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Chapter 2 AcademicWriting.

Planning discovering and compilingideasShaping organize your materialDrafting - writing your material into

sentences and paragraphsRevising evaluate and rewrite by adding,deleting, rewording, and rewordingEditing check for grammar, spelling,

punctuation and mechanicsProofread read to determine any errors

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Not all topics are suitable forACADEMIC WRITING.

Topic has to have enough ideas andissues meaty enough to demonstrateyour thinking and writing ability

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WRITING AS PROCESS: AN OVERVIEW

Think of writing as a process: a set of

activities you go through to produce a

finished product.

This process has three distinct stages:

Planning and Shaping, Drafting, and

Revising/ Editing.

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Chapter 2 How to come up with ideas

Freewrite write nonstop

Brainstorm list everything you can

about a topic. Words, phrases,whatever comes top mind

Journalists questions who, what,

when, where, why, how Mapping - visual brainstorming

Talk it over

Read and Browse

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CLARIFYING GOALS

PURPOSE: What do you want thereader to know, do, or feel as a resultof reading your text?

Are you informing, evaluating,persuading, or entertaining?

AUDIENCE: Who are your readers?What is their approximate age/interest and knowledge level/

educational level in your subject? Arethey experts, general public, yourpeers or fellow students?

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PLANNING AND SHAPING

Find a focus that fits your purpose andaudience before you start.

Gather ideas:

Keep a journal.

Brainstorm or jot down lists of ideas.

Free writing - let your mind go. Mind mapping / idea trees.

5 Ws - (Who, What, When, Where, and

Why)

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WRITING OR DRAFTING

Getting your ideas into visible form:

Prioritize your ideas.

Write complete sentences.

Divide text into paragraphs.

Organize paragraphs into Introduction,Body and Close.

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EDITING: EVALUATING YOUR DRAFTCRITICALLY AND MAKING CHANGES

Large-scale changes: adding text, cutting,

replacing words/phrases, rearranging

parts.

Editing: checking the correctness of

grammar, spelling, punctuation and

mechanics.

Proofreading: are there any typos?

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WRITING AS PROCESS: LETS COMPAREMETHODS

Think of the most unusual or eccentric person you

have ever met.

In 20 minutes, write a paragraph describing thisperson to your classmates. Concentrate on getting

each sentence right as you go.

Do not rewrite your paragraph.

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PLANNING AND SHAPING: PART I

About your person, answer these questions:

When/where did you meet?

What does he or she look/sound like?Face/ clothing/ hair/ body/ language/accent?

What are his or her tastes in movies/books/ music/ food/ cars?

How did he or she surprise/ teach/inspire you?

Why should your classmates be

interested in him or her?

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PLANNING AND SHAPING: PART II

Close your eyes and imagine X doingsomething he or she typically does.Imagine every detail.

Freewrite for 5 minutes about your image. Write quickly.

Dont edit as you go - just put down the

words as fast as you can. If you get stuck, just write Im stuck,

Im stuck until you think ofsomething.

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DRAFTING

FOCUSING:

Look at your free writing paragraph.

Take a new page and write down in onesentence Xs single most striking/unusual feature.

DRAFTING:

Write a paragraph developing the ideayou just wrote down.

Use any relevant details from your list orfree writing.

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REVISING & EDITING

REVISING: Your classmates are theaudience. Will you need additional detailfor them to visualize what you mean?Make those additions now.

EDITING: Check your paragraph forcorrectness of sentence structure,grammar, spelling and punctuation andcorrect errors now.

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REVISING

DETAIL: How have the details youmentioned helped create the centralimpression of the painting?

ORGANIZATION: Is your paragraphorganized? Is it coherent? Does it supportyour core sentence?

WORD CHOICE: Are your words precise?Replace any vague words with moreprecise ones.

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Chapter 2 Thesis Statement

Thesis statement is the central ideaof your essay.

It states the essays subject

It conveys the essays purpose,informative or persuasive

It indicates your focus the assertion

that presents your point of view

It uses specific language

It may be briefly state the major

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THESIS SENTENCES FOR REVISION

Which of the following thesis sentencesare effective? Ineffective?

Explain what is wrong with each of theineffective theses and revise them.

Assume an essay of 500 words and an

audience of generally educated adultswhom you do not know personally.

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SAMPLE THESIS #1

ORIGINAL: George Washington was the firstpresident of the United States.

REVISED: As the first president of the UnitedStates, George Washington had to resistthose who wanted to turn him into a king.

