NIEER

What We Know:• A challenging behavior is any repeated pat-tern of behavior that interferes with learn-ing or engagement in social interactions.This includes unresponsiveness to develop-mentally appropriate guidance and actionssuch as prolonged tantrums, physical andverbal aggression, disruptive vocal andmotor behavior, property destruction, self-injury, noncompliance, and withdrawal.4

• Challenging behaviors during the preschoolyears constitute one of the strongest predic-tors of later, more serious problem behaviorsincluding delinquency, aggression, antisocialbehavior, and substance abuse.

• Participation in early care and educationis sometimes linked to higher rates of chal-lenging behaviors, especially in programsof lower quality that do not specificallyaddress the social development needs ofyoung children.

• High-quality preschool education thatincludes an emphasis on children’s socialdevelopment can reduce rates of challeng-ing behaviors and serve as a long-termprotective factor for children at risk fordeveloping challenging behaviors.

Policy Recommendations:• High-quality preschool education shouldbe provided so all children have the oppor-tunity to develop positive social skills.

• Teacher training and technical support inthe area of children’s social and emotionaldevelopment and classroom managementshould be provided, ideally on an on-goingbasis.

• No preschooler should be expelled froman early childhood program.With the rightsupports for teachers and a differentiatedapproach that provides additional layers ofthe “teaching pyramid” for at-risk children,this ultimate form of “discipline” can beprevented.

• Universal, classroom-based curricula thatinclude social skills teaching should beviewed as the base tier of a teaching pyra-mid that serves all children. Children whostruggle with challenging behaviors shouldreceive additional tiers that provide inten-tional teaching of social problem-solvingand other pro-social skills as well as inter-ventions from experts and family membersas needed.

• Developmentally appropriate screening forearly identification of problems is essential.

December 2007, Issue 16

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Policy Brief series edited byEllen C. Frede, Ph.D., andW. Steven Barnett, Ph.D.

National Institute forEarly Education Research

www.nieer.org

Challenging Behaviorsand the Role ofPreschool Educationby Lisa A. McCabe and Ellen C. Frede

Some research suggests a rise in challenging behaviors amongchildren in early care and education. Among the findings area high rate of removal from preschool classrooms for behaviorproblems,1 a possible link between early non-maternal careand aggressive behaviors in preschool,2 and concerns fromteachers that too many children arrive at school without thesocial skills required to learn.3

This begs the question of the role preschool educationplays in regard to problem behaviors—whether under certaincircumstances it is a contributing factor or whether it can infact provide positive experiences that lead to a reduction of challenging behaviors.This policy brief reviews the research in order to answer these questions and makesrecommendations that can lead to better behavioral outcomes.

Preschool Policy Brief | December 20072

A growing body of research points tolinks between challenging behaviorsin early childhood and later negativedevelopmental and social outcomes.Studies have shown that early behav-ior problems are associated withdelinquency,5 persistent aggressionand antisocial behavior,6 and sub-stance abuse.7 Yet, it is important tonote that not all children who exhibitproblem behaviors, especially aggres-sion, in early childhood maintainthese behaviors over time.8 Researchhas begun to investigate the possibletrajectories of early onset aggressionin order to distinguish normal peaksin aggression (typically in the toddlerand preschool years) from those thatlead to long-term pathological behav-iors.9 In one study, researchers work-ing with more than 300 childrenfound that although some outgrew

their disruptive disorder, many didnot.10 Similarly, a study of low-incomemothers and their children foundmoderate stability in aggression forboys and non-compliance for girlsbetween 1 and 5 years of age.11 Inother words, aggressive children con-tinued to be aggressive throughoutthe period of the study. Finally, workfrom the large-scale National Instituteof Child Health and Human Develop-ment (NICHD) Study of Early ChildCare identified five typical trajectoriesof aggressive behavior. Three of thesetrajectories involved moderate to highlevels of aggression at some point, butonly a small portion of children (3percent of the participants) followeda path of high and sustained levelof aggression from age 24 monthsto third grade.12

Because of the potentially serious

consequences of behavior problemsin young children, both for the indi-vidual as well as the larger society,researchers have also begun to exam-ine the precursors of the developmentof challenging behaviors. This litera-ture13 has documented key risk factorsfor children’s challenging behaviorsincluding poor prenatal environmentsuch as exposure to drugs/alcoholand maternal malnutrition,14 familypoverty,15 and negative parentingpractices such as harsh disciplineand maternal insensitivity.16 Researchalso shows that behavioral challengesfrequently occur in the presence oflanguage delays17 and often comprisemultiple symptoms from severalclinical diagnoses including AttentionDeficit Hyperactivity Disorder,Oppositional Defiant Disorder,and Conduct Disorder.18

Prevalence, Development and Trajectory of Aggression

Early Care and Education and Aggression

Since the 1970s and 1980s,19 questionshave arisen about the link betweenparticipation in non-maternal earlycare and education settings and chal-lenging behaviors. Although numer-ous studies have examined this,20

many of them were small in scale,failed to take into account familybackground factors or quality of care,and offered conflicting findings. Inpart to address this debate, one of thelargest child care investigations, theNICHD Study of Early Child Care,began in the early 1990s.21 This studyof 1,300 children who were followedfrom birth through grade school,gathered child care data at multiplepoints over the first 5 years of life.Results indicate that 4.5-year-old chil-dren with more child care experiencedemonstrated higher levels of exter-nalizing behavior problems such asaggression and disobedience than didchildren who spent fewer hours innon-maternal care. This held trueeven in higher quality child care set-tings. However, some have questionedhow widely this finding can be gener-alized, in part because the variabilityin quality of care in this study was notlarge enough to truly detect meaning-ful differences.22 In addition, it cannotbe ruled out that the causality runs inthe opposite direction, with challeng-ing behaviors leading to increasedtime in child care or that some otherunmeasured family background char-acteristic accounts for both increasesin difficult behaviors and time inchild care. It is also important to notethat the higher levels of externalizingbehaviors seen at age 54 months werenot evident when the same childrenwere younger (age 2 and 3),23 nor wasit evident once the children were inthird grade.24 By sixth grade, the linkbetween early child care experienceand later externalizing behaviors waslimited to those children who attend-ed center-based (as opposed to home-based or relative care) settings formore than two years.25 In addition,effect sizes were small (i.e. not

