causes and impact of water pollution and...

Causes and Impact of Water Pollution and its Adverse Effects on Health

33

CHAPTER-2

CAUSES AND IMPACT OF WATER POLLUTION AND ITS

ADVERSE EFFECTS ON HEALTH

Environment is a precious gift of God to all creatures whether living or non-living. The

natural resources of the earth including air, water, land, flora and fauna and especially

representative samples of ecosystems must be safeguarded for the benefit of the present

and future generations through careful planning and management.1 Water is a liquid of

life, as there can be no life without water. Pure water is an animating fluid while polluted

water is a real curse for living beings. Accordingly, causes and impact of water pollution

and its adverse effects on health of human beings will be looked into.

Man during course of his civilization has settled in places where plenty of water was

available. But with the increase of population and in exploitation of natural resources for

his own benefit, he has behaved in a wild manner by creating problems of pollution

hazardous not only to aquatic life but also to his own life. While western countries have

become quite sensitive to this problem, India is still continuing, because of irresponsible

behaviour of its citizens, in rendering water more polluted day by day and the situation is

deteriorating progressively.2

The water resources on the earth are depleting fast. Out of several components of

environment, water, being traditionally the most convenient receptacle for the society in

India, has been polluted to the threshold. The water resources are limited but the assault

in the form of pollutants is an ongoing process. About 70 percent of all available water in

India is feared polluted. This state of affairs is really alarming.3 Without pollution

1 S.Shanthakumar, Introduction to Environmental Law,Wadhwa and company, Nagpur, 2

nd

edition,2005, p.394. 2 A.K.Tripathi and S.N.Pandey, Water Pollution, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 2009, p.3.

3 Ali Mehdi, ― Water Pollution Laws and Their Enforcement In India‖, First Edition, R. Cambray

And Co. Private Ltd.,Kolkata,2007,p.1.


34

controls, water would become grossly polluted and unusable for a wide range of human

and non human needs.4 The problem of water resources is not less urgent than that of

other types of pollution.5 ―It is not a problem of an individual or a nation but is a problem

which ‗no nation, no continent, no hemisphere, no race, no system can handle alone‘. It is

a problem of entire human race which requires joint action‖.6 An adequate supply of safe

drinking water is one of the major pre-requisites for a healthy life. The importance of

clean water and link between contaminated or putrid water and illness was recognised in

the distant past, even though the actual case of disease was not properly understood until

the latter half of the 19th

century.7 During recent years there has been increasing

awareness of, and concern about, water pollution all over the world, and new approaches

towards achieving sustainable exploitation of water resources have been developed

internationally.8

2.1 MEANING OF PURE WATER

It can be said that no water is pure or clean owing to the presence of some

quantities of gases, minerals and life. However, for all practical purposes, pure water is

considered to be that which has low dissolved and suspended solids and obnoxious gases

as well as low in biological life. Such a high quality of water may be required only for

drinking purposes while for other uses like agriculture and industry, the quality of water

can be quite flexible and water polluted up to certain extent, in general sense, can be

regarded as pure.9

4 Susan Wolf, Anna White And Neil Stanley, Principles Of Environmental Law, Cavendish

Publishing Limited, London, Third Edition ,2002,p.59. 5 M.V.Zaytseva, ―Ecological Problems”, Conference Paper of Fifth International Conference on

International Environmental Law Organised by The Indian Society of International Law, New

Delhi, 8-9 December, 2007, p.199. 6 Chetan Singh Mehta, Environmental Protection and the Law, Aashish Publishing House, New

Delhi, 1991, p.9. 7 Ray M. Harrison, Pollution : Causes, Effects and Control, Royal Society of Chemistry,

Cambridge,Fourth Edition, 2001, p.59. 8 Richard Helmer and Ivanildo Hespanhol, Water Pollution Control, E and FN Spon, London, First

Edition, 1997, p.1. 9 P.K.Goel, Water Pollution: Causes, Effects and Control, New Age International, 2006, p.1.


35

2.2 WATER POLLUTION

The term water pollution has been used differently in various Indian Acts. Some

described it as ‗nuisance‘, while others as negligence. ‗Fouling‘ of water was also the

way of describing as ‗poisoning‘ of water. Some acts described as rendering water ‗less

fit‘ or ‗not fit‘ for consumption by human beings and animals. Interference with or

alteration in flow of water to carry away rubbish or causing water to be corrupted in any

waterway so as to endanger, damage or render it less useful, was another mode of

explaining the term water pollution. Before the enactment of the Water (Prevention and

Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, almost all the statutes, stressed upon the mode of causing

pollution rather than explaining ‗pollution‘ itself. In a simple sense, water pollution is

―adding of any substance to water or the changing of water‘s physical and chemical

characteristics in any way which interferes with its use for legitimate purposes‖.10

Water is colourless and transparent substance. The polluted water means such water

which contains foreign substances in it, which alters physical, chemical or biological

properties of water rendering it unfit for use.11

According to the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, ―water pollution

means such contamination of water or such alteration of the physical, chemical or

biological properties of water or such discharge of any sewage or trade effluent or of any

other liquid, gaseous or solid substance into water (whether directly or indirectly) as may

or is likely to, create a nuisance or render such water harmful or injurious to public health

or safety or to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural or other legitimate uses, or

the life and health of animals or plants or of aquatic organisms.‖12

10

Jaspal Singh, Water pollution: Sources, Health Problems and Its Control with Special Reference to

Punjab, Law Journal, Guru Nanak Dev University, Vol. 11, 2002, p.73. 11

Javaid Talib, Water Pollution : Legal Regime And Its Effectiveness, Religion And Law Review,

Vol.14, 2005, p.120. 12

Section 2(e), The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.


36

The total amount of water on the earth is about 1.35 billion cubic kilometres (3.5x1020

gallons). Over 97 percent of this quantity is in the oceans as salt water. The earth‘s fresh

water amounts to only 37 million cubic kilometres of which 80 percent occurs in polar

ice caps and glaciers. The water we use comes from 50 cubic kilometres per day run off

in the rivers, streams and lakes and 70 cubic kilometres per day flow through

underground reservoirs. This supply has been constant over tens of thousands of years.

