1.2.4 On the plain west of the river, habitation is also concentrated into villages. These
a re distributed along the main roads and especially along the bank of the
Mekong River. The number of villages has not increased in recent years, but the changing
techniques of building mean that traditional wood houses built on poles are being replaced
with brick and concrete buildings with excavated foundations.
rkdmu IG lt4komuj45
!D@ muj8A’]tvPfF dkooe.-hgoNvmuj c]t dkoxtdv[lhk’fhkor6,,ulkfD
!D@D! muj8A’]tvPfG 0q’g0fxqdxadIadlk,=]tfqd9exkladwfhd;,gvqks]kp8q;g,nv’F g0f8kg;ao8qd
0v’rNomujc,jod;,gvqklkpr63fpg]U,c8jg0fgsonv0v’lkpr6gdQk mujgxaogvddt]adryglf
mk’fhkome,t-kf0v’rNomujgv’wxskmk’myf8kg;aovvd c]t g-njv,8+wxg4y’/aj’8kg;aovvd
0v’c,joE0v’ g-yj’gxao[=]yg;orNomujM4ndma[4q,.s,j c]t gxaocs]j’muj7Qorq[fhko[6Iko7tfu
1jk’s];’s]kpD 0q’g0f[=]yg;ogouol6’mk’8uor6gxaocs]j’muj,umy;mafvao3ffgfajo,ulkpsh;pohvp
muj4k;vo c]t lkpsh;pmuj,u8k,]tf6/qo 3fp,u8Qodegouf9kdlkpr6c]h;ws]wxpa’c,joE0v’
3fp8afcpdrNomujvvdgxaos]kpg0fD
!D@D@ dkooe.-hgoNvmuj Xczomuj #?G g0flkpr6lj;o.spjc,jod;,gvqkxjkfq’fy[ Xvkf9t[+c,jo
xjkg]U,c]d? c8jgxaoxjkmuj[+wfhIa[dkome]kpfh;pdko4k’xjk{96fwIj grnjvoE.-hg0Qk.odko
gIafwIjwfhs]kpxuc]h;D lj;og0fmqj’rP’gxaog0fmjuxtdv[,umqj’okdtc9ddt9kpxtxqoda[xjk
xtgrflv’ Xxjk37d? s]n xjkwzj g-yj’lj;o.spjc,jowfhIa[zqoltmhvo9kddkog-ktg9njvo
0v’oED faj’oAoxjkw,h9bj’,u7;k,le7aomujl5f.odkoxtdv[.shcdjmy;maf0v’rNomujg0fr6g0qkD
c 8 j p h v o l t r k [ c s h ’ c ] h ’ . o - 5 , x u m u j z j k o , k 9 b j ’ g I a f . s h , u d k o g r U , 0 B o 0 v ’ d k o z t ] y f f y o 9 u j g r n j v g x a o
vk-u[leIv’ ma’gxaodko8v[ltsov’.shcdjdko0tspkp8q;1jk’w;;k0v’dkox5dlhk’vk
7kofh;p;af45muj7q’mqoF ovdoAo9eo;o0v’dko05fsov’xkF dkolhk’4tsoqosqomk’ c]t
dkox5dlhk’vk7ko.sj,d+wfhIa[dko0tspkp8q;g-ajofP;dao3fpdkooe.-hdqo9adD g-yj’3fp
mjq;wxc]h;c,jogxaodkome]kp;af45[6Iko c]t lt4ko[6Ikomuj/a’16j.8hfyoD
!D@D# d k o o e . - h g o N v m u j f h k o 8 k g ; a o v v d 0 v ’ c , j o E 0 v ’ . o x t 9 5 [ a o o U r P ’ c 8 j g x a o d k o 4 k d 4 k ’ x j k . d h
s,6j[hkogmqjkoAoD
!D@D$ m q j ’ r P ’ f h k o 8 k g ; a o 8 q d 0 v ’ c , j o E 0 v ’ w f h , u d k o 8 A ’ 4 y j o 4 k o 1 j k ’ c s o h o s o k l j ; o . s p j c , j o 8 A ’
16j]P[8k,glAomk’mujle7ao c]t ]P[c7,/aj’c,joE0v’F .ow]ptzjko,koUdko0tspkp
8q;0v’9eo;os,6j[hkoc,jo[+grU,0Nos]kpxko.f c8jraf,udkoxjPocmog8adoyd.s,jMg0Qk.o
dkox5dlhk’vk7ko s,kp;jkdkox5dlhk’vk7ko[hko-jv’c[[w,hc,jowfh4ndmqfcmofh;p
vk7kofyo9uj muj9t8hv’wfh,udko05fgrnjvgIaf37’lhk’D
PART I: THE SITE46
1.2.5 Geomorphology (Fig. 4): the Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone
can be divided into four geomorphologically distinct sectors. The first is the Phou Kao
Mountain massif to the north-west, rising to an altitude of 1,416 metres and made up of strat-
ified Meso-Cenozoic sequences, characterized mainly by continental sandstones and siltites
of fluvial origin. The second sector lies south and south-east of these Meso-Cenozoic
sequences which have been lowered by faults and strongly peneplanated by weathering pro-
cesses. The third sector, to the east of the Mekong River, consists of an extensive Plio-
Pleistocene volcanic area rising to an average height of over 120 metres above sea level,
consisting mainly of basaltic lava and pyroclastic rocks overlain by extensive lateritic
deposits. The fourth and final sector, the alluvial plain, consists of alluvial deposits, linked
to the Mekong River and its tributaries, highly weathered and partially converted to soil.
1.2.6 There is no doubt that the courses of the Mekong River and of its numerous tributaries are
the main driving force behind the ongoing morphological processes in the sector examined.
Except for the temple of Vat Phou, located at a height of about 180 metres above sea level,
and other lesser sites on the mountain slopes, all the archaeological sites identified are at alti-
tudes varying between 85 and 100 metres above sea level and are located on the alluvial plain
of the Mekong River and its tributaries.
1.2.7 The level and flow of the Mekong River are subject to seasonal variations depending on rain-
fall. During the monsoon season the river level rises by 10 to 12 metres, overflowing its
natural banks and flooding parts of the surrounding plain. The Mekong tributaries, all
characterized by meandering stream beds, are comprised of permanent watercourses, with
highly variable flow rates, as well as seasonal watercourses. During the monsoon season all
these tributaries overflow, contributing greatly to the flooding of lower areas some distance
inland from the course of the Mekong River.
rkdmu IG lt4komuj47
!D@D& dkoxjPocx’mk’fhkor6,,ulkf Xczomuj $?G . o g 0 f x q d x a d I a d l k , = ] t f q d 9 e x k l a d w f h
9afgxao $ r6,lao4koD g0fmusobj’c,jog0flkpr6gdQkg-njv,8+wxpa’myf8kg;ao8qdlP’gsonvD
l6’9kd]tfa[sohkoEmtg]xt,ko !D$!* c,af c]t xtdv[fh;pF (Meso-Cenozoic),
,u]adltot-kpxqosuo c]t 37o8q,D g0fg0fmulv’c,jo8A’16jg0f.8h c]t myf8kg;aovvd
xtdv[fh;p (Meso-Cenozoic), gxaog0fmqj’Ik[ c]t ,u]tfa[8ejg - y j ’ w f h I a [ z q o l t m h v o 9 k d
dkoxjPocx’0v’vkdkfD g0fg 0 f m ul k , c , j o g 0 f 8 k g ; a o v v d 0 v ’ c , j o E 0 v ’g - y j ’ g x a o r N o m u j M
xtdv[fh;pr6g0qkw2 (Plio-Pleistocene)F l6’9kd]tfa[sohkoEmtg]xt,ko !@W c,af
lj;o.spjc,joxtdv[fh;p basaltic lava c]t pyroclastic mujxtdv[0Bo9kddko]tg[uf
0v’r6g0qkw2D g0fg0fmulujc,jog0fl5fmhkpg-yy j’gxao[=]yg;omujxtdv[fh;p8tdvorkps]a’
oE4h;, 3fp];,,ug0fc,joE0v’ c]t sh;poE]eg-8jk’MF gxaog0fmuj,udkoxjPocx’0v’
vkdkfl6’D
!D@D* gxaomujcojovoc]h;;jkmyfmk’dkogfuo0v’c,joE0v’ c]t [aofksh;poE]eg-8jk’M c,jo
g x a o d e ] a ’ - 5 d f a o 1 6 j g [ N v ’ s ] a ’ 0 v ’ d k o x j P o c x ’ 3 7 ’ x t d v [ f h k o r 6 , , u l k f . o 0 q ’ g 0 f m u j w f h I a [
dkoles^;fD pqdg;Aog0f;afr6muj8ah’16j.o]tfa[l6’ !)W c,af mP[da[]tfa[shokoEmtg] c]t
lt4komuj jvnjoMmju1j6]P[8k,8uor6g0qkD rhv,fP;daooahod+ltcf’.shgsao;jkm5dMlt4ko[6Iko
mju8A’1j68k,[=]yg;omqj’rP’0v’c,joE0v’ c]t [aofksh;poE]eg-8jk’Moaho]h;oc]h;c8j8ah’16j.o
]tfa[7;k,l6’ c8j )& sk !WW c,af 3fpmP[da[]tfa[shokoEmtg]D
!D@D( ]tfa[ c]t dkows]0v’c,joE0v’c,jo0Boda[]tfa[dkoxjPocx’0v’]t6f/qomjuc8d8jk’daoF
.o]tf6/qo]tfa[oE0v’9tl6’0Boxt,ko !W{!@ c,afD vaogIaf.sh[=]yg;omqj’rP’]P[8k,
@ / a j’c,joE0v’gduf,uoE4h;,D dkows]0v’lk0k0v’c,joeh0v’ma’s,qfc,jo,u]adltot7qf]hP;
wx8k,myfmk’dkows]mju[+4k;vo0v’oED .o]tf6/qom5dlkpoEc,jogduf,uoE4h;,g-yj’gxaogsf.sh
g0frNomju8O16j8k,myfdkows]0v’oEgduf,uoE4h;,D
PART I: THE SITE48
1.2.8 Within the Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone, the Mekong
River displays the asymmetric morphology typical of meander-like models, with low and
sandy convex banks to the east, consisting of growing dune ridges, and concave banks to
the west, characterized by a steep escarpment formed by erosion of the ancient alluvial
deposits. The erosion of the concave escarpment occurs through undermining of the foot
of the concave bank by floodwaters, and the consequent collapse of blocks of soil. The
eroded material is transported downstream and later deposited on the other side of the
river where the flow rate of the river decreases. At the base of the escarpment, natural
sandy-silty embankments form at the end of each flooding. These deposits tend gradual-
ly to be eroded along with the escarpment, but are replaced by new deposits having the
same characteristics. Further away from the banks of the watercourse, flood plain deposits
are often only a few millimetres thick, consisting of the finer particles transported by the
river. These deposits can accumulate in the course of successive inundations or else be
eroded, depending on the conditions prevailing at the time and on the level and flow rate
of the watercourse.
1.2.9 Over time the fluvial environment developed with the growth of further dune ridges along
the left (east), low convex bank and the gradual erosion of the right (west), high concave
bank. The site of the Ancient City, which is situated on the eroding bank of the Mekong
River, has partly been affected by these developments.
1.2.10 Examination of the morphology of the area near the course of the Mekong River shows that
the highest ground levels are found on the narrow strip running along the eroding right
(west) bank of the river, with heights exceeding 90 metres above sea level. This altitude
can be accounted for by the presence of a natural riverbank rising to at least 4 metres above
the surrounding alluvial plain.
rkdmu IG lt4komuj49
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g9njvo[aofk37’lhk’0v’fyo1j6rNo0v’8k/aj’D 9kddkora’mt]kp0v’fyo wfhgIaf.sh;af45
mju4ndg-ktg9njvows]]q’wxg9nvxqo c]t ltlq,.olv’2kd/aj’0v’lkpoEgIaf.shvaf8kdkows]
0 v ’ o E - h k ] q ’ D 7 ; k , l 6 ’ 0 v ’ f y o - k p m j u g d u f 0 B o r k p s a ] ’ o E 4 h ; , c , j o w f h d k p g x a o 7 6 d A o o Em e , t - k f D
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7 ; k , l 6 ’ 0 v ’ r N o m u j M r q [ g s a o c , j o g d u f 0 B o 8 k , c o ; g l A o m k ’ d k o w s ] 0 v ’ / a j ’ 8 k g ; a o 8 q d g - y j ’ , u
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PART I: THE SITE50
1.2.11 The east side of the Ancient City is located on an abnormally wide extension of the
Mekong River’s natural bank. This extension is due to the fusion of the riverbank
deposits of the Mekong River and one of its tributaries, the Sahoua River. South of the
Ancient City the natural embankment, although smaller, is still larger than average.
