cattle housing design

The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterThe National Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery

The Danish Cattle FederationUdkaesvej 15, Skejby, 8200 Aarhus N

Telephone 8740 5000 Telefax 8740 5010 www.lr.dk

ISBN 87-7470-828-7ISSN 1602-849X

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Interdisciplinaryreport Third edition 2001

DanishRecommendations

Housing Designfor Cattle

OmslagEXTRA.p65 02-12-2002, 14:572

The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterNovember 2002

TranslationGitte Grand Graversen The Information Department, The Danish Agricultural Advisory Center

Proof-readingMette Bjerring The Danish Cattle Federation, The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterInger Dalgaard The National Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery,

The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterOle Kristensen The Danish Cattle Federation, The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterChristian C. Krohn Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Research Center FoulumJan Brgger Rasmussen The National Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery ,

The Danish Agricultural Advisory Centeryvind Runge The Danish Cattle Federation, The Danish Agricultural Advisory Center

LayoutInger Camilla Fabricius The Danish Cattle Federation, The Danish Agricultural Advisory Center

IllustrationNiels Peter Nicolajsen The National Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery,

The Danish Agricultural Advisory Center

Printed bySpecialtrykkeriet i Viborg

Numbers printed1.000

Third edition

2001

Housing Design for Cattle Danish Recommendations

Interdisciplinary report

Translated into English

and issued in 2002

4 Housing Design for Cattle Danish Recommendations 3rd edition 2001

Preface

Now the third revised edition of the interdisciplinary report Housing Design forCattle Danish Recommendations is ready. As the previous editions it is to be con-sidered as a status in a continuous process of finding the most optimal housing de-signs to the benefit of animals as well as human beings.

The report is based on animal requirements for near environment, behaviour,health and production.

The first edition was published in January 1991. Second edition was published inOctober 1995. Since 1995, several new research results and much knowledge havebeen produced concerning for instance dairy cow and young stock housing, entirelyor partly open housing systems, ventilation and climate as well as design and func-tion of the milking area.

Additionally a series of editorial changes has been carried out in the structure ofthe individual sections of this edition.

The report is the result of a cooperation between a number of research and experi-mental institutions as well as the agricultural advisory service.

The report can be cited with indication of sources.

The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterDecember 2000

This English edition is a complete and accurate translation of the third edition ofthe report and no editing or alterations have been made except from a few necess-ary changes to the layout of the publication.

The Danish Agricultural Advisory CenterNovember 2002

5Housing Design for Cattle Danish Recommendations 3rd edition 2001

The following persons have contributed to the report:

Senior Adviser Ole KristensenThe National Department of Danish Cattle Husbandry, The Danish AgriculturalAdvisory Center

Senior Adviser Jan Brgger RasmussenThe National Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery, The Danish AgriculturalAdvisory Center

Adviser Inger DalgaardThe National Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery, The Danish AgriculturalAdvisory Center

Head of Section Jens Yde BlomThe National Department of Danish Cattle Husbandry, The Danish AgriculturalAdvisory Center

Certificate in dairy herd health Mogens JakobsenDanish Veterinary Association

Farm Building Adviser Ole UgelvigAabenraa Local Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery, Association forAgricultural Construction Advisers

Farm Building Adviser Helge KromannViborg Local Department of Farm Buildings and Machinery, Association forAgricultural Construction Advisers

Cattle and Farm Building Adviser Robert PedersenMors Agricultural Advisory Centre, Danish Cattle Advisers Association

Head of Department Per JustesenDanish Dairy Board

Senior Consultant Laust JepsenDanish Dairy Board

Head of research unit Christian C. KrohnDanish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Research Center Foulum

Scientist Kaj HansenDanish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Research Center Bygholm

Associate Professor Niels RrbechDepartment of Animal Science and Animal Health, The Royal Veterinary andAgricultural University

When referring to the report the following literature reference must be stated:

Anonymous, 2001. Interdisciplinary report Housing Design for Cattle DanishRecommendations. Third edition 2001. The Danish Agricultural Advisory Center.Translated into English and issued in 2002. 122 pp.


Contents

Preface .................................................................................................................................4Contents ..............................................................................................................................6Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 101. Cattle behaviour ........................................................................................................... 12

1.1 Cattle senses........................................................................................................................ 121.2 Social behaviour .................................................................................................................. 13

1.2.1 Communication ........................................................................................................... 131.2.2 Individual distance requirements .............................................................................. 131.2.3 Ranking and rank criteria .......................................................................................... 141.2.4 Aggressive behaviour ................................................................................................. 151.2.5 Social grooming .......................................................................................................... 15

1.3 Circadian rhythm and activity patterns .............................................................................. 161.3.1 Lying time, lying frequency and circadian rhythm .................................................... 161.3.2 Lying down and getting up behaviour ....................................................................... 161.3.3 Lying down positions .................................................................................................. 171.3.4 Choice of lying place and bedding .............................................................................. 181.3.5 Movement .................................................................................................................. 19

1.4 Comfort behaviour .............................................................................................................. 191.5. Feed and water intake ...................................................................................................... 20

1.5.1 Grazing and circadian rhythm.................................................................................... 201.5.2. Feed intake in housing systems ................................................................................ 211.5.3 Restrictive feeding ...................................................................................................... 211.5.4 Ad lib feeding ............................................................................................................. 211.5.5 Rumination .................................................................................................................. 211.5.6 Water intake .............................................................................................................. 21