approaching clinical levels of prob-lematic behavior) and were much lessthan those associated with parentingor family characteristics.Evidence for a possible link

between preschool experience andchallenging behaviors also comesfrom work examining cortisol, ahormone that serves as a measureof stress in children in child care. Areview of nine studies found a rise incortisol in children who are in groupcare settings (even high-quality set-tings) when compared to children inhome care.26 This finding may berelated to the pressures of being in agroup setting and dealing with “socialthreats” for many hours each day. Itis not yet clear whether these elevatedcortisol levels put children at risk forlater health problems or whether theyrelate to significant behavioral chal-lenges. Still, they do suggest that whenbehavior problems are detected inpreschool settings, they may be due,at least in part, to children’s difficultycoping with social pressures in agroup setting for extended periodsof time.Findings from a longitudinal

demonstration program forpreschool children also suggestthat participation in preschool,even a high-quality program, canbe related to problem behaviorsin children. In the Abecedarianprogram, which involved a random-ized trial of a comprehensive childcare program for African-Americanchildren from birth through age 5,researchers documented an increasein behavior problems in programparticipants once they reached ele-mentary school when compared tothe children who did not attend.27

In response to this, developers revisedthe curriculum to include more of afocus on social skill development andsupport for teachers in this develop-mental area. Once these changes wereimplemented, the increase in challeng-ing behaviors among program childrenwas not found.

Finally, a recent large-scale investi-gation examined the troubling prac-tice of removing children exhibitingchallenging behaviors from preschoolclassrooms. In a sample of nearly4,000 preschool classrooms from40 states, 10.4 percent of preschoolteachers reported that at least onechild had been removed from theirclassrooms28 because of behaviorproblems in the previous 12 months.29

This removal rate is high compared torates for kindergarten through twelfthgrade students and raises concernsabout children’s challenging behaviorsin the preschool setting. It also leadsto questions about how to improvesocial skills teaching practices as wassuccessfully done in the AbecedarianProject.

Preschool Policy Brief | December 2007 3

Preschool Education as an Ameliorating Factor

Serving as a counterbalance to theevidence suggesting that preschoolparticipation may contribute to thedevelopment of challenging behaviorsis a wealth of research suggesting theopposite. This research shows thatappropriate preschool education canactually serve as an ameliorating fac-tor for children at risk of developingchallenging behaviors. Some of themost compelling evidence comesfrom a variety of longitudinal evalua-tions of high-quality early childhoodeducation programs for high-riskchildren. For example, in the High/Scope Perry Preschool Program,30 at-risk African American children wererandomly assigned to either receivethe program or serve in the controlgroup. Those in the program groupparticipated in an intensive preschoolprogram for 2 ½ hours, 5 days a weekduring the school year beginning ateither age 3 or 4. The program wastaught by highly qualified teachersand included home visits by teacherseach week, as well as parent groupmeetings. The children in this pro-gram evaluation have now been fol-lowed through age 40, and one of thestrongest findings has been a reduc-tion in adolescent and adult crimerates. These effects are striking notonly because they have endured overthe lifetime of the children, but becauseof the substantial economic savings tothe community that accompany lowercrime rates.31

Similar benefits from early pre-school experience are documented bythe long-term study of the ChicagoChild-Parent Centers.32 This program,which offers preschool and kinder-garten programs, continued interven-tion in early elementary school, andfamily support services for low-incomechildren, was implemented with 1,500children. Long-term follow-up datawith program and control childrenshow that by age 24, children whohad participated in the programswere more likely to have finished highschool and be attending college, less

likely to be arrested for a felony orincarcerated, and less likely to havedepressive symptoms (in addition tocognitive gains).33

In recent years, large-scale andcomprehensive research has beenconducted on Head Start (one of thenation’s oldest early intervention pro-grams) and Early Head Start (a morerecent expansion of the Head Startprogram to children from birththrough age 3). Results from theseinvestigations indicate that these earlyeducation programs are effective ataddressing the social needs of veryyoung children. The Family and ChildExperiences Survey (FACES) studyfound improvement in the challeng-ing behaviors of Head Start childrenover the program year.34 A nationalrandomized trial of Head Start foundthat one year of the program reducedbehavior problems and hyperactivebehavior for 3-year-olds, but did notfind statistically significant effects for4-year-olds.35 Similarly, the national

evaluation of the Early Head Start36

program (involving a random assign-ment of 3,000 children and familiesto program or control groups) foundthat participants in Early Head Startshow less aggression at age 3 thancontrol group children.37

Finally, evidence for the potentialameliorating effects of participationin early care and education on thedevelopment of challenging behaviorsalso comes from large studies outsidethe United States. In a large-scalestudy of nearly 3,500 Canadian 2- and3-year-olds, researchers found thataggression was significantly higher inchildren from high-risk families whoare not in child care when comparedto the child care group.38 These datasuggest that early childhood programscan provide protective factors forchildren in high-risk families throughenrichment or by diluting the expo-sure to a high-risk environment andincreasing opportunities for learningnot available at home.