Further south, the embankment returns to its normal size with heights greater than 95
metres above sea level corresponding to the increasing altitude of the plain. This increase
in height is linked to the peneplanate Meso-Cenozoic deposits approaching the surface
and ultimately emerging from it. Natural banks exceeding the average height of the
alluvial plain are also found in several tributaries on the west side of the Mekong
hydrographic system.
Phou Kao Mountain massif, the western edge of
the Champasak cultural landscape; the natural
stone linga atop gives the mountain its symbolic
sanctity
r6gdQkF g0fcfofhko8kg;ao8qd0v’rNomujmk’fhko
;afmtotme9exkladF ]y’7tsuome,t-kfmju1j6gmy’
9 v , r 6 g d Q k c , j o g x a o l a o p k ] a d c s j ’ 7 ; k , l a d l y f . s h
cdj8qogv’D
rkdmu IG lt4komuj51
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da[]tfa[sohkoEmtg]D vaf8kdkogrU,0Bo0v’7;k,l6’oUwfh8yfraoda[dkoltlq,0v’8tdvo
m u j 4 n d r a f , k x q d 7 5 , 1 6 j s o h k f y o 1 j k ’ x t l q , d q , d n o d a o g - y j ’ v a f 8 k l t g ] j p d k o g r U , 0 B o 0 v ’ f y o
m u j l t l q , 1 6 j 8 k , c 7 , / a j ’ 3 f p m e , t - k f o A o 9 t r q [ g s a o w f h 1 6 j o e [ a o f k ] t [ q [ l k p o E 8 j k ’ M
muj16jmk’/aj’8kg;ao8qd0v’c,joE0v’D
Woodlands between the mountains and the
river slope to the east towards the alluvial plain
as the elevation drops from 1,416 metres at the
top of Phou Kao Mountain to approximately 100
metres at the Mekong River
rNomuxjkw,hmuj16j]ts;jk’lkpr6 c]t 7hvp]q’wxsk
c , j o E m u 1 j 6 m k ’ r k d 8 k g ; a o v v d 0 v ’ m j q ’ r P ’ m u j 4 n d
oErafrk,k3fpg]U,9kd]tfa[7;k,l6’!F$!* c,af
mju9v,r6gdQk sk ]tfa[l6’xt,ko !WW c,af
mjuc,joE0v’D
PART I: THE SITE52
1.3 THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES OF THE CHAMPASAK HERITAGE AND CULTURAL
LANDSCAPE PROTECTION ZONE
1.3.1 It is convenient first to describe the archaeological remains known in the Champasak
Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection Zone and then to discuss the evidence for
planning in the landscape. For ease of reference, the sites are considered in a number of
topographical groups working more or less from west to east. They are:
◆ Phou Kao Mountain (Sections 1.3.2-1.3.3)
◆ Vat Phou Temple site (Sections 1.3.4-1.3.16)
◆ Hong Nang Sida area south of the Vat Phou Temple site, including the Ancient Road
(Sections 1.3.17-1.3.20)
◆ Other monumental sites along the eastern fringe of Phou Kao Mountain
(Sections 1.3.21-1.3.22)
◆ The Ancient City (Sections 1.3.23-1.3.29)
◆ Other sites on the Champasak Plain (Sections 1.3.30-1.3.31)
◆ Tomo Temple (Section 1.3.32)
rkdmu IG lt4komuj53
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!D#D! g [ N v ’ 8 Q o g r n j v g x a o d k o l t f ; d . s h c d j d k o v t m y [ k p g 4 y ’ [ a o f k l t 4 k o [ 6 I k o m u j p a ’ s ] q ’ g s ] n v 1 6 j
c]t gxaomujI6h9addaofu.o0q’g0fxqdxadIadlk,=]tfqd9exkladD faj’oAo;Pd’kodkoxbdlksk]n
grnjv;k’czodjP;da[rNomuj9bj’wfh4nddeoqfvvd3fpvu’.lj7;k,ltf;d0v’lt4komuj8A’ g-yj’wfh
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8kg;aovvd7n G
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◆ ;af38t3,t X0=h !D#D#@?
PART I: THE SITE54
1.3.2 Phou Kao Mountain: based on the evidence from inscriptions, Lingaparvata is the Sanskrit
name given to Phou Kao Mountain (1,416 metres) by the ancient Khmer inhabitants. The
mountain peak is a natural linga, some 10 metres high and visible from far away. It is an
aniconic representation of Shiva, god of fertility. In 1997, the remains of a brick foundation
of a temple were found on the top of the rock outcrop, with a carved sandstone linga lying
at its foot. This finding appears to confirm the identification of Phou Kao as Lingaparvata.
On the slope of Phou Kao Mountain the Hindu religious complex of Vat Phou was built.
1.3.3 The oldest known written evidence for Lingaparvata is found in the Devanika inscription
(or Stele of Vat Louang Kao, K 365), dated to the second half of the 5th century AD.
According to a Chinese source (History of Sui), dated AD 589, a temple dedicated to Shiva
Bhadresvara was built on the top of the mountain. The cult of Lingaparvata is confirmed
by other inscriptions found in the Vat Phou area as well as in Cambodia, dated from the 7th
to 12th centuries AD.
Archaeological sites scattered throughout the
area provide evidence of early urban planning
efforts
rNomju[6Iko7tfu mjudtc9ddt9kp1j6m5dsqom5dcsj’
0v’rNomju mujgxao~ad4ko0v’dko;k’czoza’g,nv’
.op5dmevyfD
rkdmu IG lt4komuj55
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[6Iko;afr6D xtdqfdkooUgxaolyj’le7aomuj1A’1no;jkr6gdQkxP[ltgs,nvo]y’7txtit;t8tD
!D#D# 9 k d s ] a d 4 k o . o [ a o m b d g - y j ’ x a o m u j I 6 h d a o f u o A o ] y ’ 7 t x t i t ; t 8 t c , j o w f h r q [ g s a o 1 6 j . o l u ] k 9 k ] b d 0 v ’
gf;koydk s]n Stele 0v’;afs];’gdqjkF XK #*&? g-yj’wfhdjk;g4y’g7yj’w]ptmujlv’0v’
laf8t;afmuj &D 8k,cs]j’0jk;0v’xtgmf9uo.oxu7y^f8tladdts]kf &)_ Xxts;aflkf-5p?
dkolhk’;afr6c,jogrnjvv5myf.shcdjrt-u;t[kgfaflt;kik (Shiva Bhadresuara) 3 f p 4 n d l h k ’ 0 B o
1j6gmy’9v,r6D dko[6-k]y’7txtit;t8tpa’wfhIa[dko1no1ao9kdlu]k9k]bdvnjoM vudmujrq[gsao16j.o
0q’g0f;afr6 c]t xtgmfdex6g9p g-yj’g]U,c8jlaf8t;afmu ( sklaf8t;afmu !@D
Distant view of Phou Kao Mountain, with the
formation known as Lingaparvata, a symbol of
Shiva, clearly visible
my;maf0v’r6gdQkF da[I6[c[[me,t-kf0v’]y’7t
vaogxaomujI6h9ad.ook,laopk]ad0v’rt-u;t mulk,kf
,v’gsaowfh1jk’-afg9oD
PART I: THE SITE56
1.3.4 Vat Phou (Fig 5): this temple complex is located at the foot of Phou Kao Mountain, over-
looking the flood plain of the Mekong River. The shrine itself is built on a natural terrace
of Phou Kao Mountain where a freshwater spring gushes out of the rock. The temple com-
plex as a whole is laid out on a linear plan stretching 1,400 metres along an east-west axis, ris-
ing up the lower slopes of the mountain from the plain below. The complex was designed
to be approached from the east and to impress the worshipper with the sanctity of the
place, with the Lingaparvata visible behind the temple itself. This axial layout is rare for a
Khmer temple (a concentric layout is m o re common) and reflects the conscious use of the
natural terrain to place maximum focus on the Lingaparvata.
1.3.5 At the lowest level, oriented east-west, there is a large baray, some 200 metres by 600
metres probably built around the 10th to 11th century AD. It is flanked on its western side
by an elaborate stone embankment, now crowned incongruously by a ruined pavilion built
in the 1960s. To the north are two more large baray constructed by building up earth
dykes to enclose the area, not by digging into the ground. One of those baray, immediate-
ly to the north of the first baray, was built around the end of the 11th and the beginning
of the 12th centuries AD. From the stone embankment of the baray to the first terrace runs
the processional c a u s e w a y, flanked by pyramidal stone pillars.
1.3.6 The temple complex was built on six terraces. The first terrace, or lowest terrace, is over
130 metres deep from east to west. The front third is occupied by two large, rectangular
stone buildings flanking an esplanade, 44 metres wide. Each building is a quadrangle of
four galleries around a wide courtyard, with overall dimensions of 62 metres by 42 metres.
Facing each other and parallel to the central axis, the main gallery of each quadrangle opens
onto the esplanade through a projecting porch, with elaborately carved doorways, and is
connected to the other three galleries by doors located at the ends. These buildings
have been identified in the past as “palaces”. However, present research suggests that
they might have been used for ceremonial purposes, praying for good fortune, and hosting
of monks during the ceremonial period. Judging from the style of the architecture – the
style of Koh Ker – these buildings can be dated to the beginning of the 11th century AD.
rkdmu IG lt4komuj57
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l6odk’D
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.spjgxaoI6[lujs]P,mujgIaffh;psuod;hk’ $$ c,afS c8j]tvk7kogxaoI6[ $ s]jP,,u]t
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vk7kogs]qjkoU.og,njvdjvogvUo;jkrt]kflt;a’D c8jzjkodkolbdlkoad7Qo7;hkwfhlaooy4ko;jk
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rtlq’.ow]ptfegouorymumk’lkfltsokD vk7kog~qjkoU,uI6[c[[mk’fhkolt4kxaf8ypt
dec[[d=gdu (Koh Ker) mujgxaow]ptg]uj,8Qo0v’laf8t;afmuj !!D
PART I: THE SITE58
1.3.7 The western part of the first terrace is open and rises slightly towards the foot of the sec-
ond, next higher, terrace. On the main axis, a walkway is bordered by regularly spaced
stone pillars and by foundations of former galleries which were covered by a timber-frame
tiled roof on wood pillars. To the south are the remains of a small, isolated, rectangular,
sandstone building with pillared porches at its north and south sides, traditionally called
the Nandi Hall and dated to the mid-11th century AD. While its original purpose remains
unknown, it may be connected to the old royal road, of which it very precisely marks the
end. This type of rectangular building with a porch at both ends is not very common in
Khmer architecture, especially as an isolated structure. Fieldwork in 1998 has shown a
building of similar size symmetrically placed north of the axial path, and a further monu-
mental area north-west of that.
1.3.8 Raised about two metres above the first terrace by a retaining wall, the second terrace
forms a landing on the main axis. This landing was flanked by two small structures, which
housed the guardian statues known as dvarapala and are dated to the 13th century AD.
One complete dvarapala is still standing. Nearby is a complete dvarapala statue. The
headless stone sculptures of two additional tall guardian statues together with other
fragments are nearby but not in situ.
1.3.9 A flight of stairs between retaining walls gives access to the third terrace, which forms the
next higher landing. Two small stone pavilions are located at either side of this landing.
The north pavilion is built mostly with re-used blocks. On the main axis, a 75-metre long
ramp which follows the natural slope rises gradually over 15 metres from the third to
fourth terrace. This ramp is slightly elevated above the open space on both sides.
1.3.10 The fourth terrace, about 20 metres wide, is retained by a high wall. The original
stairway to it, composed of three flights between lateral stone banks, is now encased by a
later one made of re-used stones. There are six small brick towers, three on each side of
the axial path. The towers are aligned on a common north-south axis and a linga was
placed in each tower. The style of both the linga and the tower shrines indicates that they
were built around the 11th century AD.