Only the demand has shown a steep increase over the last century. Due to this increase, in

India the average annual availability of water per capita has declined from 5236 cubic

meters in 1951 to only 2227 cubic meters in 1991. As per estimates, this will further

decline to only 1555 cubic meters by the year 2013. The population of India, which is

now more than one billion, is expected to reach a figure between 1.5 billion and 1.8

billion in the year 2050. There shall then be a requirement of 2788 billion cubic metres of

water annually in India to be above water stress zone and 1650 billion cubic metres to

avoid being water scarce country.13

2.3 WATER POLLUTANT

There are hundreds, perhaps thousands of pollutants whose effects are of actual and

potential concern. Their numbers increase annually as new compounds and formulations

are synthesised.14

Several attempts have been made to group water pollutants into classes

or categories. Pollutants have been classified according to their mode of occurrence into

physical, chemical and biological pollutants.15

13

Javaid Talib, Water Pollution : Legal Regime And Its Effectiveness, Religion And Law Review,

Vol.14, 2005, p.120. 14

P.D.Abel, Water Pollution Biology, Taylor And Francis, London, Second Edition, 1996, p.29. 15

S. K. Agarwal, Water Pollution, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 2009, p.54.


37

TABLE 2.1

CLASSIFICATION OF WATER POLLUTANTS16

Occurrence Nature Examples

Physical

Temperature

Turbidity

Colour

Suspended and

floating matter

Waste neat from industry.

Dyes and pigments

Silt, sand, metal pieces, rubber, wood chpis, paper,

foam, scum, carcasses, sewage.

Chemical

Inorganic

Organic

Nitrites, phosphates, chlorides, fluorides, salts etc.

Detergents, tar, plastic, pesticides.

Biological

Pathogenic

Nuisance

organisms

Bacteria, virus, nematodes, worms, protozoans.

Slime, mollusc, algae, Ascellus, nematodes.

16

S.K.Agarwal, Water Pollution, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 2009, p.55.


38

2.4 CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION

Some of the major factors which are responsible for causing water pollution or

degradation can be enumerated as growing population, rapid industrialization,

urbanisation, use of science and technology and modern agriculture practices.

2.4.1 Growing Population

Every year we add millions of people to the world population and our country is no

exception. Now it is the second largest country of the world after China and the rate of

growth still continuous alarmingly. The earth is now overcrowded and consumption habit

of the people is on the rise.17

The growth of population gave rise to increase in wants and

demands of mankind and has succeeded in creating acute problem of water pollution.18

2.4.2 Industrialization

Rapid industrialization is another cause of worry as far as water pollution is concerned.

Immediately after the independence, major steps were taken in our country in its stride

for development in order to give its economy a big push. Industrialization was then

considered the most important factor that can put the country in the path of progress. But

to our utter surprise industrialization along with development brought with it a danger to

the human civilization- the problem of environmental pollution.19

2.4.3 Urbanization

Urbanization is also another major factor which contributes significantly towards

environmental pollution. From the earlier base we noticed that generally the civilization

17

Sukanta K.Nanda, Environmental Law, Central Law Publishers, Allahabad, Third Edition, 2013,

p.10. 18

T.H.Khan, ―Legal Control of Water Pollution‖, Central India Law Quarterly, Vol. IV., July-Sep.

1991, p.352. 19

Supra 17, p.11.


39

started near the water courses. Subsequently big cities also developed just near the water

courses particularly besides the big rivers. Water is considered as life and we owe a great

deal to water for the sustenance of our lives. Thus with the development of the big cities

all other forms essentials for making the life comfortable also developed. Of these,

developments in the field of communication and transportation are noteworthy which

subsequently attracted the establishment of industrial and commercial basis in and around

the cities. As these sectors heavily depend on water and all advance system, it is natural

that the cities were their first choice. Since many towns and cities lack a proper sewerage

system, the condition worsened further adding to the misery of the people20

.

2.4.4 Nature of Modern Technology

The nature of productive technology in recent years is closely related to the

environmental crises. This factor has been largely responsible for the generation of

synthetic and non biodegradable substances such as plastics, chemical nitrogen fertilizers,

synthetic detergents, synthetic fibres, big cares petrochemical and other environmentally

injurious industries and ―disposable culture‖. Thus, an environmental crisis is the

inevitable result of a counter ecological pattern of productive growth21

.

2.4.5 Modern Agricultural Practices

Modern agricultural practices and application of new technological processes in the field

of agriculture severely affect the environment. Inorganic fertilizers are being widely used

now-a-days. Fertilizers like phosphates and nitrates cause wide spread damage when

applied carelessly to crops. The fertilizers can be transmitted to ground water by leaching

and to surface waters by natural drainage and storm run-off. In addition to fertilizers

20

Ibid., 12. 21

Kailash Thakur, Environmental Protection Law and Policy in India, Deep And Deep Publishers,

New Delhi,1997, p.22.


40

various kinds of pesticides and insecticide also applied. Almost all the pesticides those

are used are toxic to human and animals22

2.5 TYPES OF WATER POLLUTION

Pollution of water can take any one or more of physical, chemical, physiological and

biological forms.

2.5.1 Physical Pollution

2.5.1.1 Temperature

The increase in temperature of water bodies due to the heated discharges like the one

from power stations can lead to thermal pollution. As the solubility of oxygen in water is

inversely proportional to the temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water at a higher

temperature would be reduced. Higher temperature may also increase the biological

activities requiring greater quantities of DO for respirational purposes and affect

adversely the growth and survival of aquatic life especially the delicate fishes and

bacterial population due to inadequate DO. 23

2.5.1.2 Turbidity

It is mainly due to the presence of colloidal or finely divided suspended matter which

does not readily settle e.g. river water in monsoon, water polluted with sewage and

wastes from ceramic and paper industries. It can also be caused by iron and manganese

salts due to their conversion into insoluble hydroxides. Turbidity reduces the penetration

of sunlight into the water for green aquatic plants (which give oxygen to water),

22

Supra 17, p.13. 23

Jivendra, Water Pollution Management, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 1995, p.82.


41

adversely effecting the photosynthesis resulting in the death of the plants and thus

reducing the oxygenation in the stream.24

2.5.1.3 Suspended matter

Suspended matter can be inorganic or organic and includes soil and mineral particles

from the land by storm and flood water from cropland unprotected forest soil, overgrazed

pasture, strip mines, road and bulldozed urban area. Suspended solids deposit on the bed

of the water body receiving them, if the quantity is high or flow of water low, causing

sediments which will change the nature of the bed and affect fauna and flora, certain

aquatic organisms and reproduction of animal life at the bed. It will also reduce the

sunlight affecting the photosynthetic activity essential to maintain healthy conditions in a

stream. 25

2.5.1.4 Colour

The colour of water can vary due to natural or artificial sources. Running through peaty

soils, water obtains a brownish tint primarily due to lignin and other related bodies which

are also obtained due to rotting of plant materials. Such a colour forms an aesthetic

pollution. Artificial colours are discharged from textile industries due to dyestuffs, from

tanning industries due to tannins and use of dyes, from pulp industries due to lignin and

dyes and from steel picking industries due to ferrous sulphate or ferric chloride after

conversion into red brown ferric hydroxide. Dyestuffs, even in small quantities, may give

rise to visible colour.26

2.5.1.5 Foam

Synthetic detergents and certain natural compounds are known to cause foam by lowering

down the surface tension of water. Several of the advanced countries had faced problems

of foam in their sewage waste water and rivers due to increased use of synthetic

24

Jivendra, Water Pollution Management, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 1995, p.82. 25

Id. 26

Ibid., p. 83.