Preschool Policy Brief | December 20074

Social Skills Curricula for Preschool Children

A number of research-based pre-school social skills curricula withample evidence of their efficacy areavailable for use in early childhoodprograms.39 Below is a sampling ofthese programs and the evidence fortheir effectiveness. For more informa-tion about evidence-based curricula,see reviews by Joseph and Strain(2003) and Bryant et al. (1999).40

Incredible Years:Teacher Training Program(Webster-Stratton)41

The Incredible Years Teacher TrainingProgram involves 36 hours of training(six monthly one-day workshops)that focuses on positive managementand discipline strategies, and promot-ing social competence in the class-room.42 In an evaluation of the pro-gram,43 14 Head Start centers (61teachers in 34 classrooms) were ran-domly assigned to the Incredible YearsProgram (for parents, teachers, andfamily services workers) or the controlgroup. Results showed that childrenin classrooms where the programswere used demonstrated significantlyfewer conduct problems at schoolthan control children. In addition,teachers who received the programshowed significantly better classroommanagement skills than teacherswho did not. Similar benefits weredocumented in an evaluation of theIncredible Years training programswith 159 families of 4- to 8-year-oldchildren.44 In this study, children inIncredible Years classrooms showedlower rates of noncompliance andaggression than children in class-rooms without the teacher training.

Promoting AlternativeThinking Strategies(PATHS) Curriculum(Kusche & Greenberg)45

The preschool PATHS curriculumuses the teaching of skills, as well asthe creation of meaningful real-life

opportunities to practice and general-ize skills, in order to reduce behaviorand emotional problems and enhancesocial-emotional competence inyoung children. Lessons are deliveredonce a week (30 lessons total) andcover themes such as compliments,basic and advanced feelings, self-con-trol strategies, and problem solving.A randomized trial with 246 childrenfrom two Head Start programs (10intervention classrooms and 10 con-trol classrooms), showed promisingresults. Intervention children demon-strated more emotion knowledgeskills (e.g., emotion vocabulary, abilityto identify facial expressions, less biastoward misidentifying emotionalexpressions as angry) than did chil-dren not exposed to the program. Inaddition, both parents and teachersrated intervention children as moresocially competent compared tocontrol children. The interventionchildren were not, however, betterat problem solving than were theircontrol counterparts. Children inthe PATHS program were less likelyto be rated as socially withdrawn, butthey were no different than controlchildren on ratings of externalizingbehaviors.46

Positive Behavior Support(Fox, Dunlap, & Powell)47

Positive Behavior Support is one ofthe most widely used and well-docu-mented approaches for encouragingpro-social skill development anddecreasing challenging behaviors inyoung children.48 It typically employsfunctional assessment, a process forgathering information about thecontext of the child’s challengingbehaviors in order to maximize itseffectiveness and efficiency in meetingthe individual needs of the child.Its components include:

• Modifications of the physical and/or social environment to decreasethe triggers of challenging behaviors;

• Strategies for teaching new skillsthrough guidance, prompting,and reinforcement in naturalisticsettings; and

• Positive reinforcement49 anddescriptive feedback to increaseand maintain the use of newskills and appropriate behavior.

The usefulness of this approachhas been documented in a variety ofnaturalistic settings including homesand classrooms,50 but only recentlywith a preschool population.However, preliminary evidence withpreschool children shows promise.For example, in one study of PositiveBehavior Support for children incommunity preschool programs,researchers documented its effective-ness for reducing problematic behav-iors with two female children identi-fied by teachers as in need of addi-tional support.51 A case study of PBSimplementation in a large Head Startprogram found that teachers feltmore confident in their ability tosupport children with challengingbehaviors, decreased their relianceon outside mental health consultants,and eliminated the use of “time out”as a discipline strategy.52

5Preschool Policy Brief | December 2007

Second Step(Committee For Children)53

The Second Step curriculum is a uni-versal intervention program designedto teach empathy, impulse control,and social problem-solving skills tochildren in preschool through middleschool. Teachers are trained to uselarge photograph cards of children invarious social situations as a basis forteacher modeling and children’s roleplaying. These activities are designedto introduce concepts and enablechildren to practice new skills. A par-

ent component, wherein parents areencouraged to reinforce Second Stepconcepts at home, is also included.The curriculum was used as part ofthe larger Preschool Behavior Project,and results from this study have notyet been published.54 However, researchon the Second Step curriculum withsecond- and third-grade school chil-dren suggests that children in partici-pating classrooms show a decrease inobserved aggression and an increasein neutral and/or pro-social skills.There were no differences in parent orteacher ratings of these behaviors.55

Self DeterminationIntervention(Serna & Nielsen)56

The Self Determination Interventionprogram employs a story and songformat to teach direction following,sharing, and problem solving to pre-school children. The curriculum wasimplemented by a master’s level uni-versity interventionist, with assistancefrom the teacher, with 53 children inthree Head Start classrooms over a12-week period.57 Two three-hoursessions were taught each week andwere reinforced by teachers in thenatural classroom environment andby parents who participated in threetraining sessions. Thirty-one childrenin two other classrooms served as acomparison group. Results from pre-and post-tests showed a significantdecrease in behavior problems and anincrease in adaptive skills in childrenwho participated in the program.

Social-EmotionalIntervention for At-Risk4-Year-Olds(Denham & Burton)58

In this intervention, teachers aretrained to deliver a multi-componentprogram that involves relationshipbuilding between the teachers andchildren, teaching children emotionalknowledge and strategies to controlnegative feelings. Children are alsotaught interpersonal cognitive prob-lem-solving skills using the evidence-based I Can Problem Solve program.59

The program was implemented overa 32-week period with 70 childrenin seven child care classrooms. Anadditional 60 children from the sameprograms, but different classrooms,served as a quasi-experimental com-parison group. Results showed thatchildren in the intervention class-rooms showed decreases in negativeemotion, initiated more positive peeractivity, and improved socially (asjudged by their teachers) comparedto non-intervention children.