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0tc,D zjkodkoxt8y[af;Pd’koltsok,.oxu !__)F ;y-kdkop a ’ 7 Q o r q [ v k 7 k o m u j , u 0 t s o k f
f P ; d a o v u d 8 A ’ 1 6 j f h k o g s o n v 0 v ’ c d o d k ’ g - y j ’ d q ’ d a o 0 k , d a [ 3 I ’ ’ q ; f a j ’ d j k ;r h v , m a ’ - k d l t s ] a d s a d r a ’ 0 v ’
l t 4 k o [ 6 I k o 1 6 j f h k o 8 k g ; a o v v d l P ’ g s o n v D
!D#D) rNomujl6’xt,ko @ c,af mP[da[/k0v’vk7komujpa’7q’gs]nv16j.o4hkomujsobj’oAogxaorNomuj
0v’4hkomujlv’g-yj’gxaorNomuj]kfgouo]q’wxl6jcdodk’D 16jfhko0hk’xtdv[fh;p37’lhk’o h v p M v u d
lv’csj’g-yj’gxao[jvo16j0v’I6[cdtlt~admujIa[I6h.ook, dvarapala g - y j ’ l h k ’ 0 N o . o l a f 8 t ; a f
mu !#F .ooUpa’,uI6[cdtlts]ad dvarapala mujpa’lq,[6o16jsobj’vq’8A’1no16jD ovdoAopa’,uI6[cdt
l t ~ a d l j ; o s q ; f h ; p s u o l v ’ v a o 0 v ’ I 6 [ c d t l t ~ a d z 6 h I a d l k l t 4 k o m u j r h v , d a [ l y j ’ l t ~ a d s a d r a ’ v n j o M
1 6 j . o [ = ] y g ; o . d h M o A o c 8 j [ + c , j o 1 6 j 9 5 f m u j 8 A ’ g f u , D
!D#D_ 0Ao.f-bj’xtdv[fh;p/kmujpa’7q’gs]nv16joAoc,jogxaoglAomk’oewxl6jrNomuj4hkomujlk, g-yj’gxaoI6[
c[[0v’dkog-njv,8+vk7koD 16j]ts;jk’lj;o0hk’0v’lv’vk7ko,usuo0tsokfohvp8A’16j
ma’lv’fhkoD lj;ovk7kofhkogsonvc,jo4ndd+lhk’0No.sj, 3fpoe.-hsuogdqjkmujg7up4ndoe.-h
,kc]h;D cdodk’0v’4hkooU,u7;k,pk; (& c,af 3fpg-njv,8+da[4hkomujpqd]tfa[pnjovvd,k
muj,u7;k,l6’ !& c,af g r n j v g I a f . s h , u ] t f a [ 9 k d 4 h k o m u l k , s k 4 h k o m u l u j . d h 7 P ’ d a [ r N o m u j m a ’ l v ’ 0 h k ’
c]t dq,dnoda[7;k,-ao0v’me,t-kfD
!D#D!W rNomuj]kfgouo4hkomujlujg-yj’,u7;k,l6’xt,ko @W c,af xtdv[fh;p0Ao.fgfu, # -Ao 16j]ts;jk’
0v[mujgIaffh;psuog0Qk9ujS xt95[aowfh4nd[6]tot7nofh;pdhvosuomuj.-hc]h;D ovdoUpa’,umkf0t
sokfohvpmujgIaffh;pfyo9ujvud * soj;pG # soj;p16jfhkogsonv c]t # soj;p 16jfhko.8hD
mkfgs]qjkoU8A’16j.oglAo-njfP;dao8k,myfgsonv c]t myf.8hF c8j]tsoj;pmkf,u]u’7txtfyf
lt4ko16jD g,njvg[yj’8k,I6[c[[0v’mkfc]h;ltcf’.shcsao;jkmkfgs]qjkoUc,jo4ndlhk’
0Bo.olt8t;afmu !!D
PART I: THE SITE60
1.3.11 The fifth terrace is also about 20 metres wide but it is divided into two parts by a flight of
stone steps. It is slightly raised above the fourth terrace. A stone-paved landing with naga
balustrades marks the main axis.
1.3.12 F rom the fifth terrace rises a series of seven tiers of retaining walls, with a total height of 15
m e t res. They are axially intersected by seven flights of stairs, of eleven steps each, separated
by narrow landings.
1.3.13 The stairs end at a sixth and final terrace located about 75 metres above the baray and
commanding an impressive view over the whole complex and over the plain to the Mekong
River and beyond. The terrace is a rough square of 60 x 60 metres, with the main sanctuary
(shrine) dedicated to Shiva in its centre. Behind the sanctuary, at the foot of an overhang-
ing cliff which dramatically closes the whole sequence, is the spring which accounts for the
sanctity of this precise site. The spring water was collected in a basin and channeled so
that at it flowed through the main sanctuary of the temple to wet the Shiva linga kept
inside the sanctuary. Therefore, the linga was always kept sanctified by the holy water com-
ing from the spring. To the south of the central shrine is a small ruined building, commonly
known as the library.
1.3.14 The western side of the terrace, below the overhanging cliff, was formerly closed by a
galleried portico, of which some portions still survive. On the north side, this terrace is
e x t e n d e d by a natural shelf of the mountain, on which stands a small modern monastery.
Farther to the north along the same natural shelf, there are several rock carvings of an
elephant, a crocodile and other forms as well as some ancient stone structures and founda-
tions which were partly crushed at an unknown date by the fall of large rocks from
the cliff above. The remains of the stone structures are tentatively dated to the 7th centu-
ry AD. The date of the animal carvings are yet to be determined and may be later than the
classical Khmer period.
rkdmu IG lt4komuj61
!D#D!! rNomuj]kfgouo4hkomuj & ,ugoNvmujd;hk’ @W c,af 3fpcpdvvdgxaolv’lj;ofh;p0Ao.fsuo
,aogxaodkopqd]tfa[0Bog]adohvpgrnjv.shdq,dnoda[rNo4hkomujluj3fpx6rNofh;psuo c]t ,uIk;
rtoadmujgxaolaopk]ad0v’I6[‘6D
!D#D!@ g]U,9kd4hkooUgxao8Qowxxtdv[,udecr’dAofyo ( -Aomu]qf]ajodao3fp,u7;k,l6’ !& c,af
c]t ,u0Ao.f ( 4hko g-yj’c8j]t4hkoxtdv[,u !! 0Aogxaoco;cdodk’D
!D#D!# 0Ao.fwfhlYol5f16jrNomuj4hkomu * g-yj’gxaorNomuj]kfgouo4hkol5fmhkpF ,ugoNvmujd;hk’xt,ko (& c,af
lk,kfco,gsaosov’lt c]t my;mafma’s,qf0v’[=]yg;omqj’rP’9qog4y’c,joE0v’D
rNomuj]kfgouo4hkooUpa’xtdv[,ugoNvmuj muj[+Ik[rP’xt,ko *W V *W c,af 3fp,ucmjo[6-k
mujgIafgrnjvv5myf.shcdjrt-u;t16j95f.9dk’D mk’fhkos]a’gxao8uozksuovaoxP[ltgs,nvode
cr’xhv’dao3fpme,t-kfF 3fp,u[+oEladlyfmujgda[I;[I;,oEw;h16j.ovjk’gda[oEc]h;ws]wx
8k,Ik’]yozjko;ysko0v’;afg0Qkwxsqflq’ Shiva linga mujxtfyflt4ko16jfhko.o0v’;yskoD
grktltoAo l i n g a 9bj’4ndsqflq’fh;poEladlyfmujw~,k9kd[+oE16jgxaoxt9eD 16jmk’myf.8h
0v’;ysko,u-kdlts]adsadra’0v’vk7kog-yj’laooy4ko;jk7q’9tgxaoshv’vjko c]t gda[,hPo
soa’lnD
!D#D!$ f h k o 8 k g ; a o 8 q d 0 v ’ r N o m u j ] k f g o u o 4 h k o o U c , j o 8 u o 0 v ’ z k - a o 4 n d x y f d A o f h ; p ] t [ P ’ m u j , u s ] a ’ 7 k g - y j ’
.oxt95[aopa’,ulj;omujpa’7q’gs]nv16jsohvpsobj’D fhkogsonv0v’rNomuj]kfgouooUwfhd;,gvqk
laor6me,t-kfg-yj’,u;afmuj4ndlhk’0Bo.s,j8A’16jD ovdoAo16jmk’fhkogsonv16jmk’fhkogsonv]P[
8k,laor6me,t-kfoUpa’,usuomuj4ndcdtlts^ad];f]kp c]t I6[cdtlts]ad9eo;o~;’~kp
g-ajoI6[-hk’D I6[c0h c]t I6[Ijk’vnjoMvud3fpltgrktc,jo[aofk37’Ijk’ c]t 37’lhk’
rNo4kog-yj’lj;o.spjc,jo4ndsadra’s,qfc]h; 3fpwfhIa[zqoltmhvo9kddkora’mt]kp0v’
zksuomuj16jfhkogmy’D -kdlt~adsadra’0v’37’lhk’suooUvkf9t16j.o-j;’laf8t;afmu ( lj;o
[aofkI6[cdtlt~admujdjP;da[lafoAopa’[+maolk,kfdeoqf;aog;]kmujcojovowfhgmnjv [k’muvkf
9tovo16j.op5dmuj8+9kd0tc,D
PART I: THE SITE62
1 . 3 . 1 5 It is commonly thought that the remains on the uppermost terrace are the earliest stru c t u re s
on the site and that the main sanctuary succeeds an earlier shrine of the 7th century AD.
Recent study of the brick portions of the present shrine indicates that it probably dates
from the 10th - 11th century AD. However, the shrine building is of two periods, with the
brick rectangular tower at the back being the earliest (10th century AD). It is fronted by a
later (11th century AD) antechamber or mandapa. The quality of the carving of this front
building is fine and of the “Baphuon Style” which is usually dated to the 11th century AD.
1.3.16 The monumental complex of Vat Phou developed over a long period of time. The earliest
remains found are from the 7th century AD, as noted above, but much of what survived is
later. There was major rebuilding in the 11th and 12th centuries AD, and the site contin-
ued to be maintained by the rulers of Angkor until the 14th century AD. The shrines were
converted from Hinduism to Buddhism some time after the 13th century AD and have
retained an important local religious function to the present day.
The main sanctuary on the uppermost terrace of
Vat Phou showing the intricate carving that
adorns its exterior surfaces
;yskole7aomju8A’16j4hkogmy’l5f0v’;afr6F ltcf’
. s h g s a o g 4 y ’ d k o c d t l t s a d v a o l t s a [ l a [ - h v o
mujrNozy;rkpovd
rkdmu IG lt4komuj63
!D#D!& gxaomu jI 6 h9addaofuc]h;;jkrNomu j]kfgouo4hkogmy’l 5fc,jo95fg]U,8Qo0v’lt4komu j8 A’0v’
37’lhk’;yskog-yj’4ndlhk’0Bo.ow]pt8Qo0v’laf8t;afmu (D vu’8k,dkolbdlkdjP;da[fyo9uj g-yj’
c , j o l j ; o s o b j ’ 0 v ’ ; y s k o w f h - U . s h g s a o ; j k ; y s k o o U v k f 9 t , u d k o x 5 d l h k ’ 8 n j , v u d . o l a f 8 t ; a f
mu !W sk !!D 8k,dko;yg7ktlk,kflaooy4kowfh;jklj;omuj4ndlhk’fh;pfyo9ujmujgxaoI6[ $ ~jP,
16jfhkos]a’oAoc,jo4ndlhk’0Nodjvo lj;omuj16jfhkosohkg-yj’gxaoI6[c[[sp=h,6, s]n I6[c[[
Mandapa oAoc,jo4ndlhk’0Booesa]’ Xlaf8t;afmu !!?D 3fp,uI6[];f]kpcdtlts^ad
mujxkouf c]t l;p’k,D 9kdI6[c[[mk’fhkolt4kxaf8yptdewfhltcf’.shgsao;jkvkf9tovo
16j.oI6[c[[0v’[k3ro “Baphuon Style” g-yj’xqddt8y9tgxaoI6[c[[0v’laf8t;afmu !!D
!D#D!* d k o 0 t s p k p 8 q ; 0 v ’ ] t [ q [ v k 7 k o l t 4 k o [ 6 I k o ; a f r 6 m a ’ s , q f c , j o w f h f e g o u o , k g x a o w ] p t
g;]kokoDg-yj’lyj’mujpa’s^q’gs^nv16j0v’laf8t;afmu ( c,jolk,kfrq[gsaowfhfaj’mujdjk;,k0hk’gmy’oAoD
c8jlyj’mujr;dgIqkgsao.oxt95[aoc,jo16j.op5d8+,kmjuwfh,udko[6]tot0tsokf.spj.olaf8t;afmu !!
sk !@ c]t dko75 h,7v’0v’lt4komu jcsj’oUc,jo0Boda[z6 hxqd7v’va’d=;af 9qog4y’
laf8t;afmu !$D 9kdoAod+4ndxjPocmo9kdlkfltsokIuof6,kgxaolkfltsokr5f
[k’muvkf~a’laf8t;af mu !# c]t ln[8+dkp,kgxaolkfltsok0v’mhv’4yjo9qog4y’xt95[aoD
The terraces of Vat Phou take advantage of the
natural slope of the mountain and follow an
east-west axis to the uppermost sanctuary
0 Ao . f 0 v ’ ; a f r 6 l h k ’ 0 N o 9 k d 0 = h l t f ; d 0 v ’ 7 ; k , - a o
8k,me,t-kf0v’r6 3fpln[8+8k,cdo8kg;ao
vvd{8kg;ao8qd 0Bowxsk;yskogmy’D
PART I: THE SITE64
1.3.17 Hong Nang Sida and the Ancient Road (Fig. 6): the area south of Vat Phou is rich in archae-
ological evidence of the planned use of the area during the occupation of the
temple site at Vat Phou. From the Nandi Hall at Vat Phou runs a road which probably
ultimately extends over 200 kilometres to Angkor, the capital city of the Khmer Empire.