The original sentence is a statement of

fact, something accepted as true ratherthan a worthwhile assertion.

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SAMPLE THESIS #2

ORIGINAL: Student government at myuniversity is worthless.

REVISED: Student government at myuniversity has no money, no power, and nomandate.

The original sentence is unrestricted, witha vague predicate. It sounds like what willfollow will be an emotional tirade ratherthan sound reason.

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Chapter 2 Elements in an informative essay

Introductory paragraph

Thesis statement central messageand appears in the introductoryparagraph

Background information provides acontext for understanding the points

Points of discussion supports thethesis statement

Concluding paragraph

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Chapter 2 Outline

Outline shows the relationshipamong ideas in a piece of writing.

Use complete sentences

Start with Roman numerals Bigideas

Indent and go to Capital letters subjects under the big ideas

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THE INFORMAL OUTLINE

May be all that is needed to get started.

Valuable tool for timed writing, such asexams, as well as for writing with a

deadline. Can take any shape the writer finds

useful.

Useful in revision. Checks organization of what has been

written.

May reveal flaws and show what needs

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THE FORMAL OUTLINE

Often produced for others.

Rules for the formal outline:

Use consistent numbers for headings

and subheadings. Follow either topic, sentence, or

paragraph style throughout the outline.

Use parallel structure. Avoid vague headings such as

Introduction, Body, andConclusion.

Make sure to state your thesis at the top

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OUTLINE FORMAT

THESIS STATEMENT

I. First main idea

A. First subordinate idea

1. First reason or example

2. Second reason or example

B. Second subordinate ideaII. Second main idea

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Chapter 3 Writing Paragraphs, Shapingessays

Paragraph is a logical unit that develops a singleidea, often expressed as a topic sentence. Eachsentence contributes to the papers thesis.

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REVISING FOR PARAGRAPH UNITY

Read the following paragraph carefully.

Find the main idea, state it in a single

sentence (topic sentence). Revise the paragraph to support that idea.

Omit irrelevant details.

Rearrange and condense material asnecessary.

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SAMPLE PARAGRAPH #1

Now 97, Margaret Prescott remembers that the friends shemade in her childhood were people who lived within two orthree blocks of her house, and that was it. Today, we visitpeople who live 10-100 miles from where we are located on adaily basis with no problem. She remembers when McKinleywas shot in the third grade; the newsboys who ran through the

streets shouting Extra! Extra! Extra! she went to Mt HolyokeCollege in south Hadley, Massachusetts. Getting to the collegewas a chore: To get to South Hadley you had to get yourselfto Boston by train, transfer stations, catch the train forSpringfield, take a trolley car to the nearest town, which wasHolyoke, and then get from there to South Hadley by horseand wagon and unload your bags. Once you were there you

were lucky if you got to go home for Thanksgiving. Herhusband worked for a family-owned firm which was ablacksmith shop. They made steel rims which would go aroundwooden spoked wheels on horse-drawn carriages and someother various parts. Then, as cars came with time, they madecustom parts and did interior work. The first car they ever hadwas made by Ford and was called a Falcon Night; it wasmade in 1919 and had fold-out rumble seats in the back.

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REVISED FOR UNITY

Listening to Margaret Prescott, 97, it becomes apparent thatshe lived through the evolution of transportation in America.Although we think nothing of visiting people who live 100miles away, she remembers that in her childhood, the onlyfriends her family made lived within two or three blocks of her

house, and that was it. Later, when she went to college (Mt.Holyoke, South Hadley, Massachusetts) she found gettingthere a chore: To get to South Hadley you had to get yourselfto Boston by train, transfer stations, catch the train forSpringfield, take a trolley car to the nearest town, which wasHolyoke, and then get from there to South Hadley by horseand wagon and unload your bags. Once you were there youwere lucky if you got to go home for Thanksgiving. When shemarried, her husband worked for a family-owned blacksmithshop which made steel rims for the wooden-spoked wheels onhorse-drawn carriages. When cars came, the shop switched tocustom parts and interior work. The first car she and herhusband ever had was a Falcon Night, made by Ford in 1919;it came complete with fold-out rumble seats in back.

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REVISING FOR COHERENT SPATIALARRANGEMENT

Descriptions are easier to follow whenorganized according to a coherent spatialorder: top to bottom, left to right, inside tooutside, and so on.

Revise the following paragraph.