42

detergents in the recent decades. Foam can be hazardous as it can carry suspended solids

including pathogenic bacteria if present in water.27

2.5.1.6 Radioactivity

Radioactive substances, detected only buy specific instruments, present in waste

from uranium and thorium mining and refining industries, nuclear power plants and

industries, medical and scientific institutions utilizing radioactive substances, can pose

dangerous situations. 28

2.5.2 Chemical Pollution

2.5.2.1 Inorganic Pollution

Corrosive acids in water give rise to corrosion of metals, concrete structures and pumps

etc. coming in its contact. Many industries discharge acids in their wastewater, common

one being sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. Certain wastes may contain toxic inorganic

substances such as free chlorine, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, soluble sulphides and

salts of many metals like copper, zinc, lead, nickel, chromium, cadmium, silver, mercury,

iron, uranium, vanadium and thorium etc.29

2.5.2.2 Organic pollution

The most common form of organic pollution is due to the presence of carbohydrates, fats,

proteins and similar other organic substances found in sewage and other industrial

wastes. Untreated sewage and domestic wastes including wastes from sanatoriums,

hospitals and slaughter houses contains complex organic substances in the form of urine,

faeces, paper, soap, detergent, scrap of food and grease etc.30

27

Id. 28

Id. 29

Ibid., p.84. 30

Ibid., p.86.


43

2.5.3 Physiological Pollution

Taste and odour, although may not pose public health problems, are considered aesthetic

pollutants. Several industrial wastes impart odour and unpleasant taste. Salts of iron,

manganese and chlorine, H2S, phenols and unsaturated hydrocarbons are some of the

examples.31

2.5.4 Biological Pollution

It is the result of wastes containing pathogenic forms of bacteria, certain fungi, algae,

viruses, pathogenic protozoa, parasite worms, helminthic parasites and indeed any plant

or animal which multiplies excessively in the water bodies for one reason or the other.

This pollution is often a result mainly of the domestic sewage and human excreta and at

times certain industrial wastes.32

2.6 SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION

The sources of water pollution are innumerable. Major sources can be found in

practically every variety of industrial, municipal and agricultural operations.33

The main

sources of water pollution are as under:

1. Domestic wastes ;

2. Industrial wastes ;

3. Agricultural wastes, insecticides and pesticides ;

4. Thermal pollution ;

5. Marine pollution ; and

6. Radioactive wastes.

31

Ibid., p.89. 32

Id. 33

Rene Dubos, Health Effects Of Environmental Pollution, United States Environmental Protection

Agency, Washington D.C., 1973, p.8.


44

2.6.1 Domestic Wastes

Wastes from residential homes, sewage etc. constitutes nearly 70 percent of the water

pollution. The residential buildings do have connected sewage treatment system but it is

either inadequate or misused. The garbage and sewage discharged from it is flown in

drains or sewage lines thereby blocking the free flow of water.

Sewage generally includes bio-degraded pollutants such as human excretion, animal

waste and many compounds like carbohydrates, proteins, urea, fats etc. as also inorganic

nitrates and phosphates of detergents which cause water pollution. The detergent

accumulated in water render it unfit for drinking purposes.

According to a recent survey, an average Indian family throws away wastes of about 60

kg per week. About 60 percent of the wastes processed by municipal treatment plants

come from domestic sources and around 40 percent from industrial units. The thickly

populated areas are more prone to the ill-effects of contaminated water.

The water discharged from untreated or inadequately treated sewage which goes into

rivers, lakes, wells etc. causes serious infectious diseases like typhoid, cholera, dysentery

and other skin diseases.34

2.6.2 Industrial Wastes

Industrial waste or trade effluent includes any liquid or solid substance, which is

discharged from any premises used for carrying on any industry, operation or process or

treatment and disposal system other than the domestic sewage. It is a common practice

that a large number of industries, which are located on the banks of rivers, discharge their

34

Vinay N. Paranjape, Environmental Law, Central Law Agency, Allahabad, First Edition, 2013,

p.117.


45

effluent into the river and thus pollute the river water. Industrial effluents contain, inter

alia, mercury, lead, cadmium and copper etc., which are harmful to the aquatic animals.35

2.6.3 Agricultural Wastes, Insecticides and Pesticides

The main pollutants of agricultural wastes that cause water pollution are pesticides and

fertilizers which reach water through run off and leaching. Sediments and farm-animals

wastes also cause water pollution. The pesticides and insecticides which are sprinkled in

agricultural farms when washed off the lands through irrigation, drainage or rainfall,

enter into rivers, streams and even soaked underground and the water gets contaminated.

The excessive use of inorganic fertilizers accelerates nitrite contents in water and it gets

polluted.36

2.6.3.1 Pesticides

Pesticides are substances or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying,

repelling or mitigating any pest. A pesticide is generally a chemical or biological agent

(such as a virus, bacterium, antimicrobial or disinfectant) that through its effect deters,

incapacitates, kills or otherwise discourages pests. Target pests can include insects, plant

pathogens, weeds, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes (roundworms), and microbes that

destroy property, cause nuisance, spread disease or are vectors for disease. Although

there are human benefits to the use of pesticides, some also have drawbacks, such as

potential toxicity to humans and other animals. According to the Stockholm Convention

on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 9 of the 12 most dangerous and persistent organic

chemicals are pesticides.37

Pesticides cause widespread pollution of various fresh water

bodies like rivers, lakes and estuaries.38

35

P.S.Jaswal and Nishtha Jaswal, Environmental Law, Allahabad Law Agency, Faridabad, Third

Edition,2009, p.198. 36

Supra 34, p. 118. 37

Retrieved from <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide visited on 5 June, 2012. 38

S.K.Agarwal, ―Water Pollution”, APH Publishing Corporation, New Delhi, 2009, p. 33.


46

2.6.3.2 History of Pesticides Usage

Since before 2000 BC, humans have utilized pesticides to protect their crops. The first

known pesticide was elemental sulfur dusting used in ancient Sumer about 4,500 years

ago in ancient Mesopotamia. The Rig Veda, which is about 4,000 years old, mentions the

use of poisonous plants for pest control. By the 15th century, toxic chemicals such as

arsenic, mercury and lead were being applied to crops to kill pests. In the 17th century,

nicotine sulfate was extracted from tobacco leaves for use as an insecticide. The 19th

century saw the introduction of two more natural pesticides, pyrethrum, which is derived

from chrysanthemums, and rotenone, which is derived from the roots of tropical

vegetables. Until the 1950s, arsenic-based pesticides were dominant.