The road is in the f o rm of a causeway, about 14 metres wide at its base and about 2 metres high,
flanked for the first kilometre of its length by a drainage channel to collect run-off water from
the mountain. The road also provided local access to sites more immediately to the south
of Vat Phou. About 1.5 kilometres south of Vat Phou is the area of Hong Nang Sida. The most
p rominent feature here is Nang Sida Temple. It consists of a central shrine, with entrance
hall and sanctuary tower, built around the 11th to the beginning of the 12th century AD.
The tower has collapsed, and the base of it is presently buried under the large stones of its
superstructure. The decorative sculpture is extensive, though not complete, and is of high
quality. The temple and a number of minor buildings are enclosed by a precinct wall. The
temple in its present state dates to the 11th century AD, but use of the site as a whole prob-
ably falls within the period from the 10th to 14th centuries A.D.
1.3.18 The Nang Sida Temple is part of a much larger planned layout, still largely visible on the
g round. At the core of the layout, to the east of the temple is a square area, delimited by water
channels and subdivided by other smaller water channels into four quarters. To the east of this
a rea is a large baray, 600 metres east-west, and 200 metres north-south, while to the west is
the temple complex already described. The whole area is bounded on the west by a dyke
and on the south and east by an earth bank. This complex has been tentatively identified
as the Angkorian city of Lingapura, which succeeded the pre-Angkorian Ancient City
identified as Shestrapura on the west bank of the Mekong River.
rkdmu IG lt4komuj65
!D#D!( 3I’ok’lufk c]t 4tsoqo[6Iko Xczomju *D?G r N o m j u f h k o . 8 h 0 v ’ ; a f r 6 c , j o
r N o m j u M v 5 f q , l q , [ 6 o w x f h ; p I j v ’ I v p m k ’ f h k o [ 6 I k o 7 t f u 0 v ’ d k o ; k ’ c z o d k o o e . - h r N o m j u . o
w]ptdkoxqd7v’0v’;afr6D 4tsoqo[6Ikog-yj’gxao4tsoqomjug]U,8Qo9kd3I’’q;mju;afr6D vkf
gxao4tsoqomju.-hg-njv,8+da[ot7vova’d= g-yj’,uw]ptmk’xt,ko @WW d;jkdy3]c,afD gxao4t
soqomju4ndpqdrNo0Nol6’ @ c,afF d;hk’ !$ c,af 3fp,uIv’]t[kpoE1j68k,c7,mk’.o
w]pt ! dy3]c,afmevyf grnjvgxaodkoxhv’daooEmjuws^,k9kdr6D4tsoqofaj’djk;oUpa’gxaog’njvo
w 0 s o b j ’ m j u 8 v [ l t s o v ’ . s h c d j d k o g 0 Q k g 4 y ’ l t 4 k o m j u 1 j 6 m k ’ . 8 h 0 v ’ ; a f r 6 w f h 1 j k ’ l t f ; d D 9 k d ; a f r 6
wxmk’fhko.8hxt,ko !F& dy3]c,af c,jorNomju0v’g0f3I’ok’lufk g-yj’gvdt]advaole7ao
mjurQogfajo0v’lt4komjucsj’oUc,jo3I’ok’lufk vaoxtdv[,ucmjo[6-kF shv’34’mk’g0Qk c]t
s=7vpmuj4ndlhk’0No.olaf8t;af!! sk8Qolaf8t;afmju!@D s=7vpfja’djk;oUwfhgrra’]q’gdnv[s,qf
c]h;pa’gs^nvc8j37’lhk’fhko]5j,mju4ndlhk’fh;pdhvosuo.spj c]t c0’cI’F lt4ko[6Ikofaj’
djk;oU4ndvhv,Iv[fh;pdecr’ c]t ,uvk7koohvpvud9eo;osobj’D ltrk[0v’lt4ko[6Iko
. o x t 9 5 [ a o w f h l t c f ’ . s h g s a o g 4 y ’ d k o g ; ] k 0 v ’ l a f 8 t ; a f m u ! ! F c 8 j d k o o e . - h l t 4 k o m u j m a ’ s , q f
c,joovo16j.ow]ptlaf8t;afmu !W sk !$D
!D#D!) l t 4 k o [ 6 I k o c s j ’ o U c , j o v q ’ x t d v [ l j ; o s o b j ’ 0 v ’ d k o ; k ’ c z o v a o d ; h k ’ . s p j m a ’ s , q f m j u l k , k f
la’gdfgsaowfh9kdsohkfyoD 1j6c9fhko8kg;aovvd0v’g-yj’gxaorNomjuI6[ $ ]jP,9t85]af
mju,ug0fcfog-yj’4nd8afcpdfh;pIv’]t[kpoEc]tc[j’rNomjuvvdgxao $ I6[9t85]afD lj;o
f h k o 8 k g ; a o v v d0v’rNomju,usov’.spjg-yj’0tsokffhko8kg;ao8qd{8kg;aovvd *WW c,af
c]t fhkogsonv{.8h @WW c,af 3fp,ud5j,lt4ko[6Ikofaj’djk;,k0hk’gmyj’oAo8A’1j6mk’
8kg;ao8qd0v’sov’D rNomujma’s,qfc,jo,u76dAooEgxaog0fcfofhko8kg;ao8qd c]t 76dAofyo
gxaog0fcfofhko.8h c]t fhko8kg;aovvdF dj5,lt4ko[6IkooUvkfgxaomju8A’0v’8q;g,nv’
] y ’ 7 t x 6 i t . o p 5 d l t . s , v a ’ d = ; a f m j u 8 + g o n j v ’ , k 9 k d d k o 8 A ’ g , n v ’ g d q j k g l f 4 k x 6 i t m u j 8 A ’ 1 j 6 c 7 ,
c,joE0v’.op5dlt.s,dvjova’d=;afD
PART I: THE SITE66
1.3.19 The water channels of this complex are in fact part of a network extending over a much
wider area, probably from Vat Phou as far south as Thao Tao, and possibly beyond that.
1.3.20 To the west of the area identified as Lingapura on the lower slopes of the mountain are the
remains of ancient stone quarries.
Trace of the Ancient Road visible from Hong
Nang Sida; the Ancient Road probably went
from Vat Phou all the way to Angkor
Ijv’Ivp0v’glAomk’[6Iko mjulk,kfgsaowfh9kd
g0f3I’ok’lufkF vkfgxaoglAomk’[6Ikomjug]U,
9kd;afr6wxskva’d=D
rkdmu IG lt4komuj67
!D#D!_ I j v ’ ] t [ k p o E c , j o r k d l j ; o s o b j ’ 0 v ’ l t r k [ 7 ; k , g x a o 9 y ’ . o d k o 0 t s p k p g o n v m u j . s h d ; h k ’ v v d D
3fpg]U,9kd;afr6wxmk’.8hl5fg4y’3I’mhk;g8qjk c]t vkfwxwdd;jkoAovudD
!D#D@W o v d o A o 1 6 j g m y ’ 9 h k p r 6 m u j 1 6 j f h k o 8 k g ; a o 8 q d 0 v ’ r N o m u j g - y j ’ x P [ l t g s , n v o ] y ’ 7 t x 6 i t o A o p a ’ , u
cs]j’8afsuogdqjkcdjmujle7aovudD
The standing remains of Hong Nang Sida rkdlj;omujpa’~q’g~nv16j0v’3I’ok’lufk
PART I: THE SITE68
1.3.21 Other Monumental Sites along the Eastern Fringe of Phou Kao Mountain (Fig 6): t h e re are
a number of monumental sites in this area, all situated on the slightly higher ground at the
base of the mountain. They probably mark in some way the perimeter of the sacred moun-
tain, thus ‘enshrining’ this natural landform. Hong Nang Sida has already been described.
One kilometre to the south of it lies Thao Tao Temple which is built largely of re-used stone.
It probably dates after the 12th century AD and was never finished. Within its precinct wall
are the collapsed shrine itself and a small library, while on the eastern side of the pre c i n c t
is an entrance or gopura. Thao Tao has tentatively been identified as a ‘hospital’ or ‘rest house for
travellers’ (lit. ‘house with fire ’ ) .
1.3.22 To the north of Vat Phou is the Tam Lek Cave. In the cave are two inscriptions. The inscrip-
tions date from the 7th and 8th centuries AD. One is in Sanskrit and Khmer, the other in
Khmer only. Approximately one kilometre north of Tam Lek Cave is Oubmong Temple, built
of brick and sandstone around the 10th century AD and now partly collapsed. Between Tam
Lek and Oubmong, at the source of the Houay Kok River, near a waterfall, is another rock-
carved inscription in Sanskrit.
An 8th-century Khmer language inscription
within Tam Lek Caveczjolu]k9k]bdrklk0tc,.olaf8t;afmu )
muj4Eg]d
rkdmu IG lt4komuj69
!D#D@! lt4ko[6IkovnjoMmuj1ja’1kp16j8k,8uor6gdQkfhko8kg;aovvd Xczomuj *? 16j.orNomujcsj’oUpa’,u
lt4ko[6Iko9eo;o~;’~kpmuj8A’16j8k,rNomujl6’0v’8uor6D g-yj’vkfgxaog7njv’s,kpltcf’
.shgsaog4y’7;k,lts^a[-a[-hvo0v’gouor6faj’djk;D sjk’9kd3I’ok’lufkmujdjk;,koAowxmk’
myf.8hxt,ko ! dy3]c,af pa’,u3I’mhk;g8qjkmjulhk’fh;psuogdqjkmujg7up.-h,kc]h;3fp4ndx5dlhk’
0Bo~a’laf8t;afmu !@ c]t pa’[+maoleg]afF xtdv[,udecr’vhv,Iv[cmjo[6-kmujgrra’ c]t
shv’lt,5f0tsokfohvp8A’16jlj;omk’g0Qk s]n Gopura. 3I’mhk;g8qjkpa’[+lk,kfdeoqfwfhcoj
ovogmnjv;jkgxao <3I’s,=< ~n <gInvoradle]a[dkogfuomk’< Xcx3fpdq’;jk <gInvo da[ w2<?D
!D#D@@ 16jmk’myfgsonv0v’;afr6pa’,u4Eg]dF rkp.o4Eg]d,ulu]k9k]ndmujovo16j.ow]ptlaf8t;afmu (
sk )D sobj’.olu]k9k]bdoAoc,jo0Pogxaorklklaoltdyf c]t 0tc,D lj;olu]k9k]bdvud
sobj’czjoc,jogxaorklk0tc,D xt,kosobj’dy3]c,afwxmk’myfgsonv0v’4Eg]d pa’,u;afv53,’
muj4ndx5dlhk’fh;pfyo9uj c]t suo-kp mujovo16j.o]ts;jk’laf8t;afmu !WD c8j.oxt95[aorkdlj;o
sobj’c,jogrra’gdnv[s,qfc]h;D ovdoAo16jpvfsh;pdvd.dhda[oE8qdmuj16j]ts;jk’l v ’ 4 E f a j ’ d j k ;
pa’,ulu]k9k]bdvud\nj’czjomuj0PogxaorklklaoltdyfD
Archaeological remains of an ancient structure in
the vicinity of the Tam Lek Cave complex
- k d 3 7 ’ l h k ’ l t 4 k o [ 6 I k o v a o g d q j k c d j m u j p a ’ g ~ n v 1 6 j
.o[=]yg;o0v’d5j,4Eg]d
PART I: THE SITE70
1.3.23 The Ancient City (Fig 7): the remains of the Ancient City, tentatively indentified as
Shestrapura, are located 6.5 kilometres east of Vat Phou, on the alluvial plain on the right
(west) bank of the Mekong River. The archaeological area covers about 400 ha. The city
was originally surrounded on the south, west and north sides by a rectangular double e a rt h
en wall, about 2.4 km by 1.8 km overall. The wall is 14 metres wide at its base and has sur-
v i v e d to a height of 6 metres where it is best preserved. The north wall of the Ancient City
has been greatly e roded by the Huay Sahoua River. The eastern side of the Ancient City, along
the bank of the Mekong River, has also been heavily damaged by erosion.