Place sentences in a coherent spatial

arrangement so your reader can staylocated.

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REVISED FOR SPATIAL ARRANGEMENT

Everything about the family home in Fairfield, Connecticut,reminds me of my heritage. The great stone wall surroundingthe house, with no mortar to hold the stones together, wasplaced there by my ancestors. The wall, however picturesque,also served a practical purpose: it made a convenient way toget rid of the rocks left behind by glaciers. Looking beyond the

wall to the house itself, one sees the monotony of the thickwindows broken up by an immense door with a character of itsown. Its two sections open separately; the upper sectionsports an antique brass eagle knocker. Above the door is anelaborate stained-glass window shaped in a half-circle.Stepping inside the house one immediately notices the floor oflong, wooden planks whose unevenness makes the house

seem unbalanced. The foundation - the original foundation -has settled unevenly. The cast-iron fireplaces have specialareas for baking bread. The high, decorative ceiling creates afeeling of airiness. Other attributes include various steepswirling staircases, a trap door, and several smallcompartments. As a child I found these compartments a placeof refuge - just as my grandmother probably had.

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REVISING FOR COHERENCE: CLIMACTICARRANGEMENT

Paragraphs can often be made morecoherent and more emphatic by arrangingdetails or examples in order of increasingimportance - saving the best for last.

Revise the following paragraph.

Position the sentences and parts ofsentences in climactic order.

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SAMPLE PARAGRAPH #3

Parents should spend more time providing theirchildren with guidance and assistance, as opposed topunishment and criticism. Part of ensuring a childsmental and physical well-being is letting her knowshe is loved for what she is. But parents all too often

place conditions on their love. Children learn tounderstand that they will be loved only if they getgood grades. A B grade may be all right, but welllove you more if you get an A. As Kathie Durbinpoints out in her article Grappling with Grades,children are an investment in time. Knowing the childand her abilities and limitations takes time and care.

That means time spent just talking about anythingthats important in the childs eyes. It means timespent together learning for fun. And it means timeat the library and at home reading together. These

are the things that can motivate a child, i.e., mold achilds positive attitude toward learning at an early

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REVISED FOR CLIMACTIC ARRANGEMENT

Part of motivating a child is letting her know she isloved for who she is. All too often parents placeconditions on their love: a B grade may be all right,but well love you more if you get an A. Childrenlearn that they will be loved only if they get goodgrades. As Kathie Durbin points out in her articleGrappling with Grades, children are an investmentin time. Knowing the child - abilities, limitations andall - takes time and care: time at the library and athome reading together, time spent together learningfor fun, time spent just talking about anythingthats important to the child, time providingguidance and assistance as opposed to punishmentand criticism. These are the things that can motivatea child to learn.

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REVISING PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT:COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

Comparison (which usually impliescontrast) is a strategy of development thatallows you to emphasize your point by

inviting the reader to see how it is like (orunlike) something he or she is familiarwith.

Revise the following paragraph,strengthening the point by introducingcomparison to the roles expected of boys.

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SAMPLE PARAGRAPH #4

Sex role stereotyping begins in early infancyand develops into outright discrimination bythe age of puberty. Right from birth, certain

prejudices and preconceptions aretelegraphed to girls. Girl babies are coddledand cooed over. Toys are also chosen withspecific connotations in mind. Girls get

Barbie dolls, tea sets, nurses kits, mini-stoves. Later they go to ballet classes, pianolessons, and bake brownies with mom. Girlsare isolated at home and learn to fear the

world at large.

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REVISED TO INTRODUCE COMPARISON

Sex role stereotyping begins in infancy and developsinto outright discrimination by the age of puberty.Right from birth, boys and girls are treateddifferently; different prejudices and preconceptionsare telegraphed to them. Boy babies are hoisted androughhoused, girls are coddled and cooed over. Toysare also chosen with specific connotations in mind.Boys receive do-it-yourself kits, chemistry labs,baseballs, model ships. Girls get Barbie dolls, teasets, nurses kits, mini-stoves. Later, boys ski, campand play football with dad. Girls go to ballet classes,take piano lessons, and bake brownies with mom.Whereas boys are taught about organization and areexposed to social contacts, girls are isolated at homeand learn to fear the world at large.

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REVISING FOR DEVELOPMENT: CAUSE ANDEFFECT

When you find yourself trying to explainwhy something happened, or happens,you are probably thinking about cause and

effect relationships. Recognizing that you are doing so may

help you to sharpen the focus of anotherwise sprawling paragraph.