6 Preschool Policy Brief | December 2007

Preschool Policy Brief | December 2007

While diverse curricula are availablefor addressing social development inearly childhood, research comparingthe effectiveness of one curriculumwith another is rare. Studies to datedo suggest some commonalities amongthe many approaches to addressingchildren’s social needs. First, compre-hensive curricula that embed socialskills within a larger curriculum in ahigh-quality program appear to beeffective for the general preschoolpopulation. The evidence is particu-larly strong for children at risk dueto socio-economic disadvantage.Enhanced development of languageskills, executive function, awarenessof emotions, and social skills togethermay well contribute more to improvedsocial behavior and decreased physicalaggression than targeting improvedbehavior in isolation.In addition to the studies cited

earlier, Head Start research showingthat programs using integrated cur-ricula—in particular the High/Scopeor Creative Curriculum—are higherin quality, also supports this approach.Children in these classrooms showedmore gains in social skills when com-pared to children in programs notusing these comprehensive curricula.60

Similarly, a randomized trial of aVygotskian curriculum, Tools of theMind, that emphasizes the develop-ment of self-regulation in a broadeducational context, found that thiscurriculum substantially decreasedbehavior problems.61 These findingsare further supported by a long-term evaluation of three curricularapproaches. In that instance, High/

Scope, with its emphasis on cognitiveand social problem solving and abalance between teacher-directed andchild-initiated activities, was evaluatedalongside Direct Instruction, with itsteacher-led focus on academic skills,and Traditional Nursery School, withits emphasis on socialization and freeplay. The evaluation showed that long-term social outcomes for children inthe Direct Instruction group, wherean emphasis on social developmentwas lacking, were poor compared tothe other two.62 In particular, childrenwho experienced Direct Instructiondemonstrated more behavior problemsin high school, and higher rates ofbeing suspended from work or forbeing arrested by age 23. Finally,research also suggests benefits toprograms that include multiplecomponents. Those benefits accruedwhen there was a focus on all domainsand on the quality of children’sproblem-solving responses as opposedto the quantity of the solutions theygenerated,63 and involved families aswell as educators.64

High-quality preschool programsare critical to meeting the general needsof all preschool children. However,more targeted approaches must begeared towards meeting the needs ofchildren who struggle with behavioralchallenges. Fox and Lentini’s TeachingPyramid65 is useful in this context. Inthis approach, the base of the pyramidemphasizes the development of posi-tive relationships with children andfamilies. It also suggests typical goodpractice in the area of social andemotional development such as

making expectations clear and pro-viding a balance between active andquiet times and teacher-directed andchild-initiated activities. The nextlevel of the pyramid focuses specifi-cally on the needs of at-risk childrenand includes techniques such asintentional teaching of social prob-lem-solving strategies and other pro-social skills. Finally, the top of thepyramid includes more intensive pro-cedures involving family membersand experts whose efforts are targetedtoward individual children with per-sistent behavior challenges. The keypoint is that both general and moretargeted strategies, depending on theneeds of individual children, areneeded in any early education setting.

Important Components Across Curricula

7

High-quality preschool programs are critical to meeting the

general needs of all preschool children. However, more

targeted approaches must be geared towards meeting the

needs of children who struggle with behavioral challenges.

Preschool Policy Brief | December 20078

Conclusion

The issue is not whether preschoolis “good” or “bad” when it comes tochildren’s challenging behaviors. Justas there is good and not-so-good par-enting, there is good and not-so-goodearly childhood care and education.What is important is that the earlychildhood education experience be ofhigh quality. In regard to challengingbehaviors, high quality means payingspecial attention to the social-emo-tional needs of children spendinglong hours in the presence of a groupof peers. Child care that does not ade-quately address the social-emotionalneeds of young children runs the riskof contributing to the developmentand expression of challenging behav-iors. Any curriculum implemented inan early childhood education setting

needs to include, along with a cogni-tive and academic focus, an emphasison the development of social andemotional skills. Teachers, other pro-fessionals and parents must thenbuild on that strong curricular baseby providing additional layers of theteaching pyramid that address specificneeds of children who exhibit or areat risk for developing challengingbehaviors. These may include inten-tional teaching of social problem-solving and other pro-social skills andintervention by therapists, psycholo-gists and other professionals. Onlythen will we be able to meet the com-prehensive needs of preschoolers andprepare them to be lifelong learnersand productive adults.

Child care that does not

adequately address the

social-emotional needs

of young children runs

the risk of contributing

to the development and

expression of challenging

behaviors.

Related to this differentiatedapproach is the need for appropriatedevelopmental screening. It is criticalto identify at-risk children early sothat targeted approaches can beimplemented early in a child’s life.As Richard Tremblay, noted researcherin the area of childhood aggression,points out “…most children learnalternatives to physical aggressionduring their preschool years. There-fore, this period of childhood is prob-ably the best window of opportunityfor helping children at risk of becom-ing chronic physical aggressors tolearn to regulate their comport-ment.”66 Recent work on early identi-fication techniques is promising andincludes multiple-gating proceduresto identify children most at risk.67

These techniques begin by screeningall children, and then provide moreintensive screening procedures forchildren who meet criteria for thefirst or later “gates” of the assessment.However, more work is needed onearly identification techniques to bet-ter understand the appropriateness of

specific instruments for particularpopulations, as well as to furtherdefine criteria and definitions ofproblematic behavior.68 In addition,screening mechanisms need to addressthe challenge of identifying “falsepositives” (problematic behaviorsthat reflect self-correcting, normativebehaviors) from genuine behaviorproblems truly predictive of laterproblematic outcomes.69