1.3.24 The Ancient City was built in an area with a rich natural network of small and medium-
sized rivers and streams flowing from the Phou Kao range into the Mekong River. The
majority of these rivers and streams are seasonal and exist only during the rainy season.
The three principal rivers, Houay Khen, Houay Sahoua and Houay Phra Non, were in
ancient times chanelled through the Ancient City to supply water and to control flooding.
The need for flood control has been demonstrated particularly by the more recent damage
to the northern city wall caused by the Houay Sahoua River. The Ancient City is oriented
to the cardinal points of the compass and there is evidence of internal sub-divisions. An
earth bank divides the Ancient City from north to south, while to the east there is a rect-
angular brick enclosure, perhaps surrounding the oldest core of the Ancient City, within
which the Devanika stele was found (see Section 1.3.28).
1.3.25 Inside the Ancient City there are numerous artificial mounds, almost certainly the remains
of pre-Angkorian temples, which were built on top of artificial platforms. There are also
numerous ponds and baray; some associated with religious use, while others probably
served domestic purposes.
rkdmu IG lt4komuj71
!D#D@# g,nv’gdqjkXczjomu (?G I j v ’ I v p 0 v ’ - k d g , n v ’ g d q j k m j u l a o o y 4 k o ; j k g x a o m u j 8 A ’ 0 v ’ g , n v ’ g d q j k g l f 4 k x 6 i t
8A’sjk’9kd;afr6wxmk’myf8kg;aovvdxt,ko *F& dy3]c,afD gmy’rNomujM4ndma[4q,.s,j16jmk’/aj’
0;k X8kg;ao8qd?0v’c,joE0v’,ugoNvmjud;,gvqkxt,ko $WW gIad8kD g,nv’gdqjkcsj’oUgxaoI6[
$ s]jP,rNzhk,u0tsokf @F$ V !F) dy3]c,afD mk’myf.8hF myf8kg;ao8qd c]t myfgsonv
4ndvhv,Iv[fh;pdecr’fyomu,u7;k,d;hk’0v’8uo !$ c,afD .oxt95[ao[jvomjupa’lk,kf
Iadlkwfhfud;jks,6jpa’,u7;k,l6’16jxt,ko * c,afD decr’mk’fhkogsonv0v’g,nv’gdqjkoU
lj;os^;’s]kpc,jo4ndme]kp9kddkog-ktg9njvo0v’oED lj;ofhko8kg;aovvd0v’8q;g,nv’
mjusaowxl6jc,joE0v’oAod+4ndme]kp1jk’soadsoj;’9kddkog-ktg9njvo0v’c,joE0v’D
!D#D@$ muj8A’g,nv’gdqjk4ndlhk’w;h16jgmy’mqj’rP’mujv5fq,lq,[6owxfh;psh;pIjv’0tsokfohvp c]t
0 t s o k f d k ’ m u j w s ] 9 k d l k p r 6 g d Q k ] q ’ l 6 j c , j o E 0 v ’ [ a o f k s h ; p I j v ’ g s ] q j k o U l j ; o s ] ; ’ s ] k p
c,jo,u8k,]tf6dko c]t ,uoEc8j.o]tf6/qogmqjkoAoD lkpoE8Qo8=lk,lkpg-ajoG sh;pc7oF
sh;pltsq;F sh;prtovo .og,njvdjvogxao[jvo8v[ltsov’oE.-hcdj8q;g,nv’ma’lk,kf
Iv’Ia[oE9kdIjv’]t[kpoEgrnjvxhv’daowroE4h;,.shcdj8q;g,nv’D 7;k,glpskp0v’
decr’g,nv’fhkogsonvwfhltcf’.shgsaog4y’;ydyfdko c]t ltmhvomujwfhIa[9kdsh;pltsq;D
mju8A’0v’8q;g,nv’gdqjk4nd9af;k’16j95fmule7aomk’rkd8kg;aovvd0v’rNomuj c]t xtdv[fh;p
s ^ k p Mvq’xtdv[g-ajoG 76fyog-yj’c[j’8q;g,nv’9kdmyfgsonvskmyf.8hF myf8kg;aovvd,udecr’fyo9uj
mujgxaoI6[ $ s]jP,znozhkv h v , I v [ 9 5 f m u j g d q j k c d j m u j l 5 f 0 v ’ g , n v ’ g - y j ’ r k p . o g 0 f o U w f h 7 Q o r q [ c z j o
lu]k9k]bdgf;koyd Xg[yj’0=h !D#D@)?
!D#D@& r k p . o g , n v ’ g d q j k o U p a ’ x t d v [ , u 3 r o s ] k p M s o j ; p g - y j ’ g x a o m u j 8 A ’ 0 v ’ l t 4 k o [ 6 I k o m u j 4 n d l h k ’
0Bo.op5dlt.s,djvova’d= 3fp4ndlhk’0No16jgmy’cmjo9e]v’D ovdoAopa’,usov’lt c]t vjk’
gda[oEs]kpMsoj;pg-yj’4ndoe.-h.shj8yfraoda[fhkolkfltsok c]t 95fxtlq’vnjoM 3fpmqj;
wxc]h;vkf9tgxao[jvomujoe.-hdjP;raoda[lt4ko[6IkoD
PART I: THE SITE72
1.3.26 During the archaeological survey of the Ancient City, numerous remains of brick buildings
were found. Many are believed to be religious monuments in view of their orientation,
ornamental remains and the presence of ponds or small baray. In other cases, due to
their poor state of conservation, their unexpected location or the absence of the elements
mentioned above, the brick remains have been generically denoted as “structures”. All the
brick mound remains have been damaged and heavily looted. The actual state of pre s e rv a t i o n
consists of incoherent mounds of brick, varying in shape and dimension, sometimes with
carved stone architectural features (lintels, columns, etc.), mostly undecorated, too heavy
and insignificant to be stolen. The brick mounds have been mapped to better understand
their distribution within the Khmer urban plan. To evaluate the state of preservation of the
still-buried remains, systematic geophysical prospection of about 50 brick mounds was
carried out. In addition, some test excavations were conducted on these structures. The
distribution and size of the brick structural remains are quite substantial, considering that
many of them have probably been destroyed or obliterated by road works or the expansion
of the existing villages, judging by the stories told by the present inhabitants and the
presence of re-used remains in the modern village dwellings.
1.3.27 While in some cases it is possible to detect the presence of the remains of structures, cere-
monial buildings and urban infrastructure made of durable materials, the same cannot be
said for the residential buildings built originally in wood or other perishable materials. This
represents the largest gap in Khmer archaeology and in the study of urban development in
the region. It is not only the use of degradable materials which makes it difficult to locate
dwellings but also a series of accompanying factors, including intense rice-growing activity
which has led to the removal of most of the archaeological deposits, the erosive action of
the rivers within the Ancient City, and the scant surface finds of ceramic material of very
poor quality, extremely fragmented and often not in situ.
rkdmu IG lt4komuj73
!D#D@* z j k o d k o f e g o u o d k o l e s ; f f h k o [ 6 I k o 7 t f u 0 v ’ g , n v ’ g d q j k p a ’ w f h r q [ g s a o [ a o f k v k 7 k o
l t 4 k o [ 6 I k o m u j 4 n d d + l h k ’ 0 N of h ; p f y o 9 u j v u d 9 e o ; o s ; ’ s k p F [ a o f k v k 7 k o l t 4 k o [ 6 I k o g s q j k o A o
l j ; o s ] ; ’ s k p c , j o 4 n d o e . - hg 0 Q k . o ; P d ’ k o m k ’ l k f l t s o k g - y j ’ . o x t 9 5 [ a o r ; d g I q k p a ’ l k , k f
rq[gsaowfh[aofklYolj;omuj.-h.odkoxtfa[xtfk c]t sov’oE s]n Baray 0tsokfohvpF
.o[k’d=]tou[k’muphvodko[6]tot[+wfh,kf8t4ko s^n ltrk[0v’lt4komuj8A’pa’0kfxaf.9
r N o 4 k o . f s o n j ’ m u j l e 7 a o 9 b j ’ g I a f . s h 3 7 ’ l h k ’ l t 4 k o [ 6 I k o g s q j k o A o 4 n d r a ’ 4 t ] k p ] q ’ g - y j ’ [ a o f k - k d
lts^adsadra’0v’fyo9ujmujpa’s^q’gs^nv16joAowfhltcf’.shgsao]adltotltgrkt < 37’lhk’ <
muj4ndme]kpD .oltrk[7;k,gxao9y’c]h;dkovto5]ad[aofk3rofyo9ujmujdtc9ddt9kpF
,uI6[Ijk’ c]t0tsokfc8d8jk’daoF [k’lYolj;o0v’suo37’lhk’mk’lt4kxaf8yptde Xma[s]a’F glqk
c]t vnjoM? g-yj’ma’s,qflyj’gs]qjkoU]h;oc8j,u7;k,soadF [+le7ao c]t [+,u75o7jk8+dko
s]adgvqkD [aofk3rofyo9ujgs^qjkoU9bj’wfh4nd;k’czofegouodko7Qo7;hkskmkfcmh c]t xtg,uolyj’
m u j 4 n d / a ’ w ; h g r n j v g x a o d k ovto5]ad]t[q[oyg;f;ymtpk0v’[aofk3rofyo9uj9eo;o &W 3rooAoD
ovd9kddko05f7Qogrnjvfegouodkomqf]v’g[yj’37’lhk’0v’soj;p’ko/aj’D .oxt95[aodkoxjPocmo
0tsokf0v’37’lhk’fyo9ujc,jopa’s]q’gs]nv16j1jk’s^;’s]kpD g,njvry9k]tokg[yj’mqj;wxc]h;
dkome]kp[aofklt4ko[6Ikogs]qjkoUc,jogduf9kddkolhk’4tsoqosqomk’ c]t dko0t
spkp8q;0v’s,6j[hkoD
!D#D@( .o[k’d=]tougIqklk,kfln[skdko7q’16j0v’37’lhk’vk7komuj.-hmk’rymude c]t rNo4ko
37’lhk’0v’za’g,nv’ XgIaffh;p;af45vao7q’mqo? wfhD c8jrhv,fP;daooAogIqkd+[+lk,kf.9hcpdwfh
g4y’[aofkvk7komujradvk.lc[[fA’gfu,;jkgIaffh;pw,h ~n ;af45muj7q’mqovnjoM grkt,aopa’,u-jv’
s;jk’.o7;k,c8d8jk’0v’lt4ko[6Iko-k;0tc, c]t dkolbdlkmk’fhkodko0tspkp8q;
0v’8q;g,nv’D dkooe.-h;afltf5muj[+wfh,kf8t4kog-ajo;afltf5mujgIaffh;pw,h16j.o0q’g0foU
,ao[+rP’c8jgIaf.sh,u7;k,sp5h’pkd.odkodeoqfskmuj8A’0v’mujradvk.lgmqjkoAo c8jrhv,
f P ; d a o o A o d k o x 6 d g 0 Q k d + c , j o l y j ’ s o b j ’ m u j l q j ’ z q o l t m h v o g 4 y ’ d k o g 7 n j v o p h k p [ a o f k [ 6 I k o 7 t f u
muj4ndma[4q,16jF 9kd[aoskdkog-ktg9njvo8q;g,nv’0v’lkpoE c]t dko0kfc7orNozy;
0 v ’ g 7 n j v ’ x A o f y o g z q k m u j , u 7 5 o o t r k [ 8 O c 8 d s a d w f h ’ j k p g - y j ’ [ k ’ 7 A ’ d + g I a f . s h [ + l k , k f I 6 h w f h g 4 y ’
muj8A’g]upD
PART I: THE SITE74
1.3.28 The oldest historical reference related to the Ancient City is found in the Sanskrit stele
(K 365) dated to the second half of the 5th century AD. The text of the stele refers to the
founding by King Devanika of a tirtha (or administrative district) called ‘Kurukshestra’,
under the protection of Shiva in the form of Lingaparvata. Archaeological research has led
to the Ancient City being identified as the city of Shresthapura. As such, the Ancient City
is a unique example of early urbanism in Southeast Asia dating from the 5th to 7th cen-
turies AD. Other inscriptions found in the area confirm the political importance of the
Ancient City, which was probably founded by King Shrestravarman and which served as
the capital of the Kingdom of Chenla until the reign of King Mahendravarman in the 7th
century AD.
