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CGE 46

INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM

TECHNOLOGY

TENGKU AMRAN TENGKU MOHD

Department of Oil & Gas Engineering

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

UiTM Shah Alam

BY:

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Overview of Petroleum Play3

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Source rocks, Generation, Migrationand Accumulation of Petroleum

Structural Geology, Petroleum Traps

Outline

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After completing this chapter, you should be ableto:

Describe the origin, generation, migration and

accumulation of petroleum. Discuss the five main controls/ elements on

petroleum accumulation.

Identify several structural geology features and

how they can serve as petroleum traps.

Objectives

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Overview

WHAT IS THE PETROLEUM PLAY???

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Overview

Petroleum Playis a perception (or model) of how

reservoir rocks, a petroleum charge system, and a

trapping configuration may combine to create

petroleum accumulations at a specific

stratigraphic level.

adapted from Allen, 1990

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Plants and

animals die

Organic

sedimentation

occur (primarily in

a waterenvironment)

Sedimentation

continue withincreasing

overburden

pressure

Organic debris

deposited together

with other materials

(through

lithification)

Primary theory (generation of HC by organic evolution)

Sediments

move

deeper into

the earth

Depth,Temp +

Geologic timepasses + chemical

action (Organic

debris HC)

Origin of Petroleum

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Origin of Petroleum

Conversion of the organic material is called

Catagenesis(assisted by pressure caused by burial,

temperature and thermal alteration and degradation.

The organic origin of petroleum is strongly suggested by

the great quantities of organic compounds continuously

being deposited in sedimentary basins around the world.

Plant and animals remains contain abundant carbon and

hydrogen.

Variations in the compositions of different crude oils (due

to chemical variation in the composition of organic

material)

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From transformation of biomatter.

The biogenic origin of petroleum is widely accepted on thebasis of geochemical studies.

In low-energy environment (shallow marine environment),

fine-grained sediments are slowly deposited. Oxygen depletion takes place lead to anaerobiccondition.

Anaerobic bacteria reduce the organic compound by theremoval of oxygen from molecules BUT did not attack

C-C bond of HC. This condition highly preserve the organic matter.

In high-energy environment (aerobic)the bacteriadecompose organic matter to CO2and H2O.

Organic Theory

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Cosmic sources: HCs found in meteorites.Consolidation of H and C during earth cooling.

Reaction of metal carbides in the earth (byMendeleve,1902 and Porfirev, 1974) :

iron carbide react with percolating water toform methane and other oil hydrocarbons.There is little evidence for the existence ofiron carbide in the mantle.

Inorganic Theories

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Petroleum System

WHAT ARE THE ESSENTIAL

ELEMENTS AND PROCESSESOCCUR IN PETROLEUM

ACCUMULATION???

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The essential elements and processes and all genetically-related hydrocarbons that occur in petroleum occurrencesand accumulations whose provenance is a single pod ofactive source rock.

Source Rock

Migration Route

Reservoir RockTrap

Seal

Elements

Generation

Maturation

MigrationAccumulation

Retention

Processes

Petroleum System

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Arrangement of oil and gas source rocks, a reservoir, a seal, and a trap in a

way that has allowed the natural accumulation of oil and gas.

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Petroleum system

Petroleum System

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1. Source Rock

Source rock is defined as rock formed throughlithification, from original sediments containingorganic debris.

A source rock is a rock that is capable of producing

hydrocarbons.

Requirements for source rocks; they need to have a high enough concentration of

organic matter

they should have been heated to a high enoughtemperature to reach thermal maturation.

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Source rocks are:sedimentary rocks that were deposited in very quiet

water (still swamps on land, shallow quiet marine bays,or in deep submarine settings)

Organically rich, black-colored shales depositedin a quiet marine, oxygen depleted environmentare considered to be the best source rocks.

comprised of very small mineral fragments. Inbetween the mineral fragments, are the remains oforganic material, usually algae, small wood fragments,or pieces of the soft parts of land plants (Figure).

1. Source Rock

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Petroleum/Oil: complex

mixture of naturallyoccurring organiccompounds.Organic rich sediments

are buried in a basin.Through time, underpressure and temperatureassociated with deepburial, organics undergophysical and chemicalchanges, eventuallyforming oil.