Revise the following paragraph,emphasizing the various causes of theAmerican tendency to take sports

seriously.

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SAMPLE PARAGRAPH #5

One might ask: why are people so serious about sports? Theanswers to this question could be many. For one, people canrelease their aggressions through sports. Kicking a ball, hittingit with a bat, punching another man in the face can feel goodfor both participants and spectators. Just think, one man canget in a boxing ring with another and beat him up and itsperfectly all right. All right, people love to see it. They cheerthem on, Yeah, Ali, get him on the left, the left. Ah, hesdown, hes down! Some people make bets on the game. Ifthey win, great, but think of the risk people are willing to takeon a boxing match or a horse race. Sports can be healthy. Itsgood exercise, and again a good way to get out someaggressions, its legal, you can almost always find someoneelse who wants to play. Sometimes I think sports can bepolitical. When judges announce the score in Olympic games,why is it certain countries that are allies will give the samescores to a country they are not friendly with? Americans arealways more aware of U.S. against U.S.S.R. than U.S. againstCanada.

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REVISED TO EMPHASIZE CAUSE AND EFFECT

Why do Americans take sports so seriously? Nodoubt, there are many reasons. Sports are legal, forone, and they provide good exercise. People canrelease their aggressions through sports: kicking aball, hitting it with a bat, punching an opponent in

the face. Those who do not participate in sportsthemselves can indulge their aggressive appetitesvicariously. They cheer as one man beats up anotherin the ring; they may become even more involved byplacing bets. When the Olympics roll around, rootingfor the home team may even take on politicalovertones. Few get as excited watching the Americanteam play against Canada as they do when Russia isthe opponent. Even the judges reflect thispartisanship, giving higher scores to athletes fromtheir allies countries. Why take sports seriously?

Because the nations pride is at stake.

INTRODUCTORY STRATEGIES SOME

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INTRODUCTORY STRATEGIES: SOMEGUIDELINES FOR INTRODUCTORY

PARAGRAPHS

Provide relevant background information. Tell a brief interesting story or anecdote. Give a pertinent statistic or statistics. Ask one or more provocative questions. Use an appropriate quotation. Make a useful analogy.

Define a term used throughout the essay.CAUTION: Dont open with a dictionarydefinition of a term your audiencealready knows the meaning of - unlessyou intend to disagree with thedictionary.

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AVOID THESE IN INTRODUCTORYPARAGRAPHS

Stating the obvious:

In this paper I will discuss the causesof falling oil prices.

My assignment is to discuss Hamletsindecision.

Apologizing: Im not sure Im right, buthere is my opinion.

Clichs: Haste makes waste, War ishell, etc.

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CONCLUDING STRATEGIES: SOMEGUIDELINES

Use the devices suggested for introductoryparagraphs; avoid using the same device

in the introduction and the conclusion. Summarize the main points of the essay.

Call for awareness and/or action.

Point to the future.

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WHAT TO AVOID IN CONCLUDINGPARAGRAPHS

Avoid going off track: Dont introduce a new ideaor fact that belongs in the body of the essay.

Avoid rewording the introduction: If the two partsof your essay are interchangeable, you need to

revise. Avoid announcing what you have done: e.g., In

this paper I have tried to show the main causesfor

Avoid making absolute claims: Thisprovesthat Use This seems to prove that

Avoid logical fallacies: Conclusions arevulnerable to errors in reasoning.

Avoid apologizing: This casts doubt on your

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Drafting and Revising

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THREE WAYS TO DRAFT

Get started.

Dont wait untilyou have everydetail.

Your plan is likelyto change as youwrite.

Remember that

There will be a

second draft,and perhaps athird or fourth.

Press on. Donttry to solveevery problem

as you go.

After planning, you are ready to write.

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WRITE A DISCOVERY DRAFT

Put aside all your notes from planning andshaping.

As you write, be open to discovering ideasand making connections.

When you finish a Discovery Draft, you

can use it as your first draft or as part ofyour notes.

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WRITE A STRUCTURED FIRST DRAFT

Use your notes from planning and shapingas you write.

Work through all of your material.

Draft either the entire essay or one or twoparagraphs at a time, depending on the

length of your essay.

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COMBINE APPROACHES

When you know the shape of the material,write according to that structure.

When you feel stuck about what to saynext, switch to writing as you would for aDiscovery Draft.

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HOW CAN YOU GET THE PERSPECTIVE TOREVISE YOUR ESSAY WELL?