1.3.29 At present, the entire area of the Champasak Heritage and Cultural Landscape Protection
Zone is used for the cultivation of rice paddy interspersed with small strips of re m a i n i n g
s e c o n d a ry forest and bamboo bushes along the waterc o u r s e s . Along the right (west) bank of
the Mekong River and along the road linking the modern town of Champasak to Dontalat
t h e re are numerous villages consisting of traditional houses standing on wooden piles as
well as a few modern brick buildings.
Ancient public works such as this baray indicate
the level of design and planning in the construc-
tion of the Ancient City, now identified as
Shrestrapura
; P d ’ k o l k m k ] t o t - q o v a o g d q j k c d j g - a j o s o v ’ o E o U
wfh-U.shgsaog4y’]tfa[dkovvdc[[ c]t ;k’
czodkod+lhk’g,nv’[6IkoF g-yj’t95[aolaooy4ko;jk
gxaog,nv’glf4kx6it
rkdmu IG lt4komuj75
!D#D@) vu’8k,xts;aflkfvaogdqjkcdj0v’8q;g,nv’mujwfhrq[gsao16j.olu]k9k]bdrklklaoltdyf XK # * & ?
.o-j;’g7yj’g;]kmulv’0v’laf8t;afmu &D goNv.o0v’lu]k9k]bdoUwfhdjk;g4y’dkorq[gsao
tirtha 3fpg9Qk-u;yfgf;koudt X~ndkoxqd7v’c[[mhv’4yjo? gvUo;jk <76i6c-flt8k< r k p . 8 h d k o
x q d x a d I a d l k 9 k d ] y ’ 7 t x t i t ; t 8 t m u j x P [ l t g s , n v o8q;cmo0v’rt-u;tD 9kddkolbdlk7Qo7;hk
m k ’ f h k o [ 6 I k o 7 t f u w f h g I a f . s h I 6 h g 4 y ’ ~ a d 4 k o m u j l t c f ’ . s h g s a o ; j k g , n v ’ [ 6 I k o c s j ’ o U c , j o
g,nv’glf4kx6itD g-yj’gxaog,nv’[6Ikomujgxao8q;1jk’sobj’.odkog]U,8Qo0v’-5,-qo-k;g,nv’
.o0q’g0fvk-u8kg;aovvdlP’.8h 3fpg]U,9kdlaf8t;afmu & sk (D ovdoAo[aofk
l u ] k 9 k ] b d v n j o M m u j r q [ g s a o 1 6 j . o r N o m u j f a j ’ d j k ; o U p a ’ w f h 1 A ’ 1 n o g 4 y ’ 7 ; k , l e 7 a o 0 v ’ ] t [ q [ d k o x q d 7 v ’
0v’g,nv’[6IkooUD mujrq[gsao3fprtg9Qkg-flt8k;=]t,ao c]t wfhdkpgxaoot7vo~;’
0v’vkok9adg9o]t.o]ts;jk’dkoxqd7v’0v’g9Qk-u;yf,kgIaof^k;=]t,ao .olaf8t;afmu (D
!D#D@_ . o x t 9 5 [ a o r N o m u j g 0 f x q d x a d I a d l k , = ] t f q d m k ’ f h k o ; a f m t o t m e 9 e x k l a d m a ’ s , q f c , j o w f h 4 n d o e
.-hg0Qk.odkox6dg0Qk c]t gxaoxjkohvpg-yj’xtdv[fh;pxjk37d c]t xjk.zj]P[8k,lkpoEF
8k,/aj’0;hk0v’c,joE0v’ c]t 8k,glAomk’m u j g -njv,8+9kd8q;g,nv’9exkladwxsk[hkofvo
8 t s k f o A o p a ’ x t d v [ , u s k p s , 6 j [ h k o m u j 4 n d x 5 d l h k ’ 0 N o f h ; p g l q k w , h c [ [ r N o [ h k o r h v , o A o d + p a ’
,uvk7ko9eo;osohvpsobj’muj4ndx5dlhk’fh;pfyo9ujD
Contemporary construction on the bank of the
Mekong River reflects traditional building
techniques
d k o d + l h k ’ . o l t w s , x t 9 5 [ a o g m y ’ / a j ’ c , j o E 0 v ’
mujltmhvo .shgsaog4y’dkooe.-hg8adoyddkod+lhk’
c[[rNog,nv’
PART I: THE SITE76
1.3.30 Other Sites on the Champasak Plain (Fig 8): a catchment area survey has iden-
tified a large number of sites on the alluvial flood plain of the Mekong River outside the
main concentrations described above. All need more evaluation and detailed survey before
they can be fully characterized, but their distribution and density indicate the extent and
intensity of past activity in the area. Indications from the field survey that has been under-
taken reinforce the interpretation that pre-Angkorian activity was concentrated along the
riverside and that the Ancient City was the capital at this period. Later, after the unifica-
tion of the Khmer empire, activity moved west across the flood plain closer to Vat Phou
with the development of a new urban centre at Hong Nang Sida, now tentatively identified
as the city known from inscriptions as Lingapura.
1.3.31 There is a need for thorough and systematic evaluation of these sites as well as of nearby
areas not yet surveyed. There are also some indications that the ancient settled area may
have extended to sites outside the zone currently under protection. Survey work should
be extended to these other areas in due course.
Not all archaeological sites are readily apparent,
underscoring the need for comprehensive survey
work to fully identify the features of the
cultural landscape
l t 4 k o [ 6 I k o m a ’ s , q f [ + c , j o 9 t x t d q f . s h g s a o 1 j k ’ ’ j k p
f k p F l t o A o g r n j v g 0 Q k . 9 g 4 y ’ l y j ’ m u j p a ’ g - n j v ’ - h v o 1 6 j o A o
, a o I P d I h v ’ 8 h v ’ d k o . s h , u;Pd’kodkole~;f grnjv
-vdskgvdt]ad0v’rNomuj;afmtotme
rkdmu IG lt4komuj77
!D#D#W lt4komujvnjoM.o[=]yg;omqj’rP’9exklad Xczomuj )?G v u ’ 8 k , d k o l e s ] ; f m u j p a ’
[+mao]tvPf.o0q’g0frnhomujM4ndma[4q,.s,j9kdc,joE0v’oAo ovd9kd[aofklyj’mujdjk;,k
0hk’gmy’c]h;pa’,u7;k,8hv’dko.sh,udkoxtg,uo c]t les]f1jk’]tvPf8nj,vuddjvomuj9t[ao
]tpkpD c 8 j . o d k o f e g o u o d k o l e s ; f r N o m j u . o w ] p t v a o l A o o U r ; d g I q k w f h 7 Q o r q [ l y j ’ m u j l t c f ’
.shgsaodyf9tdedkog7njvows;.op5dlt.s,djvova’d=;af g-yjj’lj;os];’s]kpc,jomhvo3I,
d a o 1 6 j 8 k ,c 7 , / a j ’ 0 v ’ c , j o E 3 f p , u g , n v ’ g d q j k f a j ’ m j u d j k ; , k o A o g x a o o t 7 v o ~ ; ’ . o w ] p t o A o D
r k p s a ’ d k o I ; , g v q kx t g m f g 0 Q k g x a o i k - k v k o k 9 a d 0 t c , c ] h ; [ a o f k d y f 9 t d e d k o g 7 n j v o w s ;
8 j k ’ M 9 n j ’ 4 n d g 7 n j v o p h k p w x l 6 j r N o m u j M 4 n d m a [ 4 q , . s , j . d h d a [ ; a f r 6 c ] h ; l n [ 8 + r a f m t o k 0 q ’ g 0 f f a j ’ d j k ;
.shgxaog,nv’.s,j3fp,u3I’ok’lufkgxao95f.9dk’F g-yj’xt95[aopa’[+maolk,kfdeoqfwfh;jkgxao
lingapura faj’mujlu]k9k]bdwfhdjk;w;hD
!D#D#! 7;k,8hv’dko1jk’dt9jk’c9h’9ts]vfg4y’dkoxtg,uozqo1jk’gxao]t[q[0v’lt4komu j
gs]qjkoU c]t [aofk0q’g0f.dh7P’mujpa’[+maowfhIa[dkofegouodkoles];fma’s,qfoAo
w f h [ v d . s h g s a o g 4 y ’[aofklt4komuj8A’0v’-5,-qomujvkf9t,u16jovdg0fxqdxadIadlk ltoAo9bj’,u
7 ; k , 9 e g x a o 9 t 8 h v ’ w f h , u d k o 0 t s p k p d k o l e s ] ; f . s h d ; h k ’ v v d8k,g;]kvaogs,ktlq,D
A rchaeological features surround the natural
linga on Phou Kao Moutain, visible in the back-
ground
g v d t ] a d m k ’ [ 6 I k o 7 t f u m u j r q [ g s a o 1 6 j m 5 d s q o m 5 d c s j ’
. o g 0 f m q j ’ r P ’ v h v , I v [ ] y ’ 7 t m e , t - k f m u j 1 6 j
g m y ’ r 6 g d Q k m u j l k , k f c o , g s a o w f h 1 j k ’ - a f g 9 o 1 6 j m k ’
g[Nv’~a’D
PART I: THE SITE78
1.3.32 Tomo Temple (Fig 9): Tomo Temple is another massive monument complex located east
of the Mekong River and 11 km south-east of Vat Phou. From the inscriptions, it has been
dated to at least as early as the 9th century AD, but the style of the sculpture, which is still
in situ, suggests a date of the 7th to 8th century AD. These dates indicate that the site was
already the subject of worship in the earliest phases of the Khmer settlement of the area.
The still-standing monuments were re-built later, around the 11th to 12th century AD, the
same time Vat Phou was re-built. The Tomo Temple was built on one of the old eastern ter-
races of the Mekong River some tens of metres back, flanked by the Tomo River, a tributary
of the Mekong River. The religious complex was built on an artificial laterite terrace sur-
rounded by a laterite enclosure wall. The gopura (gateways) are still in good condition. The
original temple, which is now completely collapsed, was built from bricks. An excavated
baray is associated with the site. An inscription mentions a monastery in this area which
was dedicated to Rudrani, the shakti of Shiva (Rudra). The site can therefore be understood
as the female counterpart and balance to the Temple of Shiva at Vat Phou and an essential
part of the symbolic planning of the landscape.
Tomo Temple has been heavily impacted by
vegetation but fortunately has most of its
sculpture intact
; a f 3 8 t 3 , t m u j w f h I a [ z q o d t m q [ 1 j k ’ s o a d s o j ; ’ 9 k d
r n f r a o c 8 j 3 - d f u m u j I 6 [ c d t l t ~ a d m a ’ s , q f p a ’ [ + m a o
g-njv,lt~kp
rkdmu IG lt4komuj79
!D#D#@ ;af38t3,t Xczomu _?G ; a f 3 8 t 3 , t c , j o d 5 j , l t 4 k o [ 6 I k o . s p j m u j 8 A ’ 1 6 j f h k o 8 k g ; a o
vvd0v’c,joE0v’F sjk’9kd;afr6wxmk’myf8kg;aovvdlP’.8hxt,ko !! dy3]c,afD
9kd[aofk~ad4komujdjk;w;h.olu]k9k]bdwfhdjk;;jklt4komujcsj’oU4ndlhk’0Bo.olaf8t;afmuj _
c8jI6[c[[0v’dkocdtlts^adpa’gxaoI6[c[[0v’ Insitar 0v’laf8t;afmu ( sklaf8t;afmu )
g-yj’ovo16j.ow]ptmevyf0v’dko8A’4yjo4ko0v’-k;0tc, lj;olt4ko[6Ikomujpa’7q’s^q’gs^nv
16j.oxt95[aooUc,jo4ndlhk’0Bo.olaf8t;afmu !! sk !@D g-yj’gxaow]ptfP;da[dkolhk’;afr6
7no.sj,D lt4ko[6Iko38t3,twfh4ndlhk’0Nosjk’9kdc7,/aj’vaogdqjkcdjmk’fhko8kg;aovvd
0v’c,joExt,ko !W c,af 3fp,ush;p38t3,tmujgxaolk0k0v’c,joE0v’16jfhko0hk’D
d 5 j , l k f l t o t l t 4 k o o U 4 n d l h k ’ 1 v ’ 1 6 j g m y ’ 4 h k o m u j g I a f f h ; p s u o g 0 Q k 9 u j g x a o - A o M 3 f p , u d e c r ’ m u j g x a o
I6[luj]P,znozjkg-yj’gIaffh;psuog0Qk9ujvhv,Iv[16jD lj;o Gopura Xxt86mk’g0Qk? c,jopa’16j.o
ltrk[fuD [aofklt4ko[6Ikomuj16j.op5d8Qog-yj’4ndlhk’fh;pfyo9ujoAoxt95[aoc,jowfh4ndgrra’
wxs,qfc]h;D dko05f7Qorq[sov’oEwfhltcf’.shI6hg4y’dkorq;rao0v’lt4komujD vu’8k,lu]k
9k]bd mujwfhdjk;djP;da[0q’g0foUwfh]t[5w;h;jkdkolhk’lt4komujcsj’oUc,jogrnjvv5myf.shcdji6f^kou
g-yj’gxao76jlq,]qf0v’rt-u;t (Rudra). f h ; p g s f o A o l t 4 k o m u j c s j ’ o U 9 b j ’ g 0 Q k . 9 c , j o l j ; o s o b j ’ m u j g x a o 8 q ;
cmo.shcdjgrfpy’ c]t gxao76jdaoda[;af0v’rt-u;tmuj;afr6vaogxaolj;osobj’0v’laopk]admuj9egxao
0v’rNomujD
The changing course of the Mekong River left
Tomo Temple far from the river bank and isolated
until its rediscovery at the beginning of the 20th
century
d k o x j P o c x ’ 0 v ’ / j a ’ - k p c , j o E 0 v ’ g I a f . s h
;af38t3,t wdvvd9kd/aj’c,joE0v’ c]t 16j
3fffjP;9qog4y’w]pt8Qo0v’la8t;afmu @W 9bj’4nd
7Qorq[
PART I: THE SITE80
1.4 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPE OF THE CHAMPASAK AREA
1.4.1 The very high significance of the cultural landscape of the Vat Phou - Champasak area
derives from several factors, not least of which is the degree of survival of the archaeologi-
cal remains. Because the area is still relatively undeveloped, it has been possible for evidence
of the landscape planning and utilisation of an extensive area to survive for a period of
nearly one thousand years.