Fossil fuel formation

1. Source Rock

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Graphite

Dead Carbon

Te

mperature

Organic

Material

fate of o rganic matter

Smaller

Fragment

Humic

Substances

Kerogen

methane

oil

Wet GasThermallyMatured

OrganicMatter

60

120

150Dry Gas

Oil window

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KEROGEN FORMATION

DIAGENESIS

CATAGENESIS

METAGENESIS

Processes

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DIAGENESIS

Occurs in the shallow subsurface near normaltemperature & pressure

Net result is reduction of its oxygen content;

H:C ratio unaltered

Organic

MaterialHumic

Substances Kerogen

MethaneCO2H2O

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CATAGENESIS

Occurs in the deeper subsurface as temperature& pressure increase

Net result is the reduction of its H:C ratio

no significant change in oxygen:carbon ratio

KerogenMatured

Organic

Materials

Oil Gas

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METAGENESIS

Occurs in the deeper subsurface at temperature& pressure verging on metamorphism

Net result is the H:C declines until only carbon left (graphite)

Porosity & permeability are now negligible

Matured

Organic

MaterialsGraphite

Last HC released

Dry gas

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PAB 1023 Petroleum Geoscience 25

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As organic matter is buriedit is heated andtransformed into kerogen,oiland gas.

Most oil is produced

between temperatures of60 and 120 degrees C, ata depth range known asthe oil window.

Deeper source (>150oC),thermogenic gas isgenerated

When kerogen is cracked,

the resulting mobile (volatile)

components are called HC

Petroleum Maturation and Generation

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After petroleum has been generated, it mustmigrate out of the source rock and into the trapwhere it will accumulate and form an oil or gasfield.

Some oil forms close to the reservoir and canreach it vertically but in many cases oilmigrates tens to hundreds of kilometers beforecoming to rest in a reservoir.

2. Migration

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Petroleum migrates as a mixture of oil, gas andwater through water-saturated rocks.

In the reservoir these phases separateaccording to density with the most dense waterat the bottom, least dense gas on top and oiloccur in between.

2. Migration

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Primary migration is the process by which petroleummoves from source rock to carrier beddriven by

pressure build-up caused by HC generation.

Secondary migration is the migration from the source

kitchen to the reservoir trap through the carrier

gravity driven process (buoyancy) controlled by pore-

entry networks.

The petroleum had to migrate through rocks with enough

permeability and porosity to allow the fluids to flow to the

surface.

Migration Routeavenues in rock through which oil

and gas moves from source rock to trap

2. Migration

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Primary and secondary migration

2. Migration

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RESERVOIR

ROCK

They contain

interconnected

passageways of

microscopic pores or

holes that occupy the

areas between the

mineral grains of therock

POROUS AND

PERMEABLE

Most oil and gasreservoir rocks are

sandstones, limestones,

or dolomites

Most major sourcerocks are shales andbiogenic limestones.

3. Reservoir Rock

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The term reservoir implies storage.

Reservoir rock is rock where hydrocarbons are stored and

from which they can be produced.

They are characterized by high porosity and

effective permeability.

An example of a good reservoir rock is sandstone

Once oil and gas enter the reservoir rock, they are

relatively free to move. Most reservoir rocks are initially

saturated with saline groundwater. Because oil and gas are less dense than the ground water,

they rise upward through the water-saturated pore spaces

until they meet a barrier of impermeable rockSEAL

3. Reservoir Rock

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POROSITY

Two types

Primary Porosity

Original porosity (between grains)

Secondary Porosity

Chemical Leaching

Fractures

Vuggy

%100)(

T

v

VVporosity

Where, Vv= Void-space volume

VT= Total or bulk volume of material

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Effective Porosity

is the fraction of the porosity that is availablefor transporting fluid(excludes fraction ofpores too small to hold fluid, or those that arenot inter-connected.

Can be measured in the lab directly by saturating adried sample of known volume and measuring wateruptake in a sealed chamber over time

For unconsolidated coarse- grained sediments there isno significant difference

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Which sedimentary rock type is most likely to

be a potential reservoir rock?

