Personality Characteristics

Chapter 13

Individual Differences In Happiness, Arousal, And Control

Why do different people have different

motivational and emotional states even in the same situation?

Happiness

Emotional Set Point

Extraversion and Happiness

Greater Venturesomene

ss (than introverts)

Greater Sociability

(than introverts)

Figure 13.2 Components of Extraversion

Neuroticism and Happiness

AROUSAL

Arousal’s Contribution to Motivation

1. A person’s arousal level is mostly a function of how stimulating the environment is.

2. People engage in behavior to increase or decrease their level of arousal.

3.

When underaroused, people seek out opportunities to increase their arousal levels, because increases in environmental stimulation are pleasurable and enhance performance whereas decreases are aversive and undermine performance.

4.

When overaroused, people seek out opportunities to decrease their arousal levels, because increases in environmental stimulation are aversive and undermine performance whereas decreases are pleasurable and enhance performance.

Performance and Emotion

Insufficient Stimulation and Underarousal

Excessive Stimulation and Overarousal

Human beings harbor motives for counteracting excessive stimulation and overarousal.

Overstimulating, Stressful Environments

Physiological Disruption

Sympathetic, Nervous system,

Hyperactivity

Cognitive Disruption

Confusion, Forgetfulness,

Impaired Concentration

Emotional Disruption

Anxiety, Irritability,

Anger

CRITICISM Of The Inverted-u Hypothesis

Neiss’s Criticism

The inverted-U hypothesis is descriptive rather than explanatory (it stops short of explaining HOW arousal facilitates or impairs performance.

Inverted-U hypothesis applies only when arousal levels are extreme (sensory deprivation studies)- does not apply to everyday affairs in which arousal level changes very little

Sensation Seeking

Sensation Seeking

Search for New Experiences• Sensation seekers continually search for novel experiences.

Risk Taking

• Sensation seekers see sensations and experiences being worth physical, social, legal, or financial risks.

Biological Basis

• Sensation seekers have low levels of monoamine oxidase (MAO).

• Sensation seekers tend to have relatively high levels of dopamine; hence, their biochemistry favors approach over inhibition.

• Sensation seekers tend to have relatively low levels of serotonin; hence, their biochemistry fails to inhibit them from risks and new experiences.

Affect Intensity

Affect-stable individuals

Affect-intense individuals

Figure 13.5 Daily Mood Reports Graphed Over 80 Consecutive Days

Affect Intensity

Figure 13.6 Affective Reactions to Good and Bad Events by Affect-Intense and Affect-Stable Individuals

Control

Perceived Control

In order to perceive that one has control over a given situation…

1. The self must be capable of obtaining the available desired outcome

2. The situation in which one attempts to exercise control needs to be at least somewhat predictable and responsive.

Perceived Control

Perceived Control Beliefs

High Perceived Control

vs.Low Perceived

Control

• Goal setting

• Task choice

• Effort

• Concentration

• Persistence in the face of difficulty

• Positive emotional states

• Problem-solving strategies

• Performance

High Perceived Control A person with high perceived control

Initiates actionExerts effortFocuses concentrationPersists in the face of difficultyDuring performance- keeps plans and strategies in

mind, maintains positive emotional state, monitors problem solving strategies, and generates and monitors feedback

Leads to strong performance and makes control over outcomes possible

Low Perceived Control A person with low perceived control

Seeks out relatively easy tasksSets lower and vaguer goalsGenerates simple plans with fewer fall back strategiesConcentration wandersConfidence is quick to dropAttention often turns to ruminating over why the task is

so difficultAs effort decreases, cognitive and emotional

engagements decline, and discouragement sets in- performance will suffer

Self-Confirming of High and Low Engagement

Aspiration Level

Response to Challenge

PersistenceAttributions for Success and Failure

High DC compared with Low DC

Select harder tasks; set goals more realistically

React with greater effort

Work at difficult task longer

More likely to attribute success to self and failure to unstable source

High DC Benefit

Higher goals are achieved

Difficult tasks are completed

Difficult tasks are completed

Motivation level remains high

High DC Liability

May attempt goals too difficult

May develop performance-inhibiting reactions

May invest too much effort

May develop an illusion of control

Desire for Control

Figure 13.7 Influence of Desire for Control during Achievement-Related Performance (Burger, 1985)

Losing Control High DC individuals exhibit distress, anxiety,

depression, dominance, and assertive coping in situations where their control is threatened or lost

Ex. Visiting the Dentist, Crowding