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CHAPTER 1

EC304

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A little History

What is a computer?

[Merriam-Webster Dictionary] one thatcomputes; specifically : programmableelectronic device that can store, retrieve,

and process data. [Wikipedia] A computer is a machine that

manipulates data according to a list ofinstructions.

Classification of Computers (power and price) Personal computers Mainframes

Supercomputers

Dedicated controllersEmbedded controllers

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Mainframes

Massive amounts of memory

Use large data words64 bits or greater Mostly used for military defense and

large business data processing

Examples: IBM 4381, Honeywell DPS8

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Personal Computers

Any general-purpose computer

intended to be operated directly by an enduser

Range from small microcomputers that work with 4-bitwords to PCs working with 32-bit words or more

They contain a Processor- called different names

Microprocessorbuilt using Very-Large-

Scale Integration technology; the entirecircuit is on a single chip

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Microprocessor Unit (MPU)similar to CPU

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer

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Supercomputers

Fastest and most powerful mainframes Contain multiple central processors (CPU)

Used for scientific applications, and number crunching

Now have teraflops performanceFLoating Point Operations Per Second(FLOPS)

Used to measure the speed f the computer

Examples of special-purpose supercomputers: Belle, Deep Blue, and Hydra, for playing chess

Reconfigurable computingmachines or parts of machines

GRAPE, for astrophysics and molecular dynamics

Deep Crack, for breaking the DEScipher MDGRAPE-3, for protein structure computation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle_(chess_machine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Deep_Bluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydra_(chess)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconfigurable_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRAvity_PipEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Crackhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Encryption_Standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cipherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDGRAPE-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDGRAPE-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDGRAPE-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MDGRAPE-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cipherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Encryption_Standardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Crackhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRAvity_PipEhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconfigurable_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydra_(chess)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Deep_Bluehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle_(chess_machine)

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Microcontrollers

Embedded Systems

An embedded systemis a special-purpose computersystem designed to perform one or a few dedicatedfunctions often with real-time

An integrated device which consists of multiple devices Microprocessor (MPU)

Memory

I/O (Input/Output) ports

Often has its own dedicated software

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An embedded system is some combination of

computer hardware and software, either fixed

in capability or programmable, that is

specifically designed for a particular function.Industrial machines, automobiles, medical

equipment, cameras, household appliances,

airplanes, vending machines and toys (as well

as the more obvious cellular phone and PDA)are among the myriad possible hosts of an

embedded system.

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QUESTION:What is an embedded system?

An embedded system is a single-purpose

computer built into a larger system for the

purposes of controlling and monitoring the

system [1]. A general purpose computer (e.g.a personal computer) is defined notto be an

embedded system.

Examples: cell phones, DSTV decoders, MP3

players, ABS breaking systems, and satelliteguidance avionics.

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Evolution

First came transistors Integrated circuits

SSI (Small-Scale Integration) to ULSI

Very Large Scale Integration circuits (VLSI)

1- Microprocessors (MPU) Microcomputers (with CPU being a microprocessor)

Components: Memory, CPU, Peripherals (I/O)

Example: Personal computers

2- Microcontroller (MCU) Microcomputers (with CPU being a microprocessor)

Many special function peripheral are integrated on a singlecircuit

Types: General Purpose or Embedded System (with specialfunctionalities)

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Microprocessor-Based

Systems

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Block Diagram Of a Basic Computer System

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Microprocessor-Based Systems

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Memory

Input/Output (I/O) circuitry

Buses

Address bus

Data bus

Control bus

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Arithmetic

Logic

Unit

RegisterArrays

Control Unit

CPUCLK Reg

MPU

CPU

Microprocessor-based System

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PROCESSOR

The Chip Process Logic Data1 OR 0

MICRO

SIZE 1X10-6

Microprocessor

The Chip in LOGIC '1 'OR '0 Data Processing

using SemiconductorsTechnology Sized 1x10-6

MI ROPRO ESSOR TERM

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A List of the Types of Microprocessors

RISC-Reduced Instruction Set Computer

Motorola

CISC-Complex Instruction Set Computer

Intel

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17

Processor System Architecture

The typical processor system consists of:

CPU (central processing unit)

ALU (arithmetic-logic unit)