Providing technical support forteachers when implementing anystrategy is important. Some havesuggested that teachers in early child-hood education struggle to deal withbehavioral challenges in part becauseof insufficient training and a lack ofon-going support from supervisorsand interventionists.70 Evidence fromsmall-scale studies supports this claim.In a study of children with autism,rates of positive social interactionincreased when teachers receivedtechnical assistance and feedback inimplementing naturalistic strategiesfor increasing social interactions.71

The increase was not as apparent

when teachers received the training,but did not receive individualizedsupport for implementing the strate-gies in the classroom. Similarly,research has documented greaterchanges in children’s positive socialbehavior in a Head Start classroomwhere the teacher received a socialskills curriculum, McGinnis andGoldstein’s Skillstreaming program,72

along with direct consultation aboutprogram implementation. Where theteacher received support, positivechanges in the children were greaterthan in the classroom where theteacher only received the curriculummaterials, but no curriculum instruc-tion.73 More generally, having accessto a mental health consultant can beuseful for teachers, as demonstratedby the lower rates of children beingterminated from a program in class-rooms where teachers benefit fromthis support.74 Finally, teacher supportmay be especially effective when itoccurs as part of a program-widecommitment to training.75

Preschool Policy Brief | December 2007 9

References1 Gilliam,W. (2004). Prekindergarteners left behind: Expulsion rates in stateprekindergarten systems. Retrieved November 1, 2006 from www.fcd-us.org/usr_doc/ExpulsionCompleteReport.pdf.2 National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early ChildCare Research Network. (2003). Does amount of time spent in child carepredict socioemotional adjustment during the transition to kindergarten?Child Development, 74(4), 976-1005.3 Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., Pianta, R. C., & Cox, M. J. (2000). Teachers’judgments of problems in the transition to kindergarten. Early ChildhoodResearch Quarterly, 15(2), 147-166.4 Powell, D., Fixsen, D., & Dunlap, G. (2003). Pathways to ServiceUtilization: A Synthesis of Evidence Relevant to Young Children withChallenging Behavior. Tampa, Florida: University of South Florida, Centerfor Evidence-Based Practice: Young Children with Challenging Behavior.5 Krueger, R. F., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T., White, J., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M.(1996). Delay of gratification, psychopathology, and personality: Is lowself-control specific to externalizing problems? Journal of Personality, 64(1),107-129; Olson, S. L., Schilling, E. M., & Bates, J. E. (1999). Measurementof impulsivity: Construct coherence, longitudinal stability, and relationshipwith externalizing problems in middle childhood and adolescence. Journalof Abnormal Child Psychology, 27, 151-165.6 Kochanska, G., & Knaack, A. (2003). Effortful control as a personalitycharacteristic of young children: Antecedents, correlates, and conse-quences. Journal of Personality, 71(6), 1087-1112; LaCourse, E., Côté, S.,Nagin, D. S., Vitaro, F., Brendgen, M., & Tremblay, R.E. (2002). A longitu-dinal-experimental approach to testing theories of antisocial behaviordevelopment. Development and Psychopathology, 14(4), 909-924; Newman,D. L., Caspi, A, Moffitt, T.E., & Silva, P.A. (1997). Antecedents of adultinterpersonal functioning: Effects of individual difference in age 3temperament. Developmental Psychology, 33(2), 206-217.7 Block, J., Block, J. H., & Keyes, S. (1988). Longitudinally foretelling drugusage in adolescence: Early childhood personality and environmentalprecursors. Child Development, 59, 336-355.8 Campbell, S. B., Spieker, S., Burchinal, M., Poe, M. D., & the NationalInstitute of Child Health and Human Development Early Child CareResearch Network (2006). Trajectories of aggression from toddlerhood toage 9 predict academic and social functioning through age 12. Journal ofChild Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(8), 791-800; Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S.,Auerbach, J., Campbell, S. B., Daley, D., & Thompson, M. (2005). Varietiesof preschool hyperactivity: Multiple pathways from risk to disorder.Developmental Science, 8(2), 141-150.9 Gresham, F. M., Lane, K. L., & Lambros, K. M. (2000). Comorbidity ofconduct problems and ADHD: Identification of “Fledgling Psychopaths.”Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders, 8(2), 83-94; Lynam, D. (1996).Early identification of chronic offenders: Who is the fledgling psychopath?Psychological Bulletin, 120, 209-234.10 Lavigne, J.V., Arend, R., Rosenbaum, D., Binns, H. J., Christoffel, K. K., &Gibbons, R. D. (1998). Psychiatric disorders with onset in the preschoolyears: I. Stability of diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Childand Adolescent Psychiatry, 37(12), 1246-1254.11 Keenan, K., Shaw, D., Delliquadri, E., Giovannelli, J., & Walsh, B. (1998).Evidence for the continuity of early problem behaviors: Application of adevelopmental model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26(6), 441-454.12 National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early ChildCare Research Network. (2004). Trajectories of physical aggression fromtoddlerhood to middle childhood. In W.F. Overton (Series Editor),Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 69(4, SerialNo. 278). Boston, MA: Blackwell Publishing.13 See Qi, C. H. & Kaiser, A. P. (2003). Behavior problems of preschoolchildren from low-income families: Review of the literature. Topics inEarly Childhood Special Education 23(4), 188-216 for a review.