39

2.6.3.3 Effect of Pesticides Usage

Pesticide exposure can cause a variety of human health problems, both chronic and acute.

Chronic effects are typically the result of low levels of exposure over a long period of

time. These can occur even if there are no acute or immediate effects. Major health

impacts from chronic exposure include cancers, reproductive and endocrine disruption,

neurological damage, and immune system dysfunction. According to the World Health

Organization (WHO), long-term regular exposure to pesticides causes approximately

772,000 new cases of diseases every year.40

If we take into account the current regulatory

systems related to pesticides in India, we find that while the Insecticides Act of 1968

under the Ministry of Agriculture governs the registration, production, sale, export and

import of pesticides (referred to as Insecticides in the legislation), it is the Prevention of

Food Adulteration (PFA) Act 1954 under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and

Bureau of Indian Standards which regulate food and water quality. Tolerance limits either

in the form of Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) of a pesticide or a Maximum Residue Limit

(MRL) on food commodities are not legally fixed at the time of a pesticide‘s registration

39

Retrieved from <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide visited on 5th June, 2012. 40

Kavitha Kuruganti, ―Effects of Pesticide Exposure on Developmental Task Performance in Indian

Children‖, Children, Youth and Environments, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2005, p. 84.


47

and, therefore, not all registered pesticides have a tolerance limit set. While the

Insecticides Act mandates registration of pesticides, the PFA Act sets MRLs. On analysis

of the pesticides registered, we find that out of 180 pesticides registered in India as of

2003, MRLs had been set for only 71. Also, the PFA Act does not set ADIs which are

more directly connected with safety levels, but only concerns itself with MRLs—another

illustration of the lax standards with regard to pesticides in India. MRLs do not

specifically address children‘s unique vulnerability or the situation of complex cocktail

exposure on the ground. There is no enforcement mechanism for ensuring recommended

agricultural pesticide practices.41

The nature of the health effects from pesticides depends on the type of pesticide, dose,

timing and duration of exposure, as well as the particular susceptibility of the exposed

individual. Farming community members have little or no control over several or all of

these factors.42

2.6.3.4 First Voice Raised Against the Use of Pesticides

First voice raised against the use of pesticides and insecticides was of Rachel Carson in

her book ‗silent spring‘ which was published in 1962.in this book Rachel Carson

described numerous case studies where use of hazardous pesticides and insecticides led to

environmental problems all over the world. Her book described, in depth the harmful

effects of insecticide and pesticides on all components of the environment.

2.6.3.5 DDT-Noble Prize Winner (1948)

It is interesting in this context that the discovery of the insecticidal properties of DDT

occasioned a Nobel Prize in 1948. For the next decade, the culture continued to bask in

the triumph of DDT and the promise of "better living through chemistry"43

41

Ibid., at p. 85. 42

Ibid., at p. 110. 43

Retrieved from<http://www1.umn.edu/ships/pesticides/intro.htm visited on 25th May, 2012.


48

2.6.3.6 Effect of Silent Spring

As a result of Rachel Carson‘s Silent Spring, the Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) banned the use of DDT in United States in 1972.

In the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural use was banned in most developed countries,

beginning with Hungary in 1968, then in Norway and Sweden in 1970, Germany in 1972,

United Kingdom in 1984. The Convention has been ratified by more than 170 countries

and is endorsed by most environmental groups.44

Unfortunately India refuses to ban this

pesticide and continues to say that it is safe. India the largest producer of this chemical

does not want to disturb the profit it earns by producing and exporting this deadly poison

to 70 countries.45

2.6.3.7 W.H.O Classification of Pesticide

Pesticide belonging to W.H.O. class I a is extremely hazardous, class I b is highly

Hazardous, class II is moderately hazardous, class III is slightly hazardous and class IV is

unlikely to present acute serious hazards in normal use. Nearly 90 percent of the banned

pesticides fall into category Ia/ Ib/ II of the W.H.O. hazard grades. Applications of

monocrotophos, cypermethrin, methamidophos and dimethoate have been increased

many folds in developing countries46

44

Retrieved from<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDT#Silent_Spring_and_the_U.S._ban visited on

28th May, 2012. 45

Retrieved from<http://www.living-farms.org/site/media-/press-releases/226-pesticide-banned-in-

62-countries-still-used-in-india visited on 8th June, 2012. 46

Retrieved from http://www.intechopen.com/download/get/type/pdfs/id/13227 visited on 22

December, 2013.


49

TABLE NO. 2.2

CLASSIFICATION OF PESTICIDES USED BY THE FARMERS SURVEYED47

PESTICIDE

PRODUCT

ACTIVE

INGREDIENT

CHEMICAL

CLASS

TOXICO-

LOGICAL

CLASS*

MAIN USE

BASUDIN Diazinon Organophosphates II Insecticide

HERBOXONE 2,4-D Chlorophenoxy

acids II Herbicide

TOPIK Clodinafop-

propargyl

Aryloxyphenoxy

Propionics

III Herbicide

AATREX Atrazine q Triazines U Herbicide

MACHETE Butachlor Chloroacetanilides U Herbicide

CERTAINTY Sulfosulfuron Sulfonylureas U Herbicide

ERADICANE EPTC Carbamides II Herbicide

47


December, 2013.


50

LASSO Alachlor Chloroacetanilides III Herbicide

DECIS Deltamethrin Pyrethroids II Insecticide

ALTO Cyproconazole Triazoles III Fungicide

SENCOR Metribuzin Triazines II Herbicide

CONFIDOR Imidacloprid Neonicotinoids II Insecticide

GRANSTAR Tribenuron-

methyl Sulfonylureas U Herbicide

* Ia = Extremely hazardous; Ib = Highly hazardous; II = Moderately hazardous; III =

Slightly hazardous;

U = Unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use


51

(a) Organophosphates

They were developed during the early 19th century, but their effects on insects, which are

similar to their effects on humans, were discovered in 1932. Some are very poisonous

(they were used in World War II as nerve agents). They are generally highly lipid soluble

and may be classified as direct or indirect acetylcholinesterase (AchE) inhibitors.