1.6 Reproduction ....................................................................................................................... 221.6.1 Sexual behaviour of bulls ........................................................................................... 221.6.2 Sexual behaviour of cows ........................................................................................... 221.6.3 Calving and the cows behaviour towards the calf ................................................... 221.6.4 Behaviour of calves ..................................................................................................... 231.6.5 Sucking and eating behaviour of calves .................................................................... 241.6.6 Separation and weaning ............................................................................................ 25

1.7 Undesirable behaviour ........................................................................................................ 251.8 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 27

1.8.1 Sources ........................................................................................................................ 272. Weight, body dimensions and movement behaviour ...............................................28

2.1 Cattle weight and dimensions ............................................................................................ 282.2 Young stock weight and dimensions .................................................................................. 282.3 Body dimensions of cows .................................................................................................... 282.4 Cattle movement pattern .................................................................................................. 282.5 Freedom of movement and exercise ................................................................................. 302.6 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 31

2.6.1 Sources ....................................................................................................................... 312.6.2 Supplementary literature ......................................................................................... 31

3. Health ............................................................................................................................ 323.1 General health state ........................................................................................................... 323.2 External infection protection ............................................................................................. 33

3.2.1 Purchase of cattle ....................................................................................................... 333.2.2 Handing over cattle .................................................................................................... 333.2.3 Admittance of persons ............................................................................................... 34

3.3 Internal infection protection .............................................................................................. 353.3.1 Moving around cattle within farm ............................................................................ 353.3.2 Placing and moving around cattle and young stock ................................................. 353.3.3 Sick cattle and cattle under treatment ..................................................................... 35

3.4 Separation and treatment section ..................................................................................... 353.4.1 Space for hoof trimming ............................................................................................ 36


3.4.2 Medicine and chemical storage ................................................................................. 363.4.3 Waste handling ........................................................................................................... 36

3.5 Cleaning and disinfection .................................................................................................... 363.5.1 General cleaning information .................................................................................... 363.5.2 Specific information about disinfection, including instructions ................................ 36

3.6 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 374. Work routines and supervision ................................................................................... 38

4.1 Work routines, supervision and welfare ............................................................................ 384.2 Cleaning and grooming ....................................................................................................... 384.3 Hoof care ............................................................................................................................. 384.4 Supervision of housing climate ........................................................................................... 394.5 Herd supervision .................................................................................................................. 394.6 Herd handling ...................................................................................................................... 394.7 Handling of cattle and animal human relations ............................................................. 40

4.7.1 Calves, heifers and cows ............................................................................................. 414.7.2 Bulls ............................................................................................................................. 42

4.8 Taking into use renovated and new housing systems ....................................................... 424.8.1 When will the new housing be taken into use? ........................................................ 424.8.2 Making ready housing and technique ....................................................................... 42

4.9 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 444.9.1 Sources ........................................................................................................................ 444.9.2 Supplementary literature .......................................................................................... 44

5. Housing Climate ........................................................................................................... 465.1 Introduction housing climate in general .......................................................................... 465.2 Climatic requirements ......................................................................................................... 46

5.2.1 Temperature ............................................................................................................... 465.2.2 Air humidity ................................................................................................................ 475.2.3 Wind speed ................................................................................................................. 475.2.4 Precipitation ............................................................................................................... 475.2.5 Gases ........................................................................................................................... 475.2.6 Dust ............................................................................................................................. 475.2.7 Light ............................................................................................................................ 475.2.8 Sound ........................................................................................................................... 48

5.3 Building insulation ............................................................................................................... 485.3.1 Insulated buildings ...................................................................................................... 485.3.2 Uninsulated buildings ................................................................................................. 48

5.4 Ventilation ........................................................................................................................... 485.4.1 Natural ventilation ..................................................................................................... 495.4.2 Dimensioning of natural ventilation ......................................................................... 49


6. Selection of equipment and materials ........................................................................ 546.1 Equipment ........................................................................................................................... 546.2 Floors .................................................................................................................................... 54

6.2.1 Recommendations for solid floors ............................................................................. 546.2.2 Recommendations for slatted floors ......................................................................... 56

6.3 Drinking water supply and allocation ................................................................................ 566.4 Materials .............................................................................................................................. 59

6.4.1 Choice of materials ..................................................................................................... 596.4.2 Surface treatment ...................................................................................................... 59

6.5 Equipotential bonding ......................................................................................................... 596.6 Cleaning ............................................................................................................................... 616.7 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 62

6.7.1 Sources ........................................................................................................................ 626.7.2 Supplementary literature .......................................................................................... 62


7. Calving section sucking calfs .................................................................................... 647.1 Calving ................................................................................................................................. 64

7.1.1 Calving pen .................................................................................................................. 647.2 Literature ............................................................................................................................ 67

7.2.1 Sources ........................................................................................................................ 678. Calves and young stock ...............................................................................................68

8.1 Single housed cattle ............................................................................................................ 688.1.1 Single pen .................................................................................................................... 688.1.2 Calf huts ...................................................................................................................... 698.1.3 Stalls ............................................................................................................................ 70

