cell migration, the cytoskeleton, chemotaxis, andhaptotaxis · tension is translated to biochemical...
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CellMigration,theCytoskeleton,Chemotaxis,and Haptotaxis
3/9/17ChE 575
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When,Where,Whydocellsmigrate?
2
1.NeutrophilMigrationtoBattleInfection
2.Development3.WoundHealing4.Disease
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WoundHealing
3
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Disease
4Jeon etal.2014
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BasicMigratoryProcessObservedthroughTime-Lapsemicroscopy
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CellsconnecttotheECM:ECMàIntegrinàFocal AdhesionàActin
Transmitforceandmovementincellviacytoskeletonandfocaladhesions
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Tensionistranslatedtobiochemicalinformationatadhesionsites
7Grashoff andHoffmanetal.2010
FRET:Fluorescence(Forster)ResonanceEnergyTransfer
P=ProtrudingR=Retracting
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Actinfilaments:doublehelixwith5-9nmdiameter,connecttointegrins
(indirectlyviafocaladhesionproteins)
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• Eachclassoffilamentsisapolymer:- madeupofsmaller,solublesubunits
• CellsusingATPenergytopolymerizeanddepolymerizemonomerswhenneeded
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Mena11a
ElectronMicrographviewoftheActincytoskeletoninLamellipodia
MicheleBalsamo&LeslieMebane,Gertler Lab,MIT 10
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Catchvs.Slipbonds
11Guo andGuildford,2006
Catch-SlipBonds:Calculatingruptureforceasafunctionofloadingrate
𝜒"
𝑘$
𝑟&
k off(f)= k offo exp(x β f/k BT)
SlipBonds
CharacteristicBondLength
UnloadedDissociationRateConstantRateofapplicationofforce
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Let’slookatmovementmoreclosely–howdowemeasure/predict?
SampleMoviesfromPeytonLab
BreastCancerCellsmigratingonabiomaterialCourtesyPeytonLab
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Howdoesonequantifythismovement?Speed
Displacement
PathLengthstart
finish
t=1
t=2
t=3
Speed(t1 − t2 ) =(x2 − x1)
2 + (y2 − y1)2
(t2 − t1)
x
y
TotalSpeed =Speed
t∑
# time intervals
displacement = (x f − xi )2 + (yf − yi )
2
PathLength = (x2 − x1)2 + (y2 − y1)
2∑13
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-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
-3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
MeanSquaredDisplacementanalysisFreediffusion
<r2 >(µ
m)
Time(min)
r2 = 2NDt
Dimension(1,2or3) Diffusioncoefficient
14
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MigrationisRandomatLongTimepoints,butpersistentatshortintervals
Longertimepoints (min-hr):Celllocomotionobserved
BreastCancerCellsmigratingonabiomaterialCourtesyPeytonLab
15
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AccountingforthisinMSDanalysisPersistentRandomWalk
( ) ( )PtPePtPStr /22 2 -+-=
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Anomalousdiffusion:Oftenconfined
Ifthereareobstaclesortrapsintheway,diffusionmightbeanomalous(dependsonobstacleconcentration).
Time(min)
r2 = 2NDt
Saxton1994
<r2 >(µ
m)
Anomalousdiffusionexponent
2 2r ND at=
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Whatcausesdirectedmigration?(Haptotaxis)
Stiff
HighGrowthFactor
Upstreaminshearflow
Duro
Rheo
Chemo
AlongCellTracks Plitho
Soft
LowGrowthFactor
Downstreaminshearflow
SingleCell
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Haptokinesis vs Haptotaxis
DiMilla etal.,JCB1993
IncreasingProteinConcentration(FNorCollagenIV)
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1:StepChangesinStiffness
DISCUSSION
The phenomenon
The most significant finding in this study is that culturedcells can guide their movement by probing the substraterigidity. As the leading edge crosses onto rigid substrates,lamellipodia and lamella expand, leading to directed migra-tion onto the rigid substrate. Conversely, as the leading edgeapproaches the soft side, local retractions take place, caus-ing the cell to change direction.
In addition to substrate rigidity, we have demonstratedthat mechanical input generated by substrate deformationalso regulates the formation and retraction of lamellipodia.This is to be expected in an active sensing system, becausethe force/deformation caused by the external manipulationwill be superimposed on the effects of the cellular probingforces. In all cases cells responded with the formation/expansion of lamellipodia when the substratum was locallypulled outward from the center, and with retraction whenthe substratum was pushed inward. Because fibroblasts ex-
FIGURE 1 Movements of National Institutes of Health 3T3 cells on substrates with a rigidity gradient. Images were recorded with simultaneous phaseand fluorescence illumination. Changes in substrate rigidity can be visualized as changes in the density of embedded fluorescent beads. (a) A cell movedfrom the soft side of the substrate toward the gradient. The cell turned by !90° and moved into the stiff side of the substrate. Note the increase in spreadingarea as the cell passed the boundary. (b) A cell moved from the stiff side of the substrate toward the gradient. The cell changed its direction as it enteredthe gradient and moved along the boundary. Bar, 40 !m.