14 Ishikawa, S. & Raine, A. (2003). Obstetric complications and aggression.In Tremblay, R. E., Barr, R. G., Peters, R.De.V., (Eds.) Encyclopedia on EarlyChildhood Development [online]. Montreal, Quebec: Centre of Excellencefor Early Childhood Development; 2003: 1-6. Retrieved November 1, 2006from http://www.excellence-earlychildhood.ca/documents/IshikawaRaineANGxp.pdf.15 Kaiser, A. P., Hancock, T. B., Cai, X., Foster, E. M., & Hester, P. P. (2000).Parent-reported behavioral problems and language delays in boys and girlsenrolled in Head Start classrooms. Behavioral Disorders, 26, 26-41;Kupersmidt, J. B., Bryant, D., & Willoughby, M. T. (2000). Prevalence ofaggressive behaviors among preschoolers in Head Start and communitychild care programs. Behavioral Disorders, 26, 42-52.16 Kingston, L. & Prior, M. (1995). The development of patterns of stable,transient, and school-age onset aggressive behavior in young children.Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34(3),348-358; Lavigne, J. V., Arend, R., Rosenbaum, D., Binns, H.J., Christoffel,K.K., & Gibbons, R. D. (1998). Psychiatric disorders with onset in thepreschool years: II. Correlates and predictors of stable case status. Journalof the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37(12),1255-1261; National Institute of Child Health and Human DevelopmentEarly Child Care Research Network, 2004.17 Kaiser et al., 2000.18 Gresham et al., 2000.19 Belsky, J. (1986). Infant day care: A cause for concern? Zero to Three, 6,1-9; Clarke-Stewart, A. (1988). The effects of infant day care reconsidered:Risks for parents, children, and researchers. Early Childhood ResearchQuarterly, 3, 293-318.20 Baydar, N. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1991). Effects of maternal employment andchild care arrangements of preschoolers’ cognitive and behavioral outcomes:Evidence from the children of the national longitudinal survey of youth.Developmental Psychology, 27, 932-945; Belsky, J. (1999). Quantity ofnonmaternal care and boys’ problem behavior/adjustment at ages 3 and 5:Exploring the mediating role of parenting. Psychiatry, 62, 1-20; Belsky, J.(2001). Developmental risks (still) associated with early child care. Journalof Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 845-859; Field, T., Masi,W., Goldstein,S., Perry, S., & Park, S. (1988). Infant day care facilitates preschool socialbehavior. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 3, 341-359; Prodromidis, M.,Lamb, M., Sternberg, K., Hwang, C., & Broberg, A. (1995). Aggression andnoncompliance among Swedish children in center-based care, family daycare, and home care. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 18,43-62.21 Belsky, 2001; National Institute of Child Health and Human DevelopmentEarly Childcare Research Network, 2003.22 Love, J. M., Harrison, L., Sagi-Schwartz, A., vanIJzendoorn, M. H., Ross,C., Ungerer, J. A., et al. (2003). Child care quality matters: How conclusionsmay vary with context. Child Development, 74(4), 1021-1033.23 National Institute of Child Health and Human Development EarlyChildcare Research Network. (1998). Early child care and self-control,compliance, and problem behavior at twenty-four and thirty-six months.Child Development, 69(4), 1145-1170.24 National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Early ChildCare Research Network. (2005). Early child care and children’s developmentin the primary grades: Follow-up results from the NICHD Study of EarlyChild Care. American Educational Research Journal, 42(3), 537-570.25 Belsky, J., Vandell, D. L., Burchinal, M., Clarke-Stewart, K. A., McCartney,K., Owen, M.T., & the NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2007).Are there long-term effects of early child care? Child Development, 78(2),681-701.26 Vermeer, H. J., & van IJzendoorn, M., H. (2006). Children’s elevatedcortisol levels at day care: A review and meta-analysis. Early ChildhoodResearch Quarterly, 21, 390-401.

27 Haskins, R. (1985). Public school aggression among children withvarying day-care experience. Child Development, 56(3), 689-703.28 Teachers were asked to report the number of children in their classroomwho were “permanently terminated” from participating in the classroom.The authors of this study refer to this event as “expulsion”. However, ques-tions have been raised as to whether this kind of classroom removal whichmay include reassignment in another classroom is equivalent to expulsionsthat occur in public school settings for older children.29 Gilliam, 2004.30 Nores, M., Belfield, C. R., Barnett, W. S., & Schweinhart, L. (2005).Updating the economic impacts of the High/Scope Perry PreschoolProgram. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 27(3), 245-261;Schweinhart, L. J., Montie, J., Xiang, Z., Barnett, W. S., Belfield, C. R., &Nores, M. (2005). Lifetime effects: The High/Scope Perry Preschool studythrough age 40 (Monographs of the High/Scope Educational ResearchFoundation, 14). Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Educational ResearchFoundation.31 Nores et al., 2005.32 Reynolds, A. J., Temple, J., Robertson, D., & Mann, E. (2001). Long-termeffects of an early childhood intervention on educational achievement andjuvenile arrest: A 15-year follow-up of low-income children in public schools.JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 285(18), 2339-2346.33 Reynolds, A. J., Temple, J., Suh-Ruu, O., Robertson, D., Mersky, J. P.,Topitzes, J. W., & Niles, M. D. (2007). Effects of a school-based earlychildhood intervention: A 19-year follow-up of low-income families.Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine 2007, 161, 730-739.34 Zill, N., Resnick, G., Sorongon, A., Kim, K., O’Donnell, K., et al.(2003, April). A whole-child perspective on Head Start reform: Findingson children’s cognitive and socio-emotional development from FACES 2000.Presented at the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in ChildDevelopment, Tampa, FL.35 Puma, M., Bell, S., Cook, R., Heid, C., Lopez, M., Zill, N., et al. (2005).Head Start impact study: First year findings.Washington, DC: US Dept. ofHealth and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families.36 Berlin, L. J., O’Neal, C. R., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2003). Early childhoodintervention research initiatives. In J. Brooks-Gunn, A. S. Fuligni, & L. J.Berlin (Eds.), Early Child Development in the 21st Century (pp. 65-89).New York: Teachers College Press; Brooks-Gunn, J., Berlin, L. J., Leventhal,T., & Fuligni, A. (2000). Depending on the kindness of strangers: Currentnational data initiatives and developmental research. Child Development,71(1), 257-268.37 Love, J. M., Kisker, E. E., Ross, C. M., Schochet, P. Z., Brooks-Gunn, J., etal. (2002).Making a difference in the lives of infants and toddlers and theirfamilies: The impacts of Early Head Start, Executive Summary. RetrievedNovember 21, 2006 from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/opre/ehs/ehs_resrch/reports/impacts_exesum/impacts_exesum.pdf.38 Borge, A. I. H., Rutter, M., Côté, S., & Tremblay, R. E. (2004). Earlychildcare and physical aggression: Differentiating social selection andsocial causation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(2), 367-376.39 Several early childhood curricula with an emphasis on the developmentof social and emotional skills are popular in early education programs.These include Kaiser and Rasminsky’s WEAVAS approach, Hyson’sEmotional Development curriculum, Bailey’s Conscious Discipline, andDiane Trister Dodge and colleagues’ Creative Curriculum. To date, thesecurricula have not been formally studied for their effectiveness, but doshow promise as strategies for addressing children’s social and emotionaldevelopment. Studies of two comprehensive curricula, High/Scope andTools of the Mind, are discussed later in this brief.