8.2 Jointly housed cattle ........................................................................................................... 718.2.1 Joint pen with a layer of litter or deep litter ............................................................ 728.2.1.1 Litter in the whole pen ............................................................................................ 728.2.1.2 Littered resting area and short non-littered feeding area ................................... 728.2.1.3 Littered resting area and long non-littered feeding place ................................... 738.2.1.4 Self-cleaning sloping pen ......................................................................................... 748.2.1.5 Joint hut with litter in the total area ..................................................................... 758.2.1.6 Shelter with free access to outside area ................................................................ 758.2.2 Cubicles ........................................................................................................................ 768.2.3 Joint pen with slatted floor ....................................................................................... 77

8.3 Feeding areas in joint pens ................................................................................................. 778.3.1 Roughage and concentrate ........................................................................................ 788.3.2 Milk feeding ................................................................................................................ 798.3.3 Drinking water ........................................................................................................... 79


9. Dairy cows .....................................................................................................................869.1 Loose housing joint housing ............................................................................................. 86

9.1.1. Housing types divided into type of resting area ................................................... 869.1.1.1 Cubicles ..................................................................................................................... 869.1.1.2 Feeding cubicles ....................................................................................................... 869.1.1.3 Deep litter ............................................................................................................... 869.1.1.4 Self-cleaning sloping pen ......................................................................................... 879.1.2 Resting area ................................................................................................................ 879.1.2.1 Cubicles ..................................................................................................................... 879.1.2.2 Resting area with deep litter and separate feeding area .................................... 919.1.3 Feeding area ............................................................................................................... 949.1.4 Walking alleys ............................................................................................................. 99

9.2. Milking area...................................................................................................................... 1009.2.1 Holding area ............................................................................................................. 1009.2.2 Entrance part ............................................................................................................ 1029.2.3 Milking stalls ............................................................................................................. 1039.2.4 Exit part and return alleys ....................................................................................... 1049.2.5 Hoof bathing ............................................................................................................. 1059.2.6 Separation area ........................................................................................................ 106

9.3 Tied-up housing system ....................................................................................................1069.3.1 Stall (resting area) ....................................................................................................1069.3.2 Feeding area ............................................................................................................. 1079.3.3 Tethers ...................................................................................................................... 1089.3.4 Cow control equipment ............................................................................................ 1099.3.5 Walking alleys ...........................................................................................................109

9.4 Catch-stall housing system................................................................................................ 1109.5 Literature ..........................................................................................................................110

9.5.1 Sources ...................................................................................................................... 1109.5.2 Supplementary literature ........................................................................................112

10. Beef cattle ................................................................................................................. 11410.1 Weight and body dimensions ......................................................................................... 11410.2 Feeding and resting areas .............................................................................................. 11410.3 Literature ........................................................................................................................ 117

10.3.1 Sources .................................................................................................................... 117


10.3.2 Supplementary literature ......................................................................................11711. Outdoor exercise folds ............................................................................................. 118

11.1 Outdoor exercise folds ....................................................................................................11811.2 Literature ........................................................................................................................119

11.2.1 Sources .................................................................................................................... 11911.2.2 Supplementary literature ......................................................................................119

Subject index .................................................................................................................. 120


Introduction

The report has been revised by a workgroup consisting of specialists withinresearch, education and advisory serv-ice. The work group has formulated theaim in this way:

The aim is to point out appropriateequipment and cattle housing systemdesigns as regards animal welfare andworking environment.

Target groupsThe report addresses the following tar-get groups: Milk and beef producers Manufacturers of housing equip-

ment and technical aids Veterinary surgeons and agricultural

scientists Construction, production and milk

quality advisers Researchers and product developers Teachers and students Politicians and interest organisations.

Structure of the reportThe report comprises 11 chapters. Eachchapter includes recommendations forhousing design on the basis of the ani-mal needs and requirements concern-ing behaviour, health and other practi-cal matters. First of all the recommen-dations cover conditions of direct rele-vance to the animals and / or conditionsof directly applicable value, and to aless extent choice of materials and de-sign, etc. Under the sections of Back-ground and motivation literature(documentation) concerning the debat-ed, relevant subjects of the chapter islisted. In addition, there is a literaturelist with sources as well as supplemen-tary literature.

The first chapters illustrate general be-haviour, health, supervision and climat-ic conditions, which should be con-sidered when dealing with cattle.

In respect of dimensioning chapter 2 ex-plains cattle dimensions when standingand lying down as well as when movingdependent on body weight, age andgain.

If nothing else is indicated, the recom-mended dimensions are for cattle with-out horns.

Chapter 6 includes some overall func-tions concerning floors and equipment,which can typically be seen in all sec-tions of cattle houses.

Chapter 7 includes functional require-ments and design of calving section.

Chapters 8 to 10 are about functionalrequirements and solution models forthe individual farm sections describedfor calf houses and young stock housesas well as houses for dairy cows andbeef cattle.

Chapter 11 is about design of outdoorexercise folds.

For many designs, layouts and detailsonly a few or none scientific studies hasbeen carried out. Therefore the recom-mendations are based on practical ex-periences.

Known housing systems, equipmentparts and the like, which the workgroup does not recommend, are eithernot included in the report or the reportdeprecates the application.

No matter how a housing system is de-signed physical injuries may occur e.g.injuries owing to pressure and injuriesto hooves. However, appropriate designreduces the risk.

There are limits to how much normalhousing design can compensate for sec-ondary physical injuries. Such injuries,which are incorrectly considered to becaused by the housing, can e.g. be dueto inappropriate feeding. An exampleof this can be sore legs caused by lamini-tis. Cows with laminitis have an unnor-mally long lying time. When theystand up they relieve the legs by lean-ing up against the equipment. In thisway injuries owing to pressure arise.Cows with laminitis rise slowly and withgreat trouble and in this way the risk ofskidding and teat damage is increased.