Use an outline to revise: number eachparagraph, then write a word/phrase thatsummarizes the paragraph.

If you cannot summarize it, you probablyhave too many ideas in one paragraph.

Ask yourself:

What central idea (thesis) do your phrases addup to?

Are there repetitions of ideas?

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REVISING FOR EVIDENCE AND DETAIL

While one early draft may be a profusion of detailwithout order, another may be fairly wellorganized, but empty, lacking concrete detail orevidence.

Remember that your reader cant follow you toyour conclusion if you havent given them enoughof the evidence that got you there.

Read your copy of the first draft of Role Your Ownand ask yourself:

What points need to be expanded?

What key assertions go unsupported?

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ROLE YOUR OWN

Anne was a young girl with two children. Pregnantwith her first at sixteen, she dropped out of school.At this point it was obvious her life was going to have

some drastic change. She would not graduate fromhigh school as her friends would. With no job, shelived off welfare in a tenement. After two years, shehad a second child. This one she sold on the blackmarket. Anne had lost all sense of direction in her

life. What she was living with was a role she hated.She wanted to make a change in her life, butcouldnt.

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ROLE YOUR OWN (cont)

Though society may dictate roles to those who haveno identity of their own, with time and thought, onecan choose his (or her) own role. Some people mayshow this in a large and obvious way. Others do it a

little at a time.My first two years in high school were a completedisaster. I was not happy in the schools I was placedin. I skipped a lot of classes and was labeled a

delinquent. Then I went through a metamorphosis. Iwent to a new school where I proved that anindividual, along with a little help from friends, canpull him/herself together and take on a new andbetter role.

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ROLE YOUR OWN (cont)

In the film, Diner, Beth is what the societyof her time (the fifties) considered a fulfilledwoman because she was married. At thattime the role of women was on the verge ofchange with still a long way to go. Womenwere not nearly as career-minded andrights-oriented as their sixties counterparts

were to become. Instead, a womansaspiration was to be married. But Beth is notso sure this is her aspiration. She questionsher status.

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ROLE YOUR OWN (cont)

Women are a prime example of how a group ofpeoples roles can change with time and thought. Upuntil recently, women had limited rights and specific

duties. Then, there seemed to be an awakeningconsciousness to the opportunities that could existfor women. Maybe Beth couldnt change; perhapsshe lived too early. But I changed and so did Anne,who went on to become an investment broker. Once

a person can realize what is most important to themin life, they can begin to mold their own role outsideof what society may expect of them.

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REVISING ROLE YOUR OWN

1. Anne was a young girl with two children.Pregnant with her first at sixteen, shedropped out of school. At this point it wasobvious her life was going to have some

drastic change. She would not graduatefrom high school as her friends would.With no job, she lived off welfare in atenement. After two years, she had asecond child. This one she sold on the

black market. Anne had [lost all sense ofdirection] in her life. What she was livingwith was a role she hated. She wanted tomake a change in her life, but couldnt.

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REVISING ROLE YOUR OWN (cont)

2. Though society may dictate roles to those whohave no identity of their own, with time andthought, one can choose his (or her) own role.Some people may show this in a large andobvious way. Others do it a little at a time.

3. My first two years in high school were [acomplete disaster]. I was not happy in theschools I was placed in. I skipped a lot of classesand was labeled a delinquent. Then I went

through a metamorphosis. I went to a new schoolwhere I proved that an individual, along [with alittle help from friends], can [pull him/herselftogether] and take on a new and better role.

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REVISING ROLE YOUR OWN (cont)

4. In the film, Diner, Beth is what thesociety of her time (the fifties)considered a fulfilled woman becauseshe was married. At that time the role ofwomen was on the verge of change withstill a long way to go. Women were notnearly as career-minded and rights-

oriented as their sixties counterpartswere to become. Instead, a womansaspiration was to be married. But Beth isnot so sure this is her aspiration. She

questions her status.

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REVISING ROLE YOUR OWN (cont)

5. Women are a prime example of how a group ofpeoples roles can change with time and thought.Up until recently, women had limited rights andspecific duties. Then, there seemed to be an

awakening consciousness to the opportunitiesthat could exist for women. Maybe Beth couldntchange; perhaps she lived too early. But Ichanged and so did Anne, who went on tobecome an investment broker. Once a person

can [realize what is most important to them inlife], they can begin to mold their own roleoutside of what society may expect of them.