The most porous

reservoir rocks are

generally well-sorted,

poorly cementedsandstones, and

these make up some

of the most important

petroleum reservoirsaround the world.

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Porosity of Sedimentary Rocks

(Clastic)

The porosity depends on grain size, the

shapes of the grains, and the degree of

sorting, and the degree of cementation.

Well-rounded coarse-grainedsediments usually have higher

porosity than fine-grained sediments, because the grains do

not fit together well.

Poorly sorted sedimentsusually have lower porosity

because the fine-grained fragments tend to fill in the open

space.

Highly cemented sedimentaryrocks have lower porosity.

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Examples of Reservoir Porosity

a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of unconsolidated sands

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Unconsolidated sand

Note the void spaces

(porosity) produced by

the stacking of irregular

shaped grains

POROSITY ??

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Cambrian Bliss

Sandstone.

The clear grains are

quartz sand and theblack material is

hematite cement.

POROSITY ??

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North Sea Sandstone.

This rock was

impregnated with blue

epoxy so it would be

easier to identify theporosity.

POROSITY ??

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limestone, a biologic

sedimentary rock.

Some of the fossil

fragments were

dissolved to form

porosity.

POROSITY ??

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Permeability

Permeability needs to be measured, either

directly (using Darcy's law) or through estimation

using empirically derived formulas.

A common unit for permeability is the darcy(D),

or more commonly the millidarcy (mD) (1 darcy

1012m).

Other units are cm and the SI m2.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darcyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darcy

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In order to prevent the HC rising

to the surface and escaping theymust be caught in a confinedspace, termed a trap.

A trap is a place where oil andgas accumulates.

Porous rock covered byimpermeable rock

Example

Structural Traps

Folds (Anticline)

Faults

Stratigraphic Traps

Pinch out

Unconformity

5. Traps

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4. Seal

A rock through which oiland gas cannot move

effectively (such as

mudstone, claystone or

salt) and which blocksthe upwards migration

of oil and gas.

Relatively impermeable.

Seal at surface

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A seal is a fine-grained rock that preventsthe oil migrating to the surface @ vertical

migration (which happens in many parts of

the world - leading to natural oil seeps).

The seal is an important component in a

prospect.

4. Seal

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Common seals include

salt evaporites, chalks provides an effective

seal

Muddy @ clay-rich rocks, shale representmost seals.

Siltstones (very find-grained)

4. Seal

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Siltstone

10-5

10-4

10-3

10-2

10-1

100

101

102

103

104

105

10-6

Gravels

Very Fine

Sand

Silt

PureClay SandyClay

FineSand

Coarse

sand

F Gravel

K (m/day)

Can be effective seal/ cap rock if the capillary entrypressure into the pores of the seal rock above anaccumulation is in excess of the buoyancy drive of theunderlying hydrocarbon column.

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Overview

WHAT IS STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY &HOW THE FEATURES CAN SERVE AS

PETROLEUM TRAPS???

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Structural Geology

Structural geology is a component of petroleum

geology. Structural geology is concerned with shapes

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1. Faults

A fault is a more or less planar surface orzone, across which the rocks on either side

have been moved by shear displacement(i.e.

displacement parallel to the fault surface)

Faults can be sharp and can be wide zone

Majority are not vertical (most are inclined)

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1. Faults

DIPof the fault planeThe angle down fromhorizontal.

STRIKEof the fault planeThe compass direction of

the horizontal line lying in the fault.

VERTICAL FAULThas a dip of 90o.

NON-VERTICAL FAULThas dip that range from

very shallow (10-30o) to moderate (40-60o) to steep

(70-89o)

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1. Faults

Each faults separates the entire rock mass into

two fault-blocks.

Non-vertical faults the fault-block lyingbelow the fault plane is called footwall, andthe block above the fault is called the

hangingwall (Figure)

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Types of fault defined by displacement along the fault plane

1. Faults

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Slip Direction

1. Faults

The names of

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DIP SLIP FAULTS

(Fault slip parallel to the dip direction)

REVERSE FAULTSNORMAL FAULTS

The hanging wall has slipped

down in comparison to thefootwall. (associated withextensionlateral increase indimension)

Gravity causes the hanging wallto slip down.