All drawings are principle outlines,which support the explanation in thetext and the tables.

An example of applicationThe idea behind the report is to use itas a work of reference.

Housing system, equipment and techni-cal aid developers within cattle hus-bandry are able to find information onbasic requirements for individual func-tions, hereunder motivation and justifi-cation for carrying out product control.Moreover, they can find professionallysupported arguments in a future mar-keting of new solution methods withinthe field.

Politicians and interest organisationsmay use the report as reference indealing with ethic and animal protec-tion dialogues at national and interna-tional levels.

Advisers can use the report in the ideaand planning phase as a work of refer-ence to inspire and document in con-nection with elaboration of decisionbases for cattle farmers who considerand plan housing building.

Cattle farmers can clarify and supporttheir requirements and on the basis ofthis control the function in establishedas well as planned production systems(functional study in connection withquality management).

Lecturers and students may use the re-port as reference in connection withlectures at schools as well as univer-sities in general.

Indication of dimensions forbuilding and equipment partsThe indicated dimensions concerningthe distance between parts of equip-ment as e.g. the breadth of pens, cu-bicles, location of neck rail, etc. havebeen stated as dimensions from midequipment to mid equipment. Wherethe demarcation is a solid wall as e.g. aconcrete wall the dimensions havebeen indicated for a solid wall.

Follow upIt is intended to revise the report everyfew years. Therefore the work groupwill be pleased to receive suggestionsand potential corrections for thisedition of the report. Please forwardsuggestions to the National Depart-ment of Farm Buildings and Machinery.

Chapter 1

12 Housing Design for Cattle Danish Recommendations 3rd revised edition 2002

Cattle behaviour

The main feed of cattle is grass andother plants containing cellulose.Originally, cattle were forest animalsthat went far and wide in the search offeed, water and appropriate places torest. Cattle belong to the group oflight-active animals. This means thatthe search for feed, social behaviour,grooming, etc. take place during theday, while cattle mainly rest at night.Finally, cattle are gregarious animals.

The knowledge of the normal behav-iour of cattle mainly derives from wilddomestic cattle, beef cattle or crossbredbeef cattle kept under natural or halfnatural circumstances. Most results con-cerning behaviour in intensive produc-tion systems derive from our moderndairy cattle breeds.

Intensive production and housingsystems are characterised by a high de-gree of mechanisation, high animaldensity, and low performance. Thus it isnot always possible to satisfy the basicneeds of the animals in such systems,and they cannot be adapted to the en-vironment. This results in behaviouralchanges and a high risk of physical in-juries and diseases.

1.1 Cattle sensesAll the senses of cattle are well-devel-oped and are applied both in thesearch of feed and as a mean of orien-tation and social communication.

The range of vision of cattle covers 330-360, and the field of vision covered byboth eyes at the same time is 25-30(figure 1.1). Cattle are able to distin-guish between the colours red, yellow,green and blue, however, the distinc-tion between green and blue is poor.Cattle are able to distinguish betweendifferently simple shapes such as trian-gles, circles, and lines. The ability ofcattle to focus is probably poor, too.

It is more likely for cattle to move froma dark area to a light area than theother way around. However, they arecautious about entering strong day-light, and they avoid strong contrastsbetween sun and shadow, e.g. sun/shadow from a railing or a window.

The hearing of cattle (frequency range)is almost the same as the hearing ofpersons, but they are actually able topick up some high tones that we can-not hear. However, cattle are not goodat localising sounds, as they are onlyable to determine the source of thesound within a rate of 30. Thus cattleare restless when they are not able tosee where the sound is coming from.The sense of smell is well-developedand it is utilised frequently when cattleseek food and when they communicatesocially. The bull is able to detect a cowon heat several days before she is reallyon heat by smelling her. Moreover, acow finds and recognises her calf bymeans of her sense of smell.

The sense of taste is important as re-gards the choice of feed. Cattle prefersweet and sour feed, while they refusebitter feed and feed containing muchsalt. The sense of touch is also well de-veloped on the naked muzzle as well ason the body. It is assumed that physicalinjuries, lesions, diseases, and stress areexperienced as pain and malaise by cat-tle as by people.

Figure 1.1.

Range of vision

of cattle.

13

Cattle behaviour

Housing Design for Cattle Danish Recommendations 3rd revised edition 2002

Social behaviour1.2 Social behaviourAny manifestation of life between con-specifics is social behaviour. Just like allother gregarious animals, cattle have awell-developed social behaviour, whichcan be divided into aggressive behaviour(e.g. battle, threats) and non-aggressivebehaviour (e.g. social grooming).

1.2.1 CommunicationCattle communicate by sending out dif-ferent signals. The signals are poses,sounds, and smells, and the signal ispicked up as a visual, sound, scent, ortouch impression.

Through generations a genetic basic forthe performance and interpretation ofthe individual signals has been coded insuch a way that all individuals withinthe breed master this way of communi-cating. However, most behavioural pat-terns require some sort of learning andtraining in order to be able to carry outthe behaviour correctly. The learningmight be attached to certain periods ofthe animals life, and if this learning isprevented, problems of communicatingmight arise.