However; they usually do not persist in the environment. The organophosphates (OPs),

because of their widespread use and frequently high acute toxicity, are involved in more

pesticide poisonings than any other class of pesticides. The organophosphates interfere

with the activity of cholinesterase. When the cholinesterase enzyme cannot perform its

normal function, the nerves in the body send ―messages‖ to the muscles continuously

leading to muscle twitching and weakness. If the poisoning is severe, the victim may

have ―fits‖ or convulsions and may even die. Organophosphates are irreversible

cholinesterase inhibitors, without medical treatment the level of enzyme activity will

return to normal only after several days, weeks or even months. Additive effects of small

repeated doses over time, such as in a spraying season, may finally cause poisoning. The

effects of mild poisoning include fatigue, headache, and dizziness. Moderate poisoning

leads to inability to walk, weakness and chest discomfort. In severe cases there will be

unconsciousness, severe constriction of pupils and muscle twitching ultimately resulting

in death.48

(b) Methamidophos

It is classified by Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as a class I compound.

Methamidophos is a highly active, systemic, residual organophosphate insecticide/

acaricide/avicide with contact and stomach action. Methamidophos, a potent

acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, is highly toxic via oral, dermal and inhalation routes. Early

48


December, 2013.


52

symptoms of acute organophosphate poisoning are dependent on route of exposure, and

usually develop during or shortly after exposure (within 12 hours). Weakness, shakiness,

blurred vision, tightness in the chest, sweating, confusion, changes in heart rate,

convulsions, coma, and cessation of breathing may occur with significant inhalation,

ingestion or dermal exposure. The Allowable Daily Intake (ADI) level of methamidophos

is 0.0003 mg/kg.49

(c) Carbamates

The effects of carbamates and organophosphates are similar because they both

inhibitcholinesterase. Action of carbamates is naturally reversible as compared to

methamidophos action of carbamates is naturally reversible (they will be degraded in

and/or expelled from the body). Thus, carbamates can cause severe severe poisoning, but

they do not normally produce long-term, cumulative poisoning. The symptoms of acute

carbamate and organophosphate poisoning are essentially the same.50

(d) Methomyl

Methomyl is a carbamate insecticide. It is broad spectrum fast acting anti-cholinesterase

agent. It is a direct contact and stomach poison. It is a plant systemic of high acute

toxicity to mammals. It is non-cumulative and rapidly metabolized in both plants and

animals to substances of lower toxicity. Methomyl is particularly effective against

organophosphorus resistant pests. Methomyl may be absorbed from the gastrointestinal

tract, through the intact skin, and, by inhalation of spray mist and dust. The ADI levels of

methomyl are 0.01mg/kg.51

49

Id. 50

Id. 51

Id.


53

(e) Thiodicarb

It is a carbamate pesticide and belongs to class II, moderately hazardous pesticide.

Symptoms ymptoms include malaise, muscle weakness, dizziness, sweating headache,

salivation, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, central nervous system depression

and pulmonary edema. The ADI levels of thiodicarb is 0.03 mg/kg.52

(f) Organochlorines

They were commonly used in the past, but many have been removed from the market due

to their health and environmental effects and their persistence (e.g. DDT and

chlordane).53

(g) Endosulfan

It is an organochlorine pesticide of moderate mammalian toxicity which does not

accumulate in the tissues of man or animals to any significant extent. Undiluted

endosulfan is slowly and incompletely absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract of warm-

blooded animals. Absorption is more rapid in the presence of alcohols, oils and

emulsifiers. These substances also accelerate the absorption of endosulfan through skin.

It is a central nervous system stimulant, producing convulsions. The ADI level of

endosulfan is 0.006 mg/kg.54

52

Id. 53

Id. 54

Id.


54

2.6.3.8 Synthetic Organic Pesticides

Since the 1940s, pesticide use has expanded because of the development of the synthetic

organic compounds. The synthetic organic pesticides (i.e., man-made, carbon-containing

chemicals) include the chemical groups; chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates,

carbamates, pyrethroids, phenoxy herbicides and a number of other chemical classes.

Groups with similar chemical structure tend to be similar in their mode of action, fate in

the environment and pest control properties, but not necessarily in their level of toxicity.

Though pesticides may have different chemical structures, they can have similar modes

of actions. Their activity tends to be highly specific, and they are often harmless to non

target species.55

(a) Pyrethroids

They were developed as a synthetic version of the naturally occurring pesticide pyrethrin,

which is found in chrysanthemums. They have been modified to increase their stability in

the environment. Some synthetic pyrethroids are toxic to the nervous system.56

(b) Cypermethrin

It is a composite pyrethroid; a broad spectrum, non-cumulative insecticide and a fast-

acting neurotoxin with good contact and stomach action. It has of moderately high

toxicity to mammals and readily metabolized with immediate loss of activity.

Cypermethrin is not a plant systemic, it is readily degraded on soil or plants but has good

residual activity on inert surfaces. Cypermethrin is primarily absorbed from the

gastrointestinal tract. It may also be absorbed by inhalation of spray mist and only

minimally through the intact skin. The ADI level of cypermethrin is 0.05 mg/kg.57

55

Id. 56

Id. 57

Id.


55

(c) Imidacloprid

Acetylcholine esterase enzyme inhibitor when compared to many older synthetic

pesticides imidacloprid, is only moderately toxic to mammals, including humans. It is,

however, highly toxic to other "non-target" and beneficial insect species. So, as always,

care should be taken to avoid misapplication. The ADI level of imidacloprid is 0.06

mg/kg.58

2.6.3.9 Use of Pesticides

Manufacture, trade and use of DDT are severely restricted under the Stockholm

Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. The use of DDT continues to be permitted

in some developing countries only in accordance with WHO recommended guidelines,

and countries are required to develop regulatory and other mechanisms to ensure that use

of DDT is restricted only to the control of endophilic vectors of the parasitic diseases

malaria and leishmaniasis.59

As per WHO estimates, pesticides lead to one million

pesticide poisoning cases and 20000 deaths globally60

2.6.4.10 Use of PesticidesiIn India

The story of pesticides usage in India is not different from other developing countries.

Usage of pesticides in India is much higher than the permissible limit because of lack of

awareness in farmers and lack of implementation of laws. Irrespective of the fact that

there are various constitutional provisions and laws for the prevention of water pollution

but the problem of water pollution is getting worse by the day.

58

Id. 59

Environmental Health Criteria 241,DDT In Indoor Residual Spraying: Human Health Aspects,

World Health Organization,2011,p.26. 60

Punjab State Council for Science and Technology, State of Environment Punjab, Chandigarh,

2007, p.97.