Normal Faults are from layersbeing pulledapart.

Also known as a GRAVITYFAULT.

The hanging wall has slipped up

in comparison to the foot wall.(associated with shorteninglateral decrease in dimension).

When layers are pushed

together this is the kind of faultthat occurs.

Also known as a THRUSTFAULT.(dip is low- less than 25o)

1. FaultsThe names of

faults aredefined by the

sense ofmovement

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NORMAL FAULT

Normal Fault

1. Faults

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Normal Fault

1. Faults

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REVERSE FAULT

Reverse Fault

1. Faults

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Two layers of rock are shifted horizontally or

parallel to the fault plane.

STRIKE SLIP FAULT

Strike Slip Fault

1. Faults

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2. Fold

The term fold does not imply any particularscale.(can apply to structures of any size.

If a fold makes the trap for a petroleumreservoir, the size of the fold must be quitelarge (on the order of km).

Fold can be very small too.

There are three main types of folds:

Anticlines

Synclines

Monoclines

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2. Fold

Feature where rock layers or other markers

become non-planar due to deformation

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2. Fold

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Anticlines

Anticlines: This is when layers are folded upwards in

what looks like arch. The layers are symmetrical (lookalike) to either side of its center.

Rock layers in anticlines dip away from the center axis.

The oldest rocks are exposed on the center axis.

S li

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Synclines

Synclines: This is when the rock layers are

folded downward. The youngest layers of rock are exposed on

the center axis.

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M li

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Monoclines

Monocline:This is when the rock layer has a gently

dipping bend in the horizontal rock layer. Fold structures with only one tilted limb; beds on either

side of tilted limb are horizontal typically arise from

vertical offset on steeply dipping fault in subsurface

near tilted limb

3 Di i

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3. Diapirs

Diapirsis a body of flowable rock that migrates upwards (and

possibly, sideways) due to its lower density (compared tosurrounding rocks). Rock salts (low density)commonly forms

diapirs, but underconsolidated mudstones (often associated

with overpressure) also can become diapiric. Large granit ic

in t rus ions that rise into the middle crust also diapiric.

Diapirs that pierces lower layers and flexes upper layers.

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1 St t l T

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Structural traps are formed:

where the space for petroleum is limited by

a structural feature

when the reservoir rock and overlying seal

have been deformed by folding or faulting.

the deformation of rock strata within the

earths crust

1. Structural Traps

1 St t l T

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Folded strata that form a structural trap.

1. Structural Traps

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Structural Traps

:

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ANTICLINALTRAP

FAULT TRAP

SALT DOME

EXAMPLE OF STRUCTURAL TRAP

Anticlinal Trap

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An anticline is an example of rocks which were previouslyflat, but have been bent into an arch. Oil that finds its way

into a reservoir rock that has been bent into an arch will

flow to the crest of the arch, and get stuck (provided, of

course, that there is a trap rock above the arch to seal

the oil in place).

Anticlinal trap

Anticlinal Trap

Anticlinal Trap

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The rock layers in an

anticlinal trap wereoriginally laid down

horizontally then folded

upward into an arch or

dome. Later, hydrocarbons migrate

into the porous and

permeable reservoir rock.

A cap or seal (impermeablelayer of rock) is required to

permit the accumulation

of the hydrocarbons Anticlinal traps

Anticlinal Trap

Anticlinal Trap

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Anticlinal traps

Anticlinal Trap

Salt Dome Trap

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Salt Dome or Salt Plug Trap

A trap created by piercement orintrusion of stratified rock layers

from below by ductile

nonporous salt.

The intrusion causes the lower

formations nearest the intrusionto be uplifted and truncated

along the sides of the intrusion,

while layers above are uplifted

creating a dome or anticlinal

folding.

Hydrocarbons migrate into the

porous and permeable beds on

the sides of the column of salt.

Salt dome traps

Salt Dome Trap

Salt Dome Trap

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Hydrocarbons accumulate in the traps aroundthe outside of the salt plug if a seal or cap rock

is present.

Under the weight of overlying rock layers,

layers of salt will push their way toward the

surface in salt domes and ridges. Oil and gas

are trapped in folds and along faults above the

dome and within upturned porous sandstonesalong the flanks of the dome.

Salt Dome Trap

Salt Dome Associated Traps

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Salt Dome Associated Traps

Fault Trap

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Fault TrapThe faulting of

stratified rock occurs as a result

of vertical and horizontal stress.

At some point the rock layers

break, resulting in the rock faces

along the fracture moving or

slipping past each other into an

offset position.

A fault trap is formed when the

faulted formations are tilted

toward the vertical.

When a non-porous rock face ismoved into a position above and

opposite a porous rock face, it

seals off the natural flow of the

hydrocarbons allowing them to

accumulate.Fault traps

Fault Trap

Sealing Faults

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2 Stratigraphic Traps

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Stratigraphic traps are formed:

when the reservoir rock is deposited as a

discontinuous layer. Seals are deposited

beside and on top of the reservoir.

by the limits of the reservoir rock itself, without any

structural control.

as a result of differences or variations between or

within stratified rock layers, creating a change or loss

of permeability from one area to another. These traps

do not occur as a result of movement of the strata. e.g. Reef, Lenticular, Pinch out, Unconformity

2. Stratigraphic Traps

2 Stratigraphic Traps

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A discontinuous layer of sandstone that forms a stratigraphic trap.

2. Stratigraphic Traps

EXAMPLE OF STRATIGRAPHIC TRAP

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EXAMPLE OF STRATIGRAPHIC TRAP

REEF LENTICULAR

UNCONFORMITYPINCH OUT

CONT

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CONT

Here is an example of a reef trap.

The diagram shows a cross-sectionthrough the reservoir and overlyingrocks.

Stratigraphic traps are also formed inclastic rocks: here, in a cross-sectionthrough a continental margin, twosandstone beds form traps withinmuddy coastal deposits.

River channels may form long, thintraps corresponding to the formerposition of the river or deltadistributary. Beach sands may formsheet-like bodies along an ancient

shoreline etc. Stratigraphic traps

Reef

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Reef

Porous ancient coralreefs grew in the warmseas.

They now provide prolificoil and gas reservoirs.Often overlying porous

rock layers are "draped,"or folded over the reefsand form separate traps.

Overlying impermeableshales act as seals to the

reservoirs.

Reef

Lenticular

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Lenticular trapA porous area

surrounded by non-porous strata. They may be formed from ancient buried

river sand bars, beaches, etc.

Lenticular traps

Pinch-Out

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Pinch-out or

lateral graded

trap A trap

created by lateral

differential

deposition when

the environmental

deposition changesup-dip.

Pinch-out or lateral graded traps

Pinch-Out

Cont

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This occurs where the

porous limestonereservoir loses itsporosity and becomesimpermeable

limestone, or theporous sandstonereservoir simply thinsand pinches out.

Overlyingimpermeable rocksact as seals.

Stratigraphic Pinch-out

U o fo it

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A stratigraphic trap formed byfolding, uplift, and erosion of porousstrata, followed by the deposition oflater beds which can act as a seal for

oil, gas, or water.

Uncomformity

Cont

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Unconformity

3. Hydrodynamic Traps

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A downward movement of water prevents the upward

movement of oil or gas.

Pure hydrodynamic traps are extremely rare, but a

number of traps result from the combination of

hydrodynamic forces and structure or stratigraphy.

There are also a number of fields with tilted oil-water

contacts where entrapment is a combination of both

structure and hydrodynamic forces.



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Ideal hydrodynamic trap

3 yd ody a c aps


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Combination of both structure and hydrodynamic Forces

y y p

4. Combination Traps

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Combination traps result from two or more of thebasic trapping mechanisms. (structural,

stratigraphic, and hydrodynamic ).

p


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Several types of traps(Combination traps) in Piercement

p


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Several types of traps(Combination traps) in Piercement

p


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Combination traps (faulted anticline)

p

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