Calves that are bred isolated during thefirst two to three months of life willlater on find it difficult to socialise withother calves. The lack of social contactis presumably a strain on the animal.Even calves that are kept in closed sin-gle pens that make it almost impossibleto see or touch other calves most oftenhave a high frequency of licking itselfbehaviour. This behaviour is increasedfurther when calves are kept in penswithout litter and fibre-rich supplemen-tary feeds.

1.2.2 Individual distancerequirementsThe distance between conspecifics (theindividual distance) can be divided intoa physical and a social room (figure1.2). The physical room constitutes thespace, which the cow needs for itsnecessary movements, e.g. to lie down,get up, stretch, etc. The social room isthe minimum distance, which the cowkeeps to conspecifics.

If the minimum distance is overstepped,the cow will either try to escape/runaway or it will behave aggressively. Thepersonal minimum distance of thecow to other individuals is limited by acircle around its head, because cows

orientate themselves through the senseimpressions they receive through theeyes, ears and smell. The individual dis-tance is thus always measured fromhead to head. The individual distancefor adult cows at pasture is, typically,two to four meters. Moreover, the indi-vidual distance is very activity depend-ent. Polling limits the individual dis-tance, and in certain situations, e.g.when cows lick and rub each other forsocial reasons, the distance is of coursezero.

A high density of animals limits thefreedom of movement of the cow andif this is repeated, social stress may oc-cur. Investigations of heifers and youngbulls on slatted floors have shown thatan increased density rate results inmore aggressive clashes and a high fre-quency of undesirable behaviour. In an-other investigation the frequency ofundesirable behaviour (tongue rollingand other oral activities directed at ob-jects or other cattle) rose 2.5 - 3.0 timesamong young bulls when the densityrate was increased from 2.3 m/animalto only 1.5 m/animal. Troubles causedby heifers on heat also increased at 1.6m/animal compared to 3.0 m/animal,especially, because the frequency ofmounting rose. Less physical space alsoresults in a situation where a largenumber of cattle are urged to stand updue to disturbances of other cattle inthe group.

Figure 1.2.

The physical and

social room of cattle

(individual distance).

Chapter 1


a)

b)

c)

A reduction of the walking width be-tween dairy cow cubicles from 2.0 me-tres to 1.6 metres resulted in a high de-gree of aggression, and queuing be-tween the feed alley and the cubicles.The cubicles were frequently used aspassing place and turning area, be-cause cows were unable to pass eachother without touching each other (theindividual distance was overstepped).Blind passages cause huddling andincreased aggression among cattle.

The abnormal getting up and lyingdown behaviour will increase, if thephysical space is limited, and theresting time is reduced if the animaldensity rate is high. The increase of theabnormal getting up and lying downbehaviour is one of the reasons whythe frequency of tail treads raises onslatted floor.

Examinations show that a high degreeof e.g. young stock kept in group penswill strain animals to such an extendthat it might affect both their welfareand yield negatively.

The necessary number of animals perm does of course depend on the sizeof the young animal.

1.2.3 Ranking and rank criteriaUnder natural conditions cattle formsmall herds consisting of a bull, cows,young animals and calves. Young bullsof more than 10 12 months arechased away from their herd. Thedominance relations are determined onthe basis of the social behaviour, and arank order (hierarchy) is build, so thateach individual knows its place in theherd. The dominance relations aregradually established during adoles-cence. The ranking is often very stabilein intact groups, and in this way theherd is able to live in harmony.

In order to maintain the stable rank or-der, and avoid trouble and unnecessaryaggression in the herd, the change of in-dividual cows has to be limited as muchas possible. However, if a change of ani-mals must take place, it is best to moveseveral animals than one at a time.

Rank orders are prevalent within eachgroup of dairy cows, heifers or fatteninganimals that walk freely together in e.g.loose housing systems. The ranking ofeach animal depends on its age, weight,seniority and temperament.

In this way old and big cows always havea high ranking, while young, light andnewly arrived cows primarily first cal-vers will have a low ranking in the hier-archy. Thus young, small and newly ar-rived cows will have poor productionconditions in loose housing systems,especially if the conditions are not opti-mal.

If a few animals have been isolatedfrom the group for a long time, or ifthe herd has been kept in tied-up hous-ing systems during the winter period,the hierarchy must be re-established.The hierarchy can be maintained foryears without any clashes in the formof physical fighting, if the cattle haveaccess to physical contact regularly.Fairly few situations of threaten andretreat behaviour are sufficient tomaintain the rank order.

Not much research has been done inoptimal group size. It is assumed thatthe maximum number of animals that acow is able to know is 70 80. The riskof clashes increases, if the herd is big-ger, because the animals do not recog-nize each other. The optimal group sizeof calves and heifers is unknown.

Figure 1.3.

Physical fights and

threats. a) frontal

fight, b) brow push

from the side, c)

threat (psychical).

15

Cattle behaviour


Social behaviour1.2.4 Aggressive behaviourDirectly aggressive and physical con-tacts primarily arise during the estab-lishment of the rank order. Frontalfight (forehead against forehead) ismost aggressive, however, brow pushagainst shoulder and flank can also bevery violent (figure 1.3).

Once the rank order has been estab-lished, the threatening behaviour isdominating. The aggressive threaten-ing behaviour can be intensified bypushing and tossing the head againstthe opponent. If resources such as feed,water, lying areas, etc. are limited, theaggressive behaviour will rise consider-ably and it may be very violent.

A clear understanding of the actualneeds of the animals is often necessaryin order to comprehend the situation the limited resource. Intensifiedaggression among heifers in a - by nor-mal standards - very big communitypen may for instance be due to the factthat the littered lying area is too small,or when fed restrictively the feedingplace is too little.