56

TABLE NO.2.3

HEALTH EFFECTS OF SOME PESTICIDES FOUND IN GROUND WATER61

CHEMICAL

NAME CHRONIC EFFECT

ACUTE

TOXICITY

ACUTE EFFECTS AT

HIGH

CONCENTRATION

Alachlor

Growth Depression In

Laboratory Animals

High

Aldicarb None Observed Moderate

Diarrhea, Nausea,

Vomiting, Abdominal Pain,

Profuse Sweating,

Salivation And Blurred

Vision

Atrazine None Observed High

Mildly Irritating To Skin,

Eyes And Upper

Respiratory Tract

61

Retrieved from http://psep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/facts/pes-heef-grw85.aspx on 18

January, 2014.


57

Carbofuran None Observed High

Diarrhea, Nausea,


Profuse Sweating,


Vision

Chlorothalonil None Observed Low

DCPA None Observed Moderate

1,2,

Dichloropropane

Possible Liver And

Kidney Damage High

Acute Gastro Intestinal

Distress With Congestion

And Edema Of Lungs

Ethylene

Dibromide

(EDB)

Causes Cancer, High

Genetic Mutations

And Fatal

Deformaties. Possible

Injury To Lungs, Liver

And Kidney From

Prolonged Exposure

High

Headache, Dizziness,

Nausea, Drowsiness,

Tremors And Seizures

Oxamyl None Observed High

Diarrhea, Nausea,


Profuse Sweating,


Vision


58

2.6.4.11 Effects of Pesticides

Pesticides have adversely affected human beings all these years. Some of these effects are

(a) Cancer

Many studies have examined the effects of pesticide exposure on the risk of cancer.

Associations have been found with: leukemia, llymophoma, brain, kidney, breast,

prostate, pancreas, liver, lung and skin cancers. This increased risk occurs with both

residential and occupational exposures. Increased rates of cancer have been found among

farm workers who apply these chemicals. A mother's occupational exposure to pesticides

during pregnancy is associated with an increases in her child's risk of leukemia, wilms‘

tumor and brain cancer.62

(b) Neurological

Strong evidence links pesticide exposure to worsened neurological outcomes. The risk of

developing Parkinson‘s disease is 70 percent greater in those exposed to even low levels

of pesticides. People with Parkinson's disease were 61percent more likely to report direct

pesticide application than were healthy relatives. Both insecticides and herbicides

significantly increased the risk of Parkinson's disease. There are also concerns that long

term exposures may increase the risk of dementia.63

The United States Environmental Protect finished a 10 year review of the

organophosphate pesticides following the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act, but did little

to account for developmental neurotoxic effects, drawing strong criticism from within the

agency and from outside researchers.64

62

Retrieved from< http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_effects_of_pesticides visited on 6th June

2012. 63

Id. 64

Id.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_Quality_Protection_Act


59

(c) Reproductive Effects

Strong evidence links pesticide exposure to birth defects, fetal death and altered fetal

growth.In the United States, increase in birth defects is associated with conceiving in the

same period of the year when agrochemicals are in elevated concentrations in surface

water. Agent orange, a 50:50 mixture of 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D, has been associated with

increased birth defects in Vietnam.65

(d) Fertility

Pesticides study shows that it has an adverse affect on the fertility too. A number of

pesticides including dibromochlorophane and 2,4-D has been associated with impaired

fertility in males.66

2.6.4 Thermal Pollution

Thermal pollution results out of excessive heat generated from the thermal plants which

use water in the process of cooling their generators. This water due to contact with

excessive heat and high temperature gets polluted because of the decease in the solubility

of dissolved oxygen. The excessive heat has adverse effect in bio-chemical reactions

which are detrimental for human health and aquatic organisms.67

2.6.5 Marine Pollution

Oceans and seas are major water sources which are immensely beneficial to mankind.

Wastes from shipping fuel and oil are the main pollutants of sea water. Wastes

discharged from navigable ships cause water pollution which seriously damages the

65

Id. 66

Id. 67

Supra 34, p. 119.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_defects

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetal_death

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agent_orange

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,4,5-T

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2,4-D

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dibromochlorophane&action=edit&redlink=1


60

marine resources and organisms. Spilling from ships and off-shore drilling rigs also result

in marine pollution. 68

Accidents and collisions between the navigating ship results in discharge of huge amount

of oil from the tankers which pollutes the sea-water and causes irreparable damage to

marine habitat and vegetation.69

It has been the general practice that after the oil-tankers deliver the contents, the emptied

tanker is filled with sea water to clean it for being refilled again for a return trip. The

water used for cleaning is discharged in the sea which contains contaminated oil and the

water thus gets polluted.70

2.6.6 Radioactive Wastes

Today man made sources have begun to add large doses of radionuclides to the already

existing radioactive materials in water bodies to which the living organisms are

accustomed with various ill effects. Radioactive pollutants enter into water streams from

various sources such as nuclear power plants, nuclear reactors, nuclear tests, nuclear

installations, operations of power, processing of fission and fusion products etc. actually

hazards from radioactivity arise because radionuclides deposit in body organs and deliver

radiation dose. Extremely toxic radioactive Pu, Np, Cm, Bk, Cs, Zr, Ru etc. are produced

from neutron bombardment of atomic fuel. Once they find access into water bodies, they

disrupt the ecocycling process, enter into food chain and effect metabolic pathways.71

The main concern with the radioactivity is the fallout of radioactive materials from

explosions of nuclear weapons. Besides the nuclear explosions and hazards associated

with it, the other source of pollution is dumping of radioactive waste materials from the

68

Id. 69

Id. 70

Id. 71

B.K.Sharma, Water Pollution, Goel Publishing House, Meerut, Fourth Edition, 2005, p.85.


61

nuclear power plants, nuclear reactors and waste from medical and research

laboratories.72

2.7 EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTANT

Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer once remarked that, ―the unconscionable industrialisation, the

unpardonable deforestation and the inhuman extermination of living species betray an

exploitative brutality and anti-social appetite for profit and pleasure which is

incompatible with humanism and conservationism. Today a bath in Yamuna and Ganga

is a sin against bodily health, not a salvation for the soul, so polluted and noxious are

these holy waters now‖.73

When our population was limited, water supplies seemed endlessly renewable. We could

then afford to foul one water source, abandon it, and move on to another. This, however,

is no longer possible since the exponential growth rates of human population have

already reduced the availability of water to below its per capita availability.

Consequently, any further expansion of human activity will depend not only on how well

we are able to prevent the loss and contamination of the available water resources, but

also how sustainably we use what we have. Polluted water also poses a serious health

hazard to communities living nearby, and which depend on that source for most of their

activities.74

Water pollution can cause both immediate and long-term health effects.75

Acute effects

occur within hours or days of the time that a person consumes a contaminant. People can

suffer acute health effects from almost any contaminant if these are exposed to

extraordinarily high levels. In drinking water, microbes such as bacteria and viruses are

72

B.K.Sharma, Water Pollution, Goel Publishing House, Meerut, Fourth Edition, 2005, p.86. 73

Shravya K. Reddy, Water Pollution And The Law, Indian Journal Review, Vol.1, 2004, p.190. 74

Id. 75

Rene Dubos, Health Effects of Environmental Pollution, United States Environmental Protection

Agency, Washington D.C., 1973, p.8.


62

the contaminants with greatest chance of reaching levels high enough to cause acute

health effects.76

2.8 DISCUSSION OF SOME ASPECTS OF WATER POLLUTION WITH

THE HELP OF TABLES

Following are some tables which are concerned with the issue of water pollution. Table

no.2 will deal with issue of ill health effects of water pollutants. Table no.3 will provide

the standards of drinking water. Table no. 4 will discuss the common diseases transmitted

to humans through contaminated drinking water.

TABLE NO. 2.4

ILL EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTANTS77

S.NO. POLLUTANT EFFECTS OF THE POLLUTANT

1. Zinc (Zn)

Zinc is essential element for humans, animal and

plants. It is also an important cell component in

several metalloenzymes. Infants need 3–5

mg/day, adult males 15 mg/day, pregnant and

lactating females 20–25 mg Zn/day. However,

heavy doses of Zn salts (165 mg) for 26 days

causes vomiting, renal damage, cramps, etc.

76

Yael Calhoun, Water Pollution, Chelsea House Publishers, United State Of America, First

Printing, 2005, p.9. 77

Rajni Kant and Keshav Kant, Water Pollution :Management, Control And Treatment, New Age

International (P) Ltd, New Delhi, First Edition,2010,p.74.


63

2. Copper (Cu)

Excess of Copper in human body (more than 470

mg) is toxic, may cause hypertension, sporadic

fever, uremia, coma. Copper also produces

pathological changes in brain tissue. However,

Cu is an important cell component in several

metalloenzymes. Lack of Cu causes anaemia,

growth inhibition and blood circulation problem.

3. Barium (Ba)

Excess of Barium (more than 100 mg) in human

body may cause excessive salivation, colic,

vomiting, diarrhoea, tremors, paralysis of

muscles or nervous system, damage to heart and

blood vessels.

4. Iron (Fe)

Iron (Fe) is one of the essential mineral for

humans and animals. Degree of absorption

depends upon solubility and stability of

compound. It is a component of blood cells and

liveral metalloenzymes. However, more than 10

mg per kg of body weight causes rapid

respiration and pulse rates, congestion of blood

vessels, hypertension and drowsiness. It

increases hazard of pathogenic organisms, as

many of them require Fe for their growth.

5. Cadmium (Cd)

Cadmium is very toxic, 50 mg may cause

vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pains, loss-

ofconsciousness. It takes 5-10 years for chronic

cadmium intoxication. During first phase,

discolouration of teeth, loss of sense of smell,

mouth dryness occurs. Afterwards it may cause

decrease of red blood cells, lumber pains,

disturbance in calcium metabolism, softening of

bones, fractures, skeletal deformations, damage

of kidney, hypertension, tumor formation, heart

disease, impaired reproductive function, genetic

mutation, etc.


64

6.

Mercury (Hg)

Mercury is very toxic. Excess mercury in human

body (more than 100mg) may cause headache,

abdominal pain, diarrhoea, destruction of

haemoglobin, tremors, very bad effects on

cerebral functions and central nervous system,

paralysis, inactivates functional proteins, damage

of renal tissues, hyper coagulability of blood,

mimamata disease, and even death. It may cause

impairment of vision and muscles and even

coma. It disturbs reproductive and endocrine

system. Also causes insomnia, memory loss,

gum inflammation, loosening of teeth, loss of

appetite, etc.

7. Lead (Pb)

More than 400 mg of lead in human body can

cause brain damage, vomiting, loss of appetite,

convulsions, uncoordinated body movements,

helplessly amazed state, and coma. It is retained

in liver, kidney, brain, muscle, soft tissues,

bones, leads to high rate of miscarriages, affects

skin, and respiratory system, damages kidney,

liver and brain cells. Disturbs endocrine system,

causes anaemia, and long term exposure may

cause even death.

8. Arsenic (As)

Poisonous to fishes, animals and humans.

Greater than 25 mg of arsenic causes vomiting,

diarrhoea, nausea, irritation of nose and throat,

abdominal pain, skin eruptions inflammations

and even death. It binds globulin of blood

haemoglobin in erythrocytes. May cause cancer

of skin, lungs and liver, chromosomal aberration

and damage, gangrene, loss of hearing, injury to

nerve tissue, liver and kidney damage. Minor

symptoms of As poisoning, weight loss, hair

loss, nausea, depression, fatigue, white lines

across toe nails and finger nails.

9. Vanadium (V) It is very toxic, may cause paralysis.


65

10. Silver (Ag)

Silver (Ag) causes pathological change in

kidney, liver and may even damage kidney. May

cause Argyria (discolouration of skin). Effects

mucous membranes and eyes. In high doses, it

may be fatal to humans.

11. Radioactivematerials/

metals/substances

These generally cause ‗Gene‘ mutation,

ionization of body fluids, chromosomnal

mutations and cancers. Destroy body cell tissue,

adversely effects reproductive system. When

mother is exposed to radiation during pregnancy,

it causes severe mental retardation and

leukaemia in infants. Radioactive metals like

heavy metals are nephrotoxic and damage

kidneys.

12. Flouride

Excess fluoride intake in body results in

progressive crippling scourge

(sponging)/fluorosis of bones, teeth. May cause

metabolic alternations in soft tissues and their

functional mechanism.

13. Selenium(Se)

Signs of Se poisoning (more than 4 mg) are

fever, nervousness, vomiting, falling of blood

pressure, causes damage to liver, kidney and

spleen, loss of nails and hair, causes blindness to

animals. Cats are most susceptible. It affects

enzyme systems and interferes with sulphur

metabolism. It can cause growth inhibition, skin

discolouration, bad teeth, psychological problem,

gastro intestinal problems, but trace amount of

Se is protective against poisoning by Hg, Cd,

Ag.

14. Chromium(Cr)

Any chromium compound is toxic but

haxavalent Cr greater than 70 mg is very toxic. It

causes cancer, anuria, nephritis, gastrointestinal

ulceration, perforation in partition of nose. It

penetrates cell membrane and badly affects


66

central nervous system. Causes respiratory

trouble, lung tumors when inhaled. May cause

complications during pregnancy. It also has

adverse effects on aquatic life.

15. Manganese(Mn)

Mn is essential for mammals but in

concentration greater than 100 ppm, is toxic, and

causes growth retardation, fever, sexual

impotence, muscles fatigue, eye blindness.