Control Logic

Registers, etc Memory> RAM / ROM

Input / Output interfaces

Interconnections between these units:

Address Bus

Data Bus

Control Bus

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Bus and CPU

Bus: A shared group of wires used for communicating

signals among devices

address bus: the device and the location within the

device that is being accessed

data bus: the data value being communicated control bus: describes the action on the address and data

buses

CPU:Core of the processor, where instructions are executed

High-level language: a = b + c

Assembly language: add r1 r2 r3

Machine language: 0001001010111010101

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Memory and I/O

Memory:Where instructions (programs) and data are stored

Organized in arrays of locations (addresses), each storingone byte (8 bits) in general

A readoperation to a particular location always returns thelast value stored in that location

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Microprocessor-based SystemsMemory Types

R/W: Read/Write Memory; also called

RAM Random Access Menory

It is volatile (losses information as power is

removed) Write means the processor can store information

Read means the processor can receive

information from the memory

Acts like a Blackboard! ROM: Read-Only memory;

It is typically non-volatile (permanent)can be

erasable

It is similar to a Page from your textbook

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I/O devices:Enable system to interact with the world

Device interface (a.k.a. controller or adapter) hardwareconnects actual device to bus

The CPU views the I/O device registers just like

memory that can be accessed over the bus. However,I/O registers are connected to external wires, device

control logic, etc.

Readsmay not return last value written

Writesmay have side effects

Microprocessor-based SystemsI/O Ports

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Microprocessor-based SystemsI/O Ports

The way the computer communicates with the

outside world devices

I/O ports are connected to Peripherals

Peripherals are I/O devices Input devices

Output devices

Examples

Printers and modems,

keyboard and mouse

scanner

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

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23

The Bus Structure

The 8-bit 8085 CPU (or MPUMicro Processing Unit)communicates with the other units using a 16-bit address

bus, an 8-bit data bus and a control bus.

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The Bus Structure

A wire is used to transfer a signal from one point to another. A groupof wires is called bus.

In the microcomputer system, there are three buses (data, address,and control) to connect the microprocessor (CPU) to eachof thedevices in the microcomputer system such as memory and I/Odevices.

These buses will carry (sending or receiving) all the information andsignals involved in the system operation from one device to another.

Bus Category: Internal Bus (Inside Computer)

External Bus (Peripheral such as printer, fax etc)

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25

The 8085 DataBus Structure

Data Bus

Bidirectional bus (Two way), because data can flow toor f rom

the CPU.

The size of data bus is determined by the number of lines

(bits) which is also called data size. Numbers of bit the CPU can handle at any one time.

Data lines are label Dn: D0, D1, .. D6, D7

Consists of 8 data lines: D0D7

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The 8085 DataBus Structurecont

Operates in bidirectionalmode: The data bitsare sent from the MPU to peripheral devices,

as well as from the peripheral devices to the

MPU.

Data range: 00 (hex)FF (hex)

Intel 8085 microprocessor has 8 bits data bus

In other words, the CPU can handle, or data

bus can transfer8 bitsdata in parallels imul taneously, thus determine the speed of

data transfer.

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The 8085 DataBus Structurecont

The same data bus (bits) can be set to either

inputsor outputsdepending on whether the

CPU is performing a reador a wri teoperation

respectively.

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28

The 8085 AddressBus Structure

Address Bus

Consists of 16 address lines: A0A15

Operates in unidirectionalmode: The

address bits are always sent from the MPU to

peripheral devices, not reverse.

16 address lines are capable of addressing a total of 216 = 65,536 (64k) memory locations.

Address locations: 0000 (hex)FFFF (hex)

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The 8085 AddressBus Structure

Unidirectional bus (one way), because

information flows over it in only one direction, i.e.

from CPU to the memory or I/O elements.

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The 8085 AddressBus Structurecont.

The number of address lines (address bus size)determine the number of memory cells that CPU canhandle.

For instance, the Intel 8085 has 16 bits of address bus : n= 16 bits (Size of address bus):

Address bus is labelled An: A0, A1, .. A14, A15

2n= 216 = 65536

CPU can handle or address 65536 single cells (each cellhas 8 bits data size) of memory.

In other words, 16 bit address lines can represent 65536memory location.

In other words, 16 bit address lines can represent 65536memory location: 0 to 65535 locations, addressed as 0000h to FFFFh

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The 8085 ControlBus Structurecont.