1.2.5 Social groomingCattle have a distinct urge to lick andbe licked by their peers. Thus the lick-ing behaviour must be regarded as anormal behavioural manifestation.

When the social grooming takes placeamong cattle, the individual distance isignored and there does not arise anyaggressive actions. The active animalalways approaches from the front, andin order to avoid escape or aggression,the characteristical approaching atti-tude is performed with stretched neck,lowered head and extended muzzle. Ifthe passive animal does not whish tobe contacted, it will conduct a deviantand threatening behaviour, but it rare-ly attacks. If the active animal wants tobe licked, it will keep its approachingattitude in front of the selected part-ner and the behaviour will change toan encouraging attitude. If both ani-mals wish to be licked they may keepthe encouraging attitude in front ofeach other for a while. The animal ofthe highest rank may emphasise the in-vitation by pushing its muzzle againstthe underside of the partners neck orby soft forehead pushes.

The invitation can also be initiated bymeans of a social battle-like game, inwhich the two animals will mutuallyrub each others head and forehead.The behaviour often results in mutualsocial licking of the face, ear and neck.

Social grooming almost always startsout by the head or the neck, and after-wards the animal will change its posi-tion in order to have other parts of itsbody licked (figure 1.4). It will oftenturn those parts of the body towards itspartner, which it cannot reach by itsown tongue. Thus the muzzle, tip ofthe tail and limbs are not licked. Thechoice of partner for the licking processis rarely random, as many cows preferthe same partner each time.

All the animals of the group are licked,but not all the animals lick. Animals ofsimilar rank lick each other more oftenthan animals of very different rank.Moreover, social licking is often carriedout, when a change of activities takesplace, e.g. before or after a rest, andwhen cattle have been disturbed andthis has caused unrest (calming effect).

Cattle need social grooming, and if thisneed cannot be met, e.g. because theanimal is tethered, the need is accumu-lated and will result in an intensifiedgrooming activity, as soon as the possi-bility offers itself again.

Figure 1.4

Social grooming.

Cattle have a dis-

tinct urge to lick and

be licked by each

other. Social licking

contributes to main-

taining the social

hierarchy.

Chapter 1


1.3 Circadian rhythm andactivity patternsCattle have a distinct circadian rhythm,in which the main rest, feed and rumi-nation activities vary according to afixed pattern (see these). At the sametime cattle are gregarious animals andthus a group of cows or heifers will pre-fer to carry out the same behaviouralactivities at the same time. This cir-cadian rhythm is difficult to change andhence problems may arise, e.g. in con-nection with automatic milking or re-duced feed alley, which are based on anindividual behavioural pattern.

1.3.1 Lying time, lying frequencyand circadian rhythmLying has a very high priority amongcattle. Calves lie down 16 18 hoursper day distributed over 30 40 per-iods. The lying time of cattle decreasewith age and thus a cow normally liesdown for 10 14 hours distributed over15 20 periods. Cattle doze (lightsleep) more than they sleep. They areable to stand up and ruminate whilethey doze. Cattle only sleep a couple ofminutes 10 - 15 times per day. The longrest periods include rumination as wellas doze and profound sleep.

The lying periods of cattle are fit in be-tween the periods of feeding andstanding. A lying period typically lastsfor half an hour to three hours. Duringthe long lying periods in the middleof the day or during night the cowrises, stretches and lays down immedi-ately again, usually, on the other side.Thus cattle spend more than half oftheir lives lying and during a wholeyear a dairy cow lies down and rises5,000 7,000 times. Among otherthings the lying time and the numberof lying periods depend on the age,heat cycle and the state of health ofthe cow. Moreover, the weather, thequality of the bedding, the type ofhousing and the number of animals persquare metres also influence the lyingtime and the number of lying periods.

1.3.2 Lying down and getting upbehaviourThe natural lying down behaviour ofcattle begins when the animal sniffs atthe ground while it slowly moves for-ward (in search of a suitable place to liedown). When the cow has found a suit-able place, it, characteristically, shuttlesits head from one side to the other to

Figure 1.5.

Natural getting up

behaviour among

cattle.

17

Cattle behaviour


Circadian rhythmand activity

patterns

Figure 1.7.

Abnormal getting up

behaviour. The cow

rises like a horse.

examine the place. Afterwards, it bendsits forelegs, kneels and, finally, it care-fully moves one hind leg under its bodyand lies on it. The lying down behav-iour requires much space in order to becarried out normally. The head andbody of a fully developed cow is thrust0.60 0.70 metre forward during thelying down process.

When a cow wants to get up in a natu-ral way it firstly rises to its knees andafterwards the hind part of its body isswung up via the knees, which func-tions as rocking point (see figure 1.5).This movement is one of the greatestphysical activities of cattle. The naturallying down behaviour is a reverse fre-quency of the movements of the natu-ral getting up behaviour.

In the open cows often carry out the ly-ing down and getting up activities inone continuous movement. When cowsare kept indoors their movements maybe hampered by too little space, tether-ing and/or hard and slippery flooring. Inthis way the movements may be abrupt-ed several times at different behaviouralstages, or the behaviour may be carriedout abnormally (figure 1.6 and 1.7).Thus the frequency of abnormal lyingdown/getting up behaviour is higherwhen cows are kept on slatted floorsthan deep litter, and the frequency risesaccording to age. Each lying down/get-ting up behaviour may last for severalminutes instead of the usual 15 20 and5 6 seconds respectively. At the sametime there is a higher risk that the cowinjuries itself physically.