16. Cobalt(Co)

High dose (27 mg or above) can cause paralysis,

diarrhoea, low blood pressure, lung irritation,

bone defects.

17. Nickel (Ni)

More than 30 mg may cause changes in muscle,

brain, lungs, liver, kidney and can also cause

cancer, tremor, paralysis and even death.

18. Boron (B)

Essential for plant growth in traces. Harmful to

crops and affects metabolic activities of plants in

higher concentration. Affects central nervous

system.

19. Alkalinity &Acidity

Permissible range of pH value if violated may

cause health problems to human and animals and

loss of productivity in agriculture.

20. Phosphate and nitrate

Soil nutrient and not toxic in low concentration.

Deplete oxygen by excess Algae production-

giving bad odour and taste of water and

detrimental to aquatic life. They are toxic for

human and animal life if concentration is beyond

permissible limits. Nitrates also cause cynosis or

blue body disease.


67

21. Chlorine (Cl) Destroys plant and aquatic life and is a biocide.

22. Sulphide Gives bad odour, toxic to many aquatic

organisms and animals.

23. Salinity Very bad for soils which retain salinity. Destroys

agricultural land.

24. Oil/Grease/Oil Sludge

Petroleum products in general are very harmful

for soils, aquatic life, animal, human and plant

life. They are very toxic. Agricultural land may

suffer accumulation of oily waste affecting

aeration and fertility. Many constituents of oily

sludge are even carcinogenic and potent

immunotoxicants.

25. Surfactants and

detergents

They are toxic and harmful for aquatic life,

animals and humans. Inhibit self-purification of

water.

26. Phenols

Toxic and impart objectionable odour. Also

subdue plant growth generally. Some phenols

(nitrophenyl etc) are carcinogens.

27. Cyanides

Cyanide poses a serious health hazard. Apart

from acute toxicity and chronic toxicity, it leads

to development of iodine deficiency disorders.


68

28. Pesticides/insecticides

Highly poisonous for humans and animals. Also

they lower seed germination, plays a role in

development of Parkinson‘s disease, destruction

of nerve cells in certain regions of brain resulting

in loss of dopamine which is used by nerve cells

to communicate with brain. Some of these are

physical poisons, some are protoplasmic poisons

causing liver damage, some are respiratory

poisons and some are nerve poisons.

29. Aluminium (Al) Toxic especially for brain, sometimes may lead

to Alzheimer‘s disease in humans.


69

TABLE NO. 2.5

(STANDARDS OF DRINKING WATER)78

POLLUTANTS PERMISSIVE EXCESSIVE*

Physical

Turbidity (units or silica scale)

Colour (units on platinum-cobalt

scale)

Taste and odour

5 unit

5 unit

nothing

25 unit

25 unit

disagreeable

Chemical

ph

Total solids

Total hardness ( as CaCO3)

Calcium (as Ca)

Magnesium (as Mn)

Iron (as Fe)

Manganese (as Mn)

7.0-8.5

500 mg/l

300 mg/l

75 mg/l

50 mg/l

0.3 mg/l

0.1 mg/l

Less than 6.5 or greater than

9.2

1500 mg/l

600 mg/l

200 mg/l

150 mg/l

1.0 mg/l

0.5 mg/l

78

Ali Mehdi, ― Water Pollution Laws and Their Enforcement In India‖, First Edition, R. Cambray

and Co. Private Ltd., Kolkata, 2007, p.244.


70

Copper (as Cu)

Zinc (as Zn)

Chlorides (as Cl)

Sulphates (as SO4)

Phenolic substances (as Phenol)

Fluorides (as F)

nitrates

1.0 mg/l

5.0 mg/l

250 mg/l

250 mg/l

0.0001 mg/l

1.0 mg/l

20 mg/l

3.0 mg/l

15.0 mg/l

1000 mg/l

400 mg/l

0.002 mg/l

2.0 mg/l

50 mg/l

Toxic substances

Arsenic (as As)

Chromium (as hexavalent)

Cyanides (as CN)

Lead (as Pb)

Selenium (as Se)

0.2 mg/l

-

-

-

-

0.2 mg/l

0.5 mg/l

0.1 mg/l

0.1 mg/l

0.05 mg/l

Radio activity

Alpha Emitters (µc/ml)

Beta Emitters(µc/ml)

-

-

10-9

10-8


71

TABLE NO. 2.6

COMMON DISEASES TRANSMITTED TO HUMANS THROUGH

CONTAMINATED DRINKING WATER79

TYPES OF

ORGANISM

DISEASES EFFECTS

Bacteria

Typhoid fever

Cholera

Bacterial dysentery

Enteritis

Diarrhea, severe vomiting, enlarged spleen,

inflamed intestine; often fatal if untreated

Diarrhea, severe vomiting, dehydration; often

fatal if untreated

Diarrhea, bleeding; rarely fatal except in

infants without proper treatment

Severe stomach pain, nausea, vomiting; rarely

fatal

79

G. Tyler Miller And Scott E. Spoolman, Living In The Environment, Cengage Learning, United

States of America, 2012, p.532.


72

Viruses

Infectious

Hepatitis (Type B)

Poliomyelitis

Fever, severe headache, loss of appetite,

abdominal pain, jaundice, enlarged liver,

rarely fatal, but may cause permanent liver

damage

Fever, diarrhea, backache, sore throat, aches

in limbs, can infect spinal cord, and cause

paralysis and muscle weakness

Parasitic

protozoa

Amoebic dysentery

Giardiasis

Cryptosparidium

Severe diarrhea, headache, abdominal pain,

chills, fever; if not treated can cause liver

abscess, bowel perforation, and death

Diarrhea, abdominal cramps, flatulence,

belching, fatigue

Severe diarrhea, cramps for upto three weeks,

and possible death for people with weakened

immune systems

Parasitic

worms

Schistosomiasis

Ancylostomiasis

Abdominal pain, skin rash, anaemia, chronic

fatigue, and chronic general ill health.

Severe anaemia and possible symptoms of

bronchial infections


73

We can thus say that pollution of water is a very serious issue and has grave

implications for the human beings. In fact, the very survival of human beings is

dependent on availability of pollution free water with the passage of time, there has been

a huge growth in the population levels and the same has led to industrialization,

urbanisation etc. thereby putting immense pressure on the available natural resources.

The increasing population has also results in demand for more food grains, which in turn

has resulted in extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides. This excessive use of pesticides,

once a passage of time, along with industrialisation and urbanisation has led to increase

in water pollution level. We have to act and control this menace before it is too late.

causes and impact of water pollution and...

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