Substrate Rigidity Regulates Cell Movement 147
Biophysical Journal 79(1) 144–152
Biophys J.Loetal.(2000)79;144-152
3T3FibroblastsonPAAMigratefromsoft-to-stiffsubstrates
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Durotaxis: gradients viaphotomaskpolymerization
22Wong,J.Langmuir,2003
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Adaptingmicrofluidicstocreatehaptotaxic gradients
Burdicketal.,Langmuir200423
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Durokinesis:BiphasicMigrationDependenceon
SubstrateStiffness
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1.0 21.6 45.8 51.9 308 P S
Mea
n C
ell S
peed
( µm
/min
)
Young's Modulus (kPa)
**
FN: 0.8 ug/cm2
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
1.0 21.6 45.8 51.9 308 P S
Mea
n C
ell S
peed
( µm
/min
)
Young's Modulus (kPa)
*
*FN: 8 µg/cm2
FN: 0.8 µg/cm2
**
Speed(um/hr)
Substratestiffness
PeytonandPutnam,J.Cell.Phys.200524
• Durokinesis:SMCsmigratefastestonan‘optimallystiff’ substrate
•Actinpolymerizationcontrolledbyadhesiveproteindensityaswell(Haptokinesis).
•Cellsneedstiffersubstratewhenlessfibronectinisattachedtosurfacetomigrateatmaximumcapacity
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CytoskeletalAssemblyRegulatedbySubstrateStiffness
PeytonandPutnam,J.Cell.Phys.200525
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Chemotaxis:ControllingDirectionofMotilityviaSolubleChemicalCues
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ChemotacticIndexisameasureofhowefficientlyacellfollowsachemicalgradient
C.I. = Displacement(µm)PathLength(µm)
C.I. =1 C.I. = 0
0 ≤C.I. ≤127
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Invitro ChemotaxisBoydenChamber Under-Agarose Assay
Microfluidics
28
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Plithotaxis:CellsMigrateintheDirectionoftheGreatestNormalStressandLowestShearStress
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Rheotaxis:CellMigrationUpstreaminShearFlow
30Polacheck etal.2014
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Mechanotransduction
• TheabilityofacelltoturnamechanicalcuefromtheECMintoanintracellularsignal– RhoA,pSrc,pAkt
• Andeventuallyintoaphenotypicresponse–Migration,differentiation,shape,growth
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Mechanotransduction:CellcantranslateMechanicalInformationfromtheECMtoanintracellularbiochemicalsignal
“Mechanotransduction”
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Howdoesthishappen?• Focaladhesions.– Remember,thoseconnectionsbetweenintegrinsandtheactincytoskeletoninacell.
• When,howdofocaladhesionsre-arrangeinresponsetomechanicalforces?
S=structuralP=signaler
SS
S
P
P
P
S
S
S
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VibratingCells:Cellswillpullatthesiteofvibration
http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0026181#s5
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Pullingoncellattachmentpoints:Focaladhesionsarerecruitedtothesiteofstretch
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Stretchingtheunderneathsubstrate:Microtubulesassemble(polymerize)whencellisstretched
Putnametal.,JCS,1998
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Proposed:Cell-ECMforcebalancethroughF-actinandmicrotubules
• InresponsetoextracellularstretchoranintrinsicECMstiffness,F-actinmicrofilamentsadjustintensionalresistance,andthemicrotubulenetworkadjustsincompressiveresistance.
CourtesyofA.Putnam
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Tensegrity:aPhysicalMechanismofMechanotransduction
Cytoskeletonconnectsfromfocaladhesionstonucleus.Forcesatfocaladhesionscanpropogate tochangesinshapeofnucleusà affectstranscriptionregulatorsà geneexpression/phenotype
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MigrationThroughSmallChannelsCausesNuclearStrainandRupture
39Denais etal.2016McGregoretal.2016
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ModelingofNuclearMechanicsthatLimitCellMotility
40Caoetal.2016
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TensionAltersGeneExpression
41Tajiketal.2016
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TractionForceMicroscopy:TooltoMeasureCellularForcesExertedonSubstrate
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ElastomericPosts
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HaveaGoodBreak!
• Reminder:YouhaveapaperreviewonTuesdayafterbreak
44