1.3.3 Lying down positionsNormally, cattle lie with their headerected, resting on the sternum andeither the right or the left thigh (seefigure 1.8). The head is raised and thetwo forelegs may be either stretched orbended. Rumination when the cow liesdown always takes place in this posi-tion. We have knowledge of three typi-cal resting positions:

a. The head is bended backward, sothat it rests on or lies along the body(most frequent)

b. The head is stretched forward andchin rests on the bed (frequent)

c. The cow lies flatly stretched outcompletely on the side (frequent).

Figure 1.6.

Abnormal lying down

behaviour. The cow

bends down on one

or both knees after

which the behaviour

is interrupted, and

the cow gets up

again and stands on

all four hoofs.

Chapter 1


Figure 1.8.

Different lying posi-

tions among cattle.

The durability of the two last-men-tioned positions is, however, short. Theresting positions are assumed 30-40% of the resting time of calves and15-20% of cows. Deep sleep occurs onlywhen the cows assume their lyingdown positions. Many cows of tied-uphousing systems have difficulties intaking up a normal resting positiondue to the tether and the feed alley de-sign. This situation may influence theresting need and the lying downbehaviour of the animals.

1.3.4 Choice of lying place andbeddingThere has not been carried out much re-search in the choice of lying place atpasture. However, cows have a tendencyto choose high-lying and wind-sweptplaces when the weather is warm,whereas sheltered places are preferredwhen it is cold. Normally, when the firstcow of the herd has assumed its lyingplace, the other cows take up placesnearby. Typically, cows will lie with inter-vals of 3-5 meters between their heads.

In housing systems cattle always choosea soft to a hard and slippery bedding.The level of skid resistance, hardnessand workability of the bed has a greatinfluence on the lying down behaviour.Several examinations have shown thatthe number of lying-down periods isreduced on slatted floors compared todeep litter bedding, because the motio-nal pattern of cattle is restrained.

If heifers can freely choose betweendeep litter bedding and slatted floors,they will prefer deep litter. Dairy cowsin cubicle houses choose soft, heat-insu-lated mats to hard rubber mats. How-ever, a nicely made straw bed alwayshas the highest priority among cattle.

Cubicles with draught and noise are of-ten avoided. Moreover, the neighbour-ing cubicles of a cubicle with a domi-nating cow are unattractive. In connec-tion with rapidly growing young bulls,slatted floor may cause a change ofmotional pattern and painful joints dueto the smoothness and hardness of thefloor.

Thus it can be concluded that housing ofyoung stock on fully slatted flooring re-strains the motional pattern of cattle tosuch a degree that the frequency of theperformance of the lying down, comfort

19

Cattle behaviour


Comfortbehaviour

and social behaviour is changed consider-ably. Thus the welfare of cattle must beregarded as reduced.

Cows have a relatively constant need tolie down and this behaviour has a highpriority. If the lying down behaviour isprevented even for a few hours theneed to lie down rises and exceeds thebasic needs, e.g. the eating need. Lessthan one cubicle per cow will reducethe lying down time of the cows andincrease cases of abnormal behaviour.

Deep litter housing is a very freehousing system in which cows can per-form almost all their normal behav-ioural activities naturally. The only re-stricting factor in connection with deeplitter mats is the animal density rate(m2/cow). A high density will cause ahigher level of trouble and aggressionamong cattle.

1.3.5 MovementCattle need space for movement andfrequent exercise in order for their mus-cles, sinews and bones to develop nor-mally. If they are not exercised properlyit will be difficult for them to lie downand get up. They will develop an un-steady gait and it will be difficult forthem to coordinate their movements.

It has been shown that calves housed insmall single pens will be more moti-vated to run and jump/kick, the longerit is since they have had a chance to ex-ercise. The solution to this problem is togive calves frequent access to an exer-cise fold or to house them in largegroup pens.

If tethered cows are at pasture for 5-6months per year, the risk of developingmore production diseases such as masti-tis, treat damage, retained placenta,milk fever and ketosis will be reducedand the possibility of improving the re-production ability increased. Even a rel-atively short period of daily exercise (2-4 hours) seems to have a positive effecton the reproduction ability, the fre-quency of retained placenta, milk feverand ketosis.

Grazing in the dry period does alsoseem to have a favourable effect on thereproduction in the succeeding lacta-tion. Naturally, rearing in loose housingsystem pens with a high animal densitydoes not provide a sufficient freedom

of movement, nor has it been provedwhether the exercise need is consideredin dairy cow cubicle housing systems.Typically, dairy cows at pasture walk 3-5kilometres per day. However, this de-pends on the amount and the qualityof the grass and the size of fold. Inloose housing systems with access to anoutdoor run the daily walking distanceis about 1 kilometre.

The tying up of cows and heifers allyear round poses behavioural andhealth problems to the animals.

1.4 Comfort behaviourThe term comfort behaviour covers allkinds of behaviour that increase thephysical well-being of cattle. Groomingis the most important activity, however,stretching and shaking of oneself alsobelong to the comfort behaviour ofcattle.

The function of grooming is to removedroppings, urine and parasites andkeep up the skin and the fur. When theanimal performs the grooming behav-iour it partly licks all the places of itsbody that it is able to reach with thetongue, partly rubs its body against ob-jects or scratches itself with the backhoofs (see figure 1.9). Tosses with head,

Figure 1.9.