40 Bryant, D., Vizzard, L. H., Willoughby, M., & Kupersmidt, J. (1999). Areview of interventions for preschoolers with aggressive and disruptivebehaviors. Early Education and Development, 10(1), 47-68; Joseph, G. E.,& Strain, P. S. (2003). Comprehensive evidence-based social-emotionalcurricula for young children: An analysis of efficacious adoption potential.Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 23(2), 65-76.41 For complete information about the Incredible Years Training programs,see http://www.incredibleyears.com/.42 The Incredible Years Program also includes a parent training component(called the Basic Incredible Years Parenting Program) that uses parentgroup meetings to cover topics similar to those in the teacher training.43Webster-Stratton, C., Reid, M. J., & Hammond, M. (2001). Preventingconduct problems, promoting social competence: A parent and teachertraining partnership in Head Start. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology,30(3), 283-302.44Webster-Stratton, C., Reid, M. J., & Hammond, M. (2004). Treatingchildren with early-onset conduct problems: Intervention outcomes forparent, child, and teacher training. Journal of Clinical Child and AdolescentPsychology, 33(1), 105-124.45 Kuche, C. A. & Greenberg, M. T. (1994). The PATHS curriculum. SouthDeerfield, MA: Channing-Bete Co.46 Domitrovich, C. E., Cortes, R. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (2007). Improvingyoung children’s social and emotional competence: A randomized trial ofthe preschool “PATHS” curriculum. The Journal of Primary Prevention,28(2), 67-91.47 Fox, L., Dunlap, G., & Powell, D. (2002). Young children with challengingbehavior: Issues and considerations for behavior support. Journal of PositiveBehavior Interventions, 4(4), 208-217.48 Fox, Dunlap, & Powell, 2002.49 In recent years, the use of praise in teaching young children has beencalled into question because it: 1) Manipulates children in order to maximizeadult convenience; 2) Creates expectations of praise, turning children into“praise junkies”; 3) Steals the child’s pleasure by telling him or her how tofeel; 4) Results in less interest, not more and; 5) Reduces achievement (seeKohn, A. [2001]. Five reasons to stop saying “Good job!” Young Children,56(6), 24-30.). The adaptation of these ideas has prompted many earlychildhood teachers to change the way they interact with young children,including strategies for dealing with challenging behaviors. However, theswitch away from “good job” language is not without its criticisms fromPositive Behavior Support advocates. They contend that Kohn’s argumentsmisrepresent the positive behavior support field which advocates for posi-tive, descriptive feedback that goes beyond a simple “good job.” They alsocontend that Kohn’s arguments fail to account for years of research sup-porting positive behavior techniques when used appropriately, and that hepresents non-validated alternative strategies (see Strain, P.S. & Joseph, G.E., [2004] A not so good job with “Good job!”: A response to Kohn 2001.Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 6(1), 55-59 for further discussion).What both sides of this debate seem to have in common, however, is theneed for adults to encourage young children’s development in supportiveand meaningful ways.50 Carr, E. G., Horner, R. H., Turnbull, A. P., Marquis, J. G., McLaughlin, D.M., McAtee, M., et al. (1999). Positive behavior support for people withdevelopmental disabilities: A research synthesis.Washington, DC: AmericanAssociation on Mental Retardation.51 Duda, M. A., Dunlap, G., Fox, L., Lentini, R., & Clarke, S. (2004). Anexperimental evaluation of Positive Behavior Support in a community pre-school program. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 24(3), 143-155.52 Hemmeter, M. L., Fox, L., Jack, S., Broyles, L. (in press). A program widemodel of positive behavior support in early childhood settings. Journal ofEarly Intervention.