Consists of various lines carrying the control signals such as

read / write enable, flag bits.

This is the set of signals that is used to synchronize the

activities of the separate microcomputer elements.

Control bus consists some individual lines for sending and

some others for receiving signals from CPU, thus control bus

is bidirectional(Two Way)

For instance, CPU sendscontrol signals (Read/Write) to the

memory or I/O devices to tell them either to be set to receive

or send data respectively. CPU sendControl signal : Read Action: CPU receivedata

CPU sendControl signal : Write Action: CPU senddata

Contrary, CPU receivessignal from other elements; for

instance, Resetsignal will tell CPU to reset the on going

operation, and INTRsignal causes CPU to interrupt an on

going process.

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The bus system of a microcomputer system

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Evolution of CPUs

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http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.computermuseum.li/Testpage/VacuumTubesUNIVAC-RemRand.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.computermuseum.li/Testpage/UNIVAC-VacuumTube.htm&usg=__k3iYiaPIlTMiXnnP_gVnZBT1T5U=&h=459&w=307&sz=54&hl=en&start=3&um=1&tbnid=nGc5gGVKjlhP9M:&tbnh=128&tbnw=86&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dvacuum%2Btube%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:en-us:IE-SearchBox%26rlz%3D1I7GGLL_en%26sa%3DN

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Transistors

Vacuum Tubes: A devise to control,modify, and amplify electric signals

Then can transistors

Designed by John Bardeen,

William Shockley, and WalterBrattain, scientists at the BellTelephone Laboratories inMurray Hill, New Jersey - 1947

In 1960 Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce

designed the first integrated circuit(IC)

Fairchild company manufacturedlogic gates

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.germes-online.com/direct/dbimage/50284137/Power_Transistor.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.germes-online.com/catalog/87/128/76844/sell_power_transistor.html&usg=__GK3ycrVQ-av4ogxg18JawWrYu8U=&h=360&w=360&sz=16&hl=en&start=1&um=1&tbnid=tNTU3oZUoo9F0M:&tbnh=121&tbnw=121&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dtransistor%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:en-us:IE-SearchBox%26rlz%3D1I7GGLL_en%26sa%3DNhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.germes-online.com/direct/dbimage/50284137/Power_Transistor.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.germes-online.com/catalog/87/128/76844/sell_power_transistor.html&usg=__GK3ycrVQ-av4ogxg18JawWrYu8U=&h=360&w=360&sz=16&hl=en&start=1&um=1&tbnid=tNTU3oZUoo9F0M:&tbnh=121&tbnw=121&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dtransistor%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:en-us:IE-SearchBox%26rlz%3D1I7GGLL_en%26sa%3DNhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.germes-online.com/direct/dbimage/50284137/Power_Transistor.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.germes-online.com/catalog/87/128/76844/sell_power_transistor.html&usg=__GK3ycrVQ-av4ogxg18JawWrYu8U=&h=360&w=360&sz=16&hl=en&start=1&um=1&tbnid=tNTU3oZUoo9F0M:&tbnh=121&tbnw=121&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dtransistor%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:en-us:IE-SearchBox%26rlz%3D1I7GGLL_en%26sa%3DNhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.germes-online.com/direct/dbimage/50284137/Power_Transistor.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.germes-online.com/catalog/87/128/76844/sell_power_transistor.html&usg=__GK3ycrVQ-av4ogxg18JawWrYu8U=&h=360&w=360&sz=16&hl=en&start=1&um=1&tbnid=tNTU3oZUoo9F0M:&tbnh=121&tbnw=121&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dtransistor%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:en-us:IE-SearchBox%26rlz%3D1I7GGLL_en%26sa%3DNhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.germes-online.com/direct/dbimage/50284137/Power_Transistor.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.germes-online.com/catalog/87/128/76844/sell_power_transistor.html&usg=__GK3ycrVQ-av4ogxg18JawWrYu8U=&h=360&w=360&sz=16&hl=en&start=1&um=1&tbnid=tNTU3oZUoo9F0M:&tbnh=121&tbnw=121&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dtransistor%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:en-us:IE-SearchBox%26rlz%3D1I7GGLL_en%26sa%3DNhttp://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.computermuseum.li/Testpage/VacuumTubesUNIVAC-RemRand.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.computermuseum.li/Testpage/UNIVAC-VacuumTube.htm&usg=__k3iYiaPIlTMiXnnP_gVnZBT1T5U=&h=459&w=307&sz=54&hl=en&start=3&um=1&tbnid=nGc5gGVKjlhP9M:&tbnh=128&tbnw=86&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dvacuum%2Btube%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:en-us:IE-SearchBox%26rlz%3D1I7GGLL_en%26sa%3DN

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Integrated Circuits

Advances inmanufacturing allowedpacking more transistorson a single chip

Transistors andIntegrated Circuits fromSSI (Small-ScaleIntegration) to ULSI

Birth of a

microprocessor and itsrevolutionary impact

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Microprocessors

Noyce and GordonMoore started Intel

Intel designed he firstcalculator

Intel designed the firstprogrammable calculator

Intel designed the firstmicroprocessor in 1971

Model 4004

4-bit; 2300transistors, 640bytes of memory,108 KHz clockspeed

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First Processors

Intel released the 8086, a 16-bit microprocessor,in 1978

Motorola followed with the MC68000 as their 16-bit processor

The 16-bit processor works with 16 bit words,rather than 8 bit words

Instructions are executed faster

Provide single instructions for more complex

instructions such as multiply and divide 16 bit processors evolved into 32 bit processors

Intel released the 80386

Motorola released the MC68020

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Evolution of CPUs

In 1965, Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel, indicated that the number of transistors per squareinch on integrated

circuits had doubled every yearsince the integrated circuit was invented. Moore predicted that this trend wouldcontinue for the foreseeable future.

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Evolution of CPUs

Tukwila

World's First 2-Billion Transistor

Microprocessor - Next-generation Intel

Itanium processors (codenamed Tukwila)

http://www.intel.com/technology/architecture-silicon/2billion.htm

http://www.intel.com/technology/architecture-silicon/2billion.htmhttp://www.intel.com/technology/architecture-silicon/2billion.htmhttp://www.intel.com/technology/architecture-silicon/2billion.htmhttp://www.intel.com/technology/architecture-silicon/2billion.htm

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Remember

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Terminologies

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BIT (Binary Digit)

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8 bit = 1Byte

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Data / File size

bit = 1 bit

byte = 8 bits

Kilobyte = 1024 bytes = 2^10

Megabyte = 1024 kilobytes = 2^20

Gigabyte = 1024 megabytes

Terabyte = 1024 gigabytes

Petabyte = 1,048,576 gigabytes Exabyte = 1,073,741,824 gigabytes

Zettabyte = 1,099,511,627,776 gigabytes

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Disk storage capacity

Processor or VirtualStorage

1 Bit = Binary Digit

8 Bits = 1 Byte

1024 Bytes = 1 Kilobyte

1024 Kilobytes = 1 Megabyte

1024 Megabytes = 1 Gigabyte

1024 Gigabytes = 1 Terabyte

1024 Terabytes = 1 Petabyte

1024 Petabytes = 1 Exabyte

1024 Exabytes = 1 Zettabyte

1024 Zettabytes = 1 Yottabyte

1024 Yottabytes = 1 Brontobyte

1024 Brontobytes = 1 Geopbyte

Disk Storage

1 Bit = Binary Digit

8 Bits = 1 Byte

1000 Bytes = 1 Kilobyte

1000 Kilobytes = 1 Megabyte

1000 Megabytes = 1 Gigabyte

1000 Gigabytes = 1 Terabyte

1000 Terabytes = 1 Petabyte

1000 Petabytes = 1 Exabyte

1000 Exabytes = 1 Zettabyte

1000 Zettabytes = 1 Yottabyte

1000 Yottabytes = 1 Brontobyte

1000 Brontobytes = 1 Geopbyte

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CISC

4-bit 8-bit 16-bit 32-bit 64-bit

4044 80088080

8085

80868088

80-286/386/486Pentium Family

(MMX, Pro, II, III, IV)

Itanium^

68006809

M68000 Family(000*,020,040)

Z80

6502

Motorola

Intel

Zilog

WesternDesign Center

65C816

x86 compatibleAMD, Cyrix, Via

MI ROPRO ESSOR EVOLUTION

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