1.4.2 Some of the individual buildings are also of major historical and architectural significance.
The sanctuary at the Vat Phou temple complex is one of the major buildings of the pre-
Angkorian and Angkorian periods and is an example of a relatively rare form of Khmer hill-
top temple planning, developed to take full advantage of the topography of the site on
which it was built. Apart from the overall planning, much of its sculpture survives as an
example of the high artistic standards and creativity of the Khmer civilization. The other
s u rviving buildings, though in poorer condition, are also important remnants of a once
g reat and extensive culture.
1.4.3 The Ancient City is also of outstanding archaeological importance for the understanding of
the development of urbanism in the region. It was clearly an important Khmer city, but its
greatest historical significance falls before its incorporation into the Khmer empire during
the Angkorian period. The Ancient City probably was founded as the capital city of Chenla,
an earlier Khmer kingdom, as evidenced by the Devanika stele. As such, it is highly
significant as the cradle of the culture and birthplace of the state that dominated much of
Southeast Asia for several centuries. Also of great significance for the study of the evolu-
tion of ancient urban planning is the evidence for the move of the urban centre in
Angkorian times to Hong Nang Sida closer to Vat Phou.
rkdmu IG lt4komuj81
!D$ 7;k,le7ao0v’rNomujmk’fhko;afmtotme0v’9exkladD
!D$D! d k o m u j 9 t g I a f . s h r N o m u j m k ’ f h k o ; a f m t o t m e 0 v ’ 0 q ’ g 0 f , u 7 ; k , l e 7 a o l 6 ’ 0 B o o A o 8 h v ’ x t d v [
fh;ps]kpxaf.9g-yj’0Boda[lt4kotrk[0v’lyj’mujs]q’gs]nv16jD phvoltrk[dkorafmtok16j
.o0q’g0foU.ow]ptgdnv[sobj’raoxuzjko,kpa’[+mao0tspkp8q;l6’D ltoAo9bj’gxaog’njvow0vaofu
.shcdjdko;k’czo.odkooe.-hrNomujvaod;hk’0;k’csj’oUlk,kf7q’8q;.shgsao9qog4y’xt95[aoD
!D$D@ [k’vk7komujpa’7q’~q’g~nv16joAo]h;oc8j,u7;k,le7aomujl5f8+fhkoxts;aflkf c]t lt4kxaf
8tptdeD ;yskomuj8A’16j.od5j,lt4ko[6Iko;afr6gxao8q;1jk’sobj’vaole7ao0v’vk7ko.o
p5dlt.s,djvova’d=;af c]t p5dlt.s,va’d=;afma’gxao8q;1jk’0v’dko9af;k’czoza’0v’;af
16jgmy’r6mujskdwfhpkdmul5f0v’-k;0tc,F dkorafmtokwfhlhk’zqoxt3spfvao,tsklko
.shcdjdko9af;k’czomujma’s,qf0v’dkod+lhk’lt4komujD l Y o l j ; o 8 j k ’ M 0 v ’ d k o 9 a f ; k ’ c z o
d k o m a ’ s , q f ] ; , m a ’ [ a o f k I 6 [ c d t l t s ] a d 9 e o ; o s ] ; ’ s ] k p m u j p a ’ s ] q ’ g s ] n v 1 6 j o A o w f h d k p g x a o l y j ’
sobj’mujltcf’.shgsaog4y’luw,h]kp,n c]t 7;k,lk,kfvaol6’lqj’mk’fhkolyo]txt0v’-k;
0tc,D rhv,oAo- k d l t s ] a d s a d r a ’ 0 v ’ v k 7 k o 8 j k ’ M m u j p a ’ 7 q ’ 8 q ; 1 6 j o A o d + p a ’ l t c f ’ . s h g s a o g 4 y ’
7 ; k , l e 7 a o m k ’ f h k o;afmtotmevaopyj’.spjmujg7up,u,kdjvoD
!D$D# [ a o f k ; a f 4 5 [ 6 I k o m u j p a ’ ~ q ’ g ~ n v 1 6 j . o g , n v ’ [ 6 I k o o U c , j o , u 7 ; k , l e 7 a o m u j l 5 f 8 + d k o l h k ’ 7 ; k , g 0 Q k . 9
djP;da[dko0tspkp8q;0v’8q;g,nv’muj16j.o0q’g0ffaj’djk;F rhv,oAo,aopa’wfhltcf’.shgsaog4y’
7;k,le7ao0v’-5,-qo-k;g,nv’0tc, g-yj’,ao,u7;k,le7aomujl5f8+fhkoxts;aflkf0v’
p 5 d l t w s , d j v o d k o ] ; , 8 q ; g 0 Q k g x a o v k o k 9 a d f P ; 9 q o g 4 y ’ w ] p t d k o r a ’ m t ] k p 0 v ’ v k o k 9 a d
0tc,.o]ts;jk’p5dltws,va’d=D dko7Qorq[g,nv’[6IkooUvkfgxaodko7Qo7;hkrq[8q;g,nv’gvd
0 v ’ g 9 o ] k m u j 1 6 j . o p 5 d g ] U , 8 Q o 0 v ’ v k o k 9 a d 0 t c , g s , n v o f a j ’ l u ] k 9 k ] b d g f ; k o y d k w f h ] t [ 5 w ; h D
fh;pgsfoAo,ao9bj’,u7;k,le7aomujl5f.shcdj8Qodegoufmk’fhko;afmtotme c]t gxaoc~j’de
gouf0v’dkoxqd7v’0v’s]kpxtgmf.o0q’g0fvk-u8kg;aovvdljP’.8hD rhv,oAopa’,u7;k,
l e 7 a o . s h c d j l b d l k 7 Q o 7 ; h k d j P ; d a [ ; y ; a f m t o k d k o 9 a f ; k ’ c z o z a ’ g , n v ’ g d q j k m u j g x a o ~ a d 4 k o 0 v ’
dkog7njvophkp95f.9dk’0v’za’g,nv’wxl6jg0f3I’ok’lufk.dhda[;afr6 .op5dltws,va’d=;afD
PART I: THE SITE82
1.4.4 Individual parts of the area are very important, but the true significance of the area lies
in the whole. The evidence of planning and utilization of the landscape as a whole is very
clear both in the individual components and in their relationship to one another. It is also
clear in the road patterns that were established and in the management and re-organisation
of the waterways to control flooding, to provide irrigation and to supply water to the cities.
The channelling of the rivers, the development of canals and the construction of baray is
clear evidence of the organisation of an agricultural landscape to produce a surplus to sup-
port the temples and an urban elite. The evidence also demonstrates how the landscape
was modified during the period of its use in response to environmental, economic, social
and political changes.
1.4.5 Equally clear is the extent to which the planning of the landscape reflects the religious
beliefs and symbolic world view of its rulers. The use of the area is not purely
utilitarian but strongly reflects the Hindu view of the world prevailing in the 5th to 12th
centuries AD. Inspired by the natural linga at the peak of Phou Kao Mountain, the rulers
of the area planned their world around it and engineered the landscape to conform to a very
specific spiritual template. The Lingaparvata provided the focal point of the whole and sym-
bolized Mount Kailasha, the sacred mountain dwelling of the god Shiva, while the
Mekong R i v e r, the other great natural feature of the landscape, re p resented the Ganges River
and the surrounding Universal Ocean. The plain between the mountain and the river
formed Kurukshestra, the Holy Land. This is clear from the way in which the site’s features
are laid out along an axis from the Lingaparvata through Shiva’s Temple at Vat Phou. This
axis continues on through the monuments of the Ancient City and across the Mekong River
to Tomo Temple where Shiva’s shakti Rudrani was enshrined. While this layout draws
s t rongly on classic Hindu cosmology, at Champasak the template has been merged with an
earlier Southeast Asian perception of the dualism of mountains and water which results in
a distinctive regional interpretation of that cosmology.
rkdmu IG lt4komuj83
!D$D$ g r k t l t o A o m a ’ s , q f c 8 j ] t r k d l j ; o 9 b j ’ ] h ; o c 8 j , u 7 ; k , l e 7 a o g - y j ’ . o 7 ; k , 9 y ’ c ] h ; 7 ; k , l e 7 a o
0 v ’ r N o m u j [ + c , j o o v o 1 6 j . o r k d l j ; o . f r k d l j ; o s o b j ’ g m q j k o A o c 8 j s k d o v o 1 6 j . o r k d l j ; o ] ; ,
ma’s,qfD s]ad4ko0v’dko9af;k’czoza’ c]t dkooe.-hrNomuj.shgxaoxt3spfc,jowfh
ltcf’.shgsao1jk’9tc9h’g4y’vq’xtdv[ c]t 7;k,le7ao0v’c8j]trkdlj;o ovdoAopa’
wfhltcf’.shgsao1jk’9tc9h’g4y’dkovvdc[[.odkolhk’4tsoqo 3fpwfh,udko9af;k’mk’
fhko]t[q[dko75h,7v’ c]t 9aflao]t[q[Ijv’]t[kpoEgrnjv8hkowroE4h;,F oe.-h
g0Qk.o;Pd’ko-qo]txtmko c]t oe.-hrkp.o8q;g,nv’D dko05fIjv’ c]t 0tspkpIjv’
] t [ k p o E ] ; , g 4 y ’ d k o d + l h k ’ s o v ’ l t d + c , j o s ] a d 4 k o v a o s o b j ’ m u j l t c f ’ . s h g s a o g 4 y ’ ; y m u d k o
.odko9aflaogoNvmujmk’dtlyde grnjv8v[ltsov’.shcdjdkozt]yf0v’-5,-qo-k;g,nv’F
glf4tdyfF ltrk[c;f]hv, c]t dkoxjPocx’0v’]t[q[dkoxqd7v’wfhgxao1jk’fuD
ovdoAopa’wfhltcf’.shgsaog4y’dkofafcx’ c]t xjPocx’me,t-kfgrnjvoe.-g0Qk.o
;Pd’ko0v’ltws,faj’djk;D
! D $ D & 7 ; k , f j 5 o f j P ’ . o ] t [ q [ d k o 0 t s p k p 8 q ; m k ’ c z o z a ’ 0 v ’ r N o m u j g x a o l y j ’ l t m h v o . s h g s a o g 4 y ’ d k o g - n j v
4nmk’fhkolkfltsok c]t gxaolaopk]ad0v’dkoxtdv[lhk’3]d0v’z6hxqd7v’8A’c8j
laf8t;afmu & sk !@D dkooe.-hrNomujc,jo[+rP’c8j8v[ltsov’mk’fhkolyfzqoxt3spf
g m q j k o A o c 8 j p a ’ l t m h v o . s h g s a o c o ; 7 ; k , 7 y f 0 v ’ - k ; I u o f 6 d j P ; d a [ 3 ] d 3 f p l t g r k t c , j o
.olaf8t;afmu & sk !@D 9kd]y’7tme,t-kfmuj16j9v,r6gdQkoAowfhfqo[aofko.shz6hxqd7v’
rNomujdeoqfczoza’grnjvoe.-hrNomuj.og0fvhv,0hk’ c]t 9aflaorNomujgrnjv8v[ltsov’
.shwfh8k,I6[c[[ltgrkt0v’7;k,g-njv4nD fh;pgsfoAo]y’7txtit;t8t9bj’gxao95fl6,
0v’rNomujma’s,qf c]t gxaolaopk]adcsj’r6g0qkwd]k-D g-yj’gxaolt4komujradvk
.l0v’rt-u;t 3fp,uc,joE0v’mujgxaolyj’mujgrU,7;k,,tsaflt9ao.shcdjmu;mafme,t-kf
c]t xP[ltgs,nvo[=]y;ko s]n mtg]mujvhv,Iv[D [=]yg;omqj’rP’muj16j]ts;jk’r6g0qk c]t c,joE
g v U o ; j k 7 6 I 6 c - a fl t 8 k g - y j ’ g x a o l t 4 k o m u j M l a d l y f D d k o 9 a f ; k ’ v q ’ x t d v [ m a ’ s , q f o A o w f h l t c f ’
. s h g I q k g s a o 1 j k ’ 9 t c 9 h ’ g 4 y ’ d k o d e o q f g v q k g l A o c d o d k ’ m u j g ] U , 9 k d ] y ’ 7 t x t i t ; t 8 t c ] h ; z j k o
;af0v’rt-u;tmuj;afr6c]h;ln[8+zkor6g0qk]q’wxg4y’g,nv’[6Iko c]t 0hk,c,joE0v’wxl6j
lt4ko[6Iko38t3,tg-yj’gxaolt4komujrad0v’g,prt-u;t 3fppbf4n8k,s]addkorNo4ko
.odkodegouf9addt;ko0v’lkfltsokIuof6muj9exkladD g-yj’lvf7jv’da[7;k,g-bjv,4n
.ow]pt8Qo0v’0q’g0fvk-u8kg;aovvdlP’.8hmuj;jkr6g0qk c]t c,joEc,jogxaolyj’76jdaogrnjvvt
my[kp.shgsao]adltotryglf0v’r6,,urkdmujxtdv[gxao]t[q[9addt;koD
PART I: THE SITE84
1.4.6 Because of the degree of archaeological survival, and because of the extent of recent study,
the Champasak area is the only place in which it is possible to see all the elements that
made up the society and economy of Khmer culture during the early (pre-Angkorian) and
classical (Angkorian) periods. Here alone the great religious monuments are placed in their
social and economic context. As such this cultural landscape is clearly of outstanding uni-
versal significance, which justifies the nomination by the Lao Government of the area and
its monuments to UNESCO’s World Heritage List and makes it imperative that the area is
placed under strong protection and conservation management.
1.4.7 Judged against the six criteria established by UNESCO for evaluating outstanding universal
significance for cultural sites (Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World
Heritage Convention, 1998, para 24), the Champasak cultural landscape meets Criteria i, ii,
iii, iv, and vi as follows:
i. represent a masterpiece of human creative genius: the temple of Vat Phou
meets this criterion through its integration of its symbolic plan with the natural
landscape, and through the very high quality of its artistic work. It is also the earliest
known use of this type of plan.
ii. exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a
cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monu-
mental arts, town planning or landscape design: the landscape of the Champasak
plain demonstrates how the Khmer people planned, engineered and utilized
the landscape according to their symbolic beliefs and also to provide the agricultural
surplus necessary to support the urban population, religious institutions and royal elites.
The archaeological evidence shows the extent and intensity to which this
landscape was planned and used. The Ancient City is the only example of a Khmer
rkdmu IG lt4komuj85
!D$D* phvoltrk[dko7q’8q; c]t ]tfa[dkolndlkmk’fhko[6Iko7tfu0v’0q’g0foUg,njv[+fqo,koUD
9bj’gIaf.sh9exkladgxaorP’csj’fP;mujlk,kfrq[gsaom5dMvq’xtdv[mk’fhkoglf4tdyf c]t
la’7q,0v’;afmtotme.o]ts;jk’p5dltws,djvova’d=;af c]t .op5dltws,va’d=;afD lt4komuj
c s j ’ o U x t d v [,u[aofklt4ko[6Ikomk’fhkolkfltsokmuj,u7;k,le7ao c]t puj’.spjgrnjvIa[.-h
la’7q, c]t glf4tdyfD gs,nvofaj’rNomujmk’;afmtotmeoUwfhltcf’.shgIqkgsao1jk’9tc9h’g4y’
lyj’muj3ffgfajovaole7ao0v’]t[q[9addt;koD 3fpwfhIa[dkoltsoa[ltso6o9kd]af4t[ko]k;
.odko0=Ihv’gvqkrNomuj c]t vk7kolt4ko[6Ikog~qjkoAog0Qk.o[ao-u,=]tfqd3]d0v’vq’dko
16coflt3d c]t gIaf.shrNomujfaj’djk;oUdkpgxaolt4komujM,u7;k,g0A,c0’mk’fhkodko
xqdxadIadlk c]t dko7h6,7v’dkovto5]ad
!D$D( 3fpdko8u]k7k9kd0=h;yrkdma’ * 0=h mujmk’vq’dkov5pcoflt3dwfhryl6fdkoxtg,uoxt
gfao7;k,le7ao0v’lt4komuj;afmtotme X [ q f - U o e 0 v ’ d k o f e g o u o d k o x t 8 y [ a f 8 + , = ] t f q d 3 ] d F
.oxu !__)F 8vo @$? djP;da[dkorq[gsaorNomujmk’;afmtotme9exklad 0=hXi, ii, iii, iv
c]t viD? faj’]kp]tvPf]5j,oUG
iD gxaolYo’komujpvf1hP,0v’,to5flhk’0BoG ;afr6,u75olq,[afrP’r=1jk’9tc9h’8t~vfg4y’dko
x t l q , d q , d n o m k ’ l a o p k ] a d 0 v ’ c z o z a ’ d a [ r N o m u j m e , t - k f m a ’ g x a o l U o ’ k o / u , n m k ’ f h k o
lyo]txtmuj,u75ootrk[l6’g-yj’gxaodkooe.-hczoza’xtgrfoU.ow]ptmevyfD
iiD dkoltcf’vvdg4y’7;k,le7ao0v’dkola[xjPo]E7jk0v’,to5fF .o-j;’w]ptsonj’ s]n
rkp.orNomuj;afmtotme0v’3]dF djP;da[dkorafmtokfhkolt4kxaf8yptde s]n
fhkog8ad3o3]-uFlyo]txt];f]kp0v’vk7koF dko;k’czoza’0v’8q;g,nv’ s]n dko9af
laomk’fhkomy;maf0v’rNomujG m y ; m a f 0 v ’ r N o m u j [ = ] y g ; o 9 e x k l a d w f h l t c f ’ . s h g I q k g s a o g 4 y ’
dkooe.-hrNomujdko9af;k’mk’fhko;ylt;tde c]t czoza’rNomuj8k,dqfgdodkog-njv4n
m k ’ l k f l t s o k 0 v ’ - k ; 0 t c , D r h v , o A o p a ’ g x a o d k o 8 v [ l t s o v ’ . s h c d j ; P d ’ k o d t l y d e
muj,u7;k,9egxaomujl5f.shcdj-5,-qo8q;g,nv’F lt4k[aomk’lkfltsok c]t rtik-;a’
s]ad4kofhko[6Iko7tfuwfhltcf’.shgsaog4y’[k’lj;o0v’dko;k’czo c]t dkooe.-hhh
PART I: THE SITE86
urban settlement from both the early (pre-Angkorian) as well as the classical (Angkorian)
periods of which the plan is known in detail and has been studied. As such the Ancient
City is also of the highest importance. The planning of the landscape also demonstrates
the interchange between classic Hindu cosmology and local and earlier beliefs about the
duality of water and mountains.
iii. bear a unique or at least an exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or civiliza-
tion which is living or has disappeare d : Khmer culture dominated much of Southeast
Asia for at least 800 years. The Champasak area is the only place in which it is possible
to obtain an overall view of all aspects of that culture through this entire period of time
with details of the social and economic life of the common people as well as the ritual
religious and political aspects of the culture. Some of these details are also known from
and comparable to the sites of Pimai, Muang-Tam, Phnom Rung and Angkor.
iv. be an outstanding example of a type of building or architectural or technological
e n s e m b l e or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history: the
area contains the remains not just of one of the great buildings of Khmer civilization at
Vat Phou, but also of the organisation of the whole landscape and of urban planning,
which cannot be seen elsewhere. This is one of the earliest sites in Southeast Asia where
there is evidence of urbanism.
rkdmu IG lt4komuj87
rNomujD lj;og,nv’[6Ikog-uj’gxao8q;1jk’vaofP;.odko8A’4yjo4ko0v’-5,-qo.op5dltws,
djvova’d=;af s]n ltws,va’d=;af g-yj’czoza’faj’djk;c,jowfh4ndIa[I6h c]t wfhIa[dkolbd
lkdaoc]h;D faj’oAo,ao9nj’,u7;k,le7aomujl5fdko9af;k’czoza’0v’rNomujpa’wfhltcf’.shgsao
1jk’9tc9h’g4y’dkoxjPocmo]ts;jk’7;k,g-njv4n8k,c[[Iyof6 c]t mhv’4yjo.og,njvdjvo
djP;da[oE c]t r6g0qkD
iiiD d k o 7 e o n ’ g 4 y ’ 7 ; k , g x a o g v d t r k [ 1 j k ’ s o h v p m u j l 5 f 8 h v ’ p v , I a [ [ a o f k s ] a d 4 k o r t p k o m k ’
fhko;afmtotmefaj’gfu, c]t 7;k,lu;yw]mujpa’sq]’gs]nv16jmuj4ndl6oskpwxc]h;G ;afmt
otme.op5dltws,djvova’d=;af c]t p5dltws,va’d=;afc,jo,uvyfmyrqo1jk’s^;’s^kp.o
[aofkxtgmfvk-u8kg;aovvdlP’.8hxt,ko )WW xudjvoD .ooAo9exkladc,jogxaorP’
csj’fP;mujpa’lk,kfrq[gsaork[];,0v’m5d37’xtdv[mk’fhko;afmtotmeF glf4tdyfF
dkofe]q’-u;yf0v’xt-k-qo 3fpltgrktc,jorymumk’lkfltsok c]t ]adltot
mk’;afmtotme0v’dkoxqd7v’.op5dfaj’djk;D ]kp]tvPf0v’7;k,Ia[I6h[k’1jk’c,jowfh
9kddkolq,mP[da[g0fry,kpF g,nv’8ejF rtoq,]5h’ c]t va’d=D
i vD gxao8q;1jk’mujgfajo0v’xtgrfvk7koF lt4txt8yptdeF g8ad3o3]1u s]n mu;mafrNomujF g-yj’
l t c f ’ . s h g s a o 7 ; k , l e 7 a o 0 v ’ 0 A o 8 v o x t s ; a f l k f 0 v ’ , ; o , t o 5 f G 0q’g0frNomujoU[+,urP’
c 8 j - k d l t s ] a d s a d r a ’ 0 v ’ v k 7 k o . s p j m u j l t c f ’ g 4 y ’ 7 ; k , l u ; y w ] 0 v ’ ; a f r 6 g m q j k o A o c 8 j p a ’
gxaodko9af;k’czoza’0v’8q;g,nv’c]trNomu jm a’s,qfg-u j’[+lk,kfrq[gsaowfh.ocsj’
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PART I: THE SITE88
vi. be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with
beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance: H i n d u i s m
is one of the great religions and oldest belief systems in the world. For 2000 years its
ideas held s w a y, gave form to and founded the basis of civilization in Southeast Asia,
influencing all aspects of socio-economic and political life. The Champasak area provides
evidence of how one of the great Hindu-influenced cultures of the region transformed
their homeland, engineering its landscape to conform to the template of the perfect uni-
verse prescribed by their belief system. The resulting expression of these ideas in archi-
tecture and art were a unique fusion of indigeneous natural symbols, religious inspira-
tion and technical prowess which set the standard for the following centuries and influ-
enced aesthetic developments throughout the region.
The quality of design and craftsmanship of the
structures within the temple complex contribute
to the site’s significance under the criteria of the
World Heritage Convention
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