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53 Committee for Children. (1989). Second Step violence prevention program.Seattle: Author.54 Bryant, D., & Kupersmidt, J. (2002). Results from a classroom andhome-based intervention for preschool aggression. Presentation at HeadStart’s Sixth National Research Conference, Washington, DC.55 Grossman, D. C., Neckerman, H. J., Koepsell, T. D., Liu, P., Asher, K. N.,Beland, K., et al. (1997). Effectiveness of a violence prevention curriculumamong children in elementary school: A randomized controlled trial.Journal of the American Medical Association, 277(20), 1605-1642.56 Serna, L. A., & Nielsen, E. (1999). Self-determination curriculum forpreschoolers. Unpublished manuscript, University of New Mexico,Albuquerque.57 Serna, L., Nielsen, E., Lambros, K., & Forness, S. (2000). Primaryprevention with children at risk for emotional or behavioral disorders:Data on a universal intervention for Head Start classrooms. BehavioralDisorders, 26(1), 70-84.58 Denham, S. A., & Burton, R. (1996). A social-emotional intervention forat-risk 4-year-olds. Journal of School Psychology, 34(3), 225-245.59 Shure, M. (1990). ICPS problem solving techniques for preschool age childrenfor use by teachers (2nd edition). Philadelphia: Hahnemann University;Shure, M.B. (2000). I Can Problem Solve: An interpersonal cognitionproblem-solving program. Champaign, IL: Research Press; Shure, M.B. &Spivack, G. (1979). Interpersonal cognitive problem solving and primaryprevention: Programming for preschool and kindergarten children.Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 2, 89-94.60 Zill et al., 2003.61 Barnett, W.S., Yarosz, D., Thomas, J., Hornbeck, A. (2006). Educationaleffectiveness of a Vygotskian approach to preschool education: A randomizedtrial. New Brunswick, NJ: National Institute for Early Education Research,Rutgers University.62Weikart, D.P. (1998). Changing early childhood development througheducational intervention. Preventive Medicine, 27, 233-237.63 Youngstrom, E., Wolpaw, J. M., Kogos, J. L., Schoff, K., Ackerman, B.,& Izard, C. (2000). Interpersonal problem solving in preschool and firstgrade: Developmental change and ecological validity. Journal of ClinicalChild Psychology, 29(4), 589-602.64Webster-Stratton et al., 2004.65 Fox, L., Dunlap, G., Hemmeter, M.L., Joseph, G., & Strain, P.S. (2003).The teaching pyramid: A model for supporting social competence andpreventing challenging behavior in young children. Young Children, 58 (4),48-52.; Fox, L., & Lentini, R. H. (2006). “You got it!” Teaching social andemotional skills. Young Children, 61(6), 36-42.66 Tremblay, R. E. (2002). Development of physical aggression from earlychildhood to adulthood. In Tremblay, R.E., Barr, R.G., Peters, R.DeV.,(Eds.) Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development [online]. Montreal,Quebec: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development; 2002: 1-6.Retrieved November 1, 2006 from http//www.excellence-earlychildhood.ca/documents/TremblayANGxp.pdf.67 Feil, E. G., Walker, H., Severson, H., & Ball, A. (2000). Proactive screeningfor emotional/behavioral concerns in Head Start preschools: Promisingpractices and challenges in applied research. Behavioral Disorders, 26(1),13-25.68 Feil, E. G., Small, J. W., Forness, S. B., Serna, L. A., Kaiser, A. B., et al.,(2005). Using different measures, informants, and clinical cut-off points toestimate prevalence of emotional or behavioral disorders in preschoolers:Effects on age, gender, and ethnicity. Behavioral Disorders, 30(4), 375-391.;Kaiser, A.P. (2007). Addressing challenging behavior: Systematic problems,systematic solutions. Journal of Early Intervention, 29(2), 114-118.69 Thank you to an anonymous reviewer for making this important point.

70 Strain, P. S., & Joseph, G.E. (2004). Engaged supervision to supportrecommended practices for young children with challenging behavior.Topics in early childhood special education, 24(1), 39-50.71 Kohler, F. W., Anthony, L. J., Steighner, S. A., Hoyson, M. (2001).Teaching social interaction skills in the integrated preschool: Anexamination of naturalistic tactics. Topics in Early Childhood SpecialEducation, 21(2), 93-103.72 McGinnis, E. & Goldstein, A.P. (1990). Skillstreaming in Early Childhood:Teaching prosocial skills to the preschool and kindergarten child. Champaign,IL: Research Press Company.73 Farmer-Dougan, V., Viechtbauer, W., & French, T. (1999). Peer-promptedsocial skills: The role of teacher consultation in student success. EducationalPsychology, 19(2), 207-219.74 Gilliam, (2004).75 Hemmeter, M.L., Fox, L., Jack, S., & Broyles, L. (in press). A programwide model of Positive Behavior Support in early childhood settings.Journal of Early Intervention.

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by Lisa A. McCabe, Ph.D., and Ellen C. Frede, Ph.D.Lisa A. McCabe, Ph.D., is associate director and cooperative extension associate of the Cornell Early Childhood Programat Cornell University. Her work focuses on applied research and outreach in the area of early childhood education.

Ellen C. Frede, Ph.D., is an associate professor at The College of New Jersey and co-director of the National Institute forEarly Education Research. She is a developmental psychologist specializing in early childhood education with extensive

experience in early childhood program implementation and administration.

Challenging Behaviors and the Role of Preschool Education is issue 16 in a series of briefs developed by the NationalInstitute for Early Education Research. It may be used with permission, provided there are no changes in the content.

Available online at nieer.org.

This document was prepared with the support of The Pew Charitable Trusts. The Trusts’ Advancing Pre-Kindergarten for Allinitiative seeks to advance high quality prekindergarten for all the nation’s three-and four-year-olds through objective,policy-focused research, state public education campaigns and national outreach. The opinions expressed in this report

are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of The Pew Charitable Trusts.

120 Albany Street, Suite 500 New Brunswick, New Jersey 08901(Tel) 732-932-4350 (Fax) 732-932-4360

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