Challenges and

Responses, 1882-1896

Self-strengthening, 1880-1884

Consensus in 1880 to break Korea’s isolation and start a moderate course of modernization

Self-strengthening was only loosely coupled with the issue of concluding treaties with Western nations; goal of defending the country against Japan and Russia

Creation of the Office of Management of State Affairs in 1881(T’ongnigimu Amun) modeled after Chinese Tsungli Yamen) but with broader powers

The Office took over the Military Council, foreign affairs, supplies, trade, machinery, and ships

Shift in China’ attitude: Li Hung-chang willing to assist Korea in establishing ties with the West

The king did not undertake more substantial economic measures to secure revenues, for example taxing trade or lifting the ban on mining

Korea-US relations: Commodore Shufeldt’s voyage to stimulate trade with Africa and Asia; Korea was included in his plans; presented letter to the Korean king via the Japanese but was rejected

Li-Shufeldt negotiations in Tientsin, 1881; dependency of Korea disputed by the US (Li even did not want presence of Koreans official), but Shufeldt agreed on Korean king’s letter to US president stating Korea’s dependency

Shufeldt Convention signed in Inch'on in 1882: Korean-American treaty provided exchange of representatives, fixed trade tariffs (10%), extraterritoriality

1882: Treaties with Great Britain (American treaty as

basis plus access to three trade ports) and Germany

Japanese instructor was engaged in training elite

military unit (pyolgigun) in 1881

1882 Incident: soldiers riot and attack on Japanese

legation in Seoul

Hanabusa leaving Korea

The Chinese sent troops to Korea and Japanese

Minister Hanabusa returned to Korea with warships

and more soldiers: first face-off of Chinese and

Japanese troops since Hideyoshi

Brief return of the Taewongun to power; the

Chinese brought him to China in exile

Second phase 1882-1884

Broader self-strengthening program under

leadership of Min

Introduction of Western technologies; specialized

institutions such as Machine Hall and Mint; new

army was augmented with Chinese assistance

Foreign Office in place of T’ongnigimu Amun

(abolished by the Taewongun); foreign advisors:

Moelledorff and Ma Chien-ch’ang

Treaties with Russia and Italy in 1884, with France

1886

Min’s one-sided reliance on the Chinese and use

of self-strengthening for their own

aggrandizement undermined the movement and

caused a split

Kapsin coup 1884 Group of young officials (Kim Ok-kun, Pak Yong-

hyo, So Jae-pil) became fascinated by Japan’s

experiment with Western ideas; Japan as a source of

inspiration, not only humiliation

They studied sirhak (Pak Kyu-su) and were

influenced by Fukuzawa Yukichi a great popularizer

of Western ideas in Meiji Japan

Kim Ok-kyun So Jae-pil

Enlightenment party, kaehwadang: for self-strengthening and independence; inclusion of common people by providing modern education; for fundamental reform of Korea’s political, economic and social structure

Disillusioned with the narrow scope of Min’s program; power struggle; desperate move to gain control over existing structure

Coup on December 4, 1884 (Kapsin) with some Japanese legation’s involvement, 14-point program: equal rights to everyone; reform of land tax system, etc.

The coup lasted three days; the Chinese intervened;

reformers in exile

Yuan Shih-kai, the Chinese proconsul in Korea

Tientsin Convention of 1885, Li Hung-chang-Ito

Hirobumi, without consultations with Koreans

Yuan Shih-kai

The Tientsin Convention: Bilateral withdrawal of

troops; if either side wanted to send troops to

Korea had to notify the other side in advance

Neither China nor Japan wanted war at this time,

and the Convention was face-saving device for

both sides

The Min had lost their main leaders, and the

reformers were in exile in Japan; the Chinese

moved into the power vacuum

China tried to reestablish its traditional suzerainty

in the shifting regional order

Yamagata Aritomo, 1890, memorial on foreign

policy: “cordon of interest” (Korea) and “cordon

of sovereignty” were indispensible for Japan’s

“self-defense and independence”

No military operation recommended

Japan should attempt to persuade Great Britain or

Germany to mediate a joint Sino-Japanese

protectorate over Korea, committed

to “permanent neutrality”

(like Switzerland, Belgium, Serbia,

or Luxemburg)

Ymagata Aritomo

Yamagata: Were Korea to suffer the same fate as

Annam (French colonization), Japan’s “cordon of

sovereignty” through the straits of Tsushima

would be endangered

Tonghak 1894

Resurgence of Tonghak in early 1890s (after

execution of their leader Ch’oe Che-u): churches

and “parishes” with hierarchy were established

Anti-foreign and anti-yangban; many peasants lost

their land

Ch’oe Che-u

Korean village

Tonghak learning stressed “the equality of all

human beings”

The movement amounted to social revolution

From 1892 the peasants started to raid government

offices, killing rich landlords, merchants and

foreigners

The rebels confiscated their victims’ properties

and distributed them to the poor

Chon Pong-jun, a Confucian village teacher (leader

of Kobu county, Cholla Tonghak parish) led a

protest which evolved into uprising

Tonghak rebels defeated government troops; panic

and request for help from the Chinese; truce

Chon Pong-jun Tonghak insurgence

Tonghak marching orders:

“Do not kill or take the peasants' properties

Protect the peasants' rights

Drive out the Japanese and Western people and

purify our sacred land

March to Seoul and purge the government”

Tonghak administrative offices in 53 counties in

Cholla; restoring order and redressing local

government abuses; social and economic reforms

in coordination with central government nominally

headed by Taewongun

New insurgence in October after learning that pro-

Japanese officials forced Taewongun

out; anti-Japanese “righteous army”

Japanese suppression of the rebellion

Kim Ku

Sino-Japanese War 1894-1895

The assassination of Kim Ok-kyun in Shanghai in

1894 strained the relations between China and

Japan

Tonghak rebellion and the involvement of China

and Japan led to direct confrontation

1,500 Chinese troops were sent to Korean June

1894; several hundred Japanese marines marched

to Seoul

Despite the armistice between government and

rebel army (which started to disperse) Ito

government sent more troops (8,000 by end of

June); the rebellion might flare up again and the

Chinese might take advantage (like 1882)

Ito’s plan for joint Sino-Japanese

effort to put down the rebellion

and bring change was rejected

by China; Japan preparing for war

Ito Hirobumi

Punch Vol.107, August 4, 1894

Bear: Ha! Whichever wins,

I see my way into dinner!

Punch, Vol. 107, cover page, 1894

Punch Vol.107, December 22,1894

An Infant phenomenon : Little Jap lecturing on the Art

of War to the European representatives.

Imperial Chinese soldiers in Korea, 1894

Beiyang fleet, battleship Dingyuan

Japanese Imperial Navy, cruiser Matsushima

Japanese troops during the war

Treaty of Shomonoseki 1895:

China recognized Korea’s independence;

ceded Liatong peninsula and Taiwan;

Indemnity (6.4 times the annual

revenue of Japan)

Triple Intervention:

Russia, France, and Germany

forced Japan to give up Liatong peninsula,

Including Port Arthur

Kabo Reforms 1894-1896

First stage: from July to October 1894, Deliberative

Council passed 210 reform bills under leadership of

Kim Hong-jip (moderate reformer); little interference

of Japanese

Second stage: December 1894 “Coalition Cabinet”

Kim Hong-jip and Pak Yong-ho factions under the

supervision of Japanese Minister Inoue Kaoru;

stepping up the pace of reform

Third stage: after assassination of Queen Min on

October 9 1895 until February 11 1896 when king

Kojong fled to Russian legation; under Kim Hong-jip

and also involvement of Independence Club

Politics behind reforms

Japanese plot to oust Min; occupied the royal palace

on July 23 1894 and forced Taewongun to cooperate

(as figurehead)

Minister Otori signed alliance agreement with Korea

in August

Japan sent high-profile official as Minister to Korea to

neutralize possible foreign intervention, Inoe Kaoru;

more assertive style

By the spring of 1895 a total 40 Japanese advisors,

assistant advisers, and secretary-clerks were hired by

the Korean government

The Triple intervention weakened Japanese influence in Korea

The Taewongun approached the Japanese legation; wanted to reform the court (against resurgent Min); Miura agreed, but solicited the support of Japanese nationalists; attack of the palace on October 7 (Japanese soldiers and civilians); murder of Queen Min

New Minister Komura placed priority of military and fiscal reforms

In late November 1895, Yi Pom-jin (pro-Russian official) and Min group members made unsuccessful attempt to attack the palace with small force

In December topknot decree stirred uproar; the “righteous army” attacked local offices and Japanese garrisons and cut Seoul-Pusan telegraph line

February 10 1896, Russian marines moved from Inch’on to Seoul; next day Kojong and his son in the Russian legation

Reforms

Some 660 reform documents

First objective: establish Korea’s independence as a nation

Second: cabinet-centered constitutional monarchy (Japanese style), cabinet with seven ministries

Third: develop a sound system of fiscal management; introduction of modern taxation system

Fourth: security; police – Metropolitan Police

Boards and plans for units in major cities; new

military system – Capital and Local Garrisons

Battalions

Fifth: educational reform – abolition of traditional

service examination system; establishing or

planning modern elementary schools, high schools

and colleges

Sixth: modern judicial system – separation of judicial and executive powers; torture on suspects and extension of punishment to family members were banned, court system

Queen Min’s funeral

Seventh: social reform – social status system was

abolished; class distinction between yangban and

commoners eliminated; slavery abolished

Seoul, 1895

Yangban, 1890s

Discussion group

Confucianism in Korea:

Define features of Confucianism in Korea.

Discuss social norms and hierarchies.

What is common between past and present social values?

Tonghak texts:

Identify ideological influences and the uniqueness of the Eastern Learning

What was revolutionary in the Tonghak’s agenda?

Ch’oe Cheu’s Incantation of Twenty-One Letters:

The Ultimate Energy here and now,

I pray for its great descent.

Serving God,

I am transformed to follow the divine will.

Eternally not forgetting,

I become aware of all.

Kisaeng, example of ch’onmin

ID Questions

5. Tonghak rebellion

6. Kabo reforms