Grooming behav-

iour a) licking the

udder, b) scratching

with hind hoof.

Chapter 1


tail or legs against the body are carriedout to chase away flying insects. Theweather and the amount of parasitesaffect the grooming behaviour. Oftenthe grooming behaviour takes place inconnection with a change of activities,e.g. right before or after rest.

The first weeks after birth, the cow per-forms the grooming of the calf. Thusthe calf does not lick itself very oftenduring that period of time. Older calvesuse 4 6% of the day and night ongrooming activities, while full-growncows only lick and scratch themselvesabout 1% of the day and night. Thefrequency typically varies from 10-15 tomore that 100 times per day. Thegrooming behaviour is distributed asfollows:

60 70% licking 10 30% rubbing against object 1 3% scratching.

It is assumed that grooming is primarilymotivated by external stimuli, i.e. some-thing that annoys the skin. Skin para-sites such as vermin, lice and ringwormsare very annoying for animals and mustbe treated fast and efficiently.

However, increased grooming behav-iour can also arise in conflict and frus-tration situations that strain the ani-mal. Increased grooming is frequentamong tethered animals, animals innew surroundings (adaption problems)and isolated animals. A tendency to slipis often seen in connection with theperformance of grooming and socialbehaviour on slatted floors and con-crete floors without litter, but never onfloors with deep litter. Finally, it shouldbe mentioned that the frequency of so-cial grooming can affect the groomingbehaviour of the individual animal.

1.5. Feed and water intakeThe feed and water intake of cattle areinterdependent. Feed with high watercontent lowers the need for water in-take. Insufficient water supply influen-ces the feed intake and thus reducesthe yield.

1.5.1 Grazing and circadian rhythmThe grazing behaviour of cattle israther monotonous. Cattle slowly moveover the field with the muzzle close tothe ground while moving the headfrom side to side. As the animal at the

same time leans a little forward on thefront leg, the front part of the animal islowered about 5 centimetres. Thus theanimal is able to reach the ground withits muzzle.

By means of the tongue, the frontteeth of the lower part of the mouthand the dental plate of the upper partof the mouth, the grass is gathered andcut off. It is difficult for cattle to gethold of vegetation lower than 3 centi-metres. The vegetation is chewedslightly before it is swallowed togetherwith added saliva. By means of smelland taste senses a certain selection ofthe grass takes place during the intake.

Cows eat grass 5 9 hours per day dur-ing which they walk 3 5 kilometres.The duration of the grazing time pri-marily depends on the weather, thequantity and the quality of the grass.Bad weather characterized by continu-ous rain and wind reduces the grazingtime. The application of supplementaryfeed has the same effect as bad weath-er. On the other hand a poor grassquantity or grass with a high content ofcellulose will increase the grazing time.Moreover, the individual grazing timeand grass intake may vary considerably.

Cattle are gregarious animals and theyprefer to eat at the same time. The cir-cadian rhythm at pasture is typicallycyclical with 4 5 grazing periods perday, interrupted by resting and rumina-tion. The main intake takes place dur-ing two long, intensive grazing periods;one around sunrise and one aroundsunset. Between these two periods 2 3 short and less intensive grazing peri-ods will take place during the day ac-cording to the season. During the sum-mer months 85% of the grazing willtake place during the day. However, asthe days get shorter, the cattle willgraze more and more at night.

Naturally, the milking of dairy cows willbe incorporated as an established partof the circadian rhythm. If the milkingin the morning takes place before sun-rise, the first period of grazing happensafter milking. If the cows are milkedlate in the morning, they will startgrazing before they are driven in. Thesecond, long grazing period alwaystakes place after the evening milking.

21

Cattle behaviour


Feed and waterintake

1.5.2. Feed intake in housingsystemsIn the housing systems the cow normallyplaces both forelegs next to each otherwhile it eats and thus it does not lowerthe front part of its body. This meansthat the cow has difficulties in reachingfeed at ground level. Several examin-ations have shown that there is an up-ward tendency towards physical injuryoccurrences when the feed alley is thislow. Thus the feeding level should alwaysbe raised 10 centimetres above the levelof the cows forelegs. The feeding area ofthe dairy cow is within 0.60 metres fromthe rear edge of the trough, as it cannotreach any further.

The feeding rhythm of the cows followsthe daily feeding hours. When feedingtakes place twice per day morning andlate afternoon the main part of thefeed intake will take place at thesehours. The feeding time will normally de-crease (4 6 hours/day), and the numberof feeding periods increase (6 12 per-iods/day) when the cows are fed in thecow house and not at pasture. This is be-cause the feed is partly close to the ani-mal and partly easily accessible.

At some points of time first calvers, old,walking-impaired, down-calving andhigh-performance cows may not eat asmuch as usual due to bullying or dueto their own inclination. Other cows ofthe herd may take advantage of thissituation and eat a larger amount offeed than usual.

1.5.3 Restrictive feedingWhen a limited amount of feed isspread at a joint feed alley, most of thefeed is eaten in short time. Enoughspace at the feed alley is therefore deci-sive for a uniform feed intake. If thereis a shortage of feeding places (lessthan one per animal) there is a risk thatlow-ranking cows will be pushed awayfrom the feed alley. Thus the totalfeeding time of low-ranking cows willbe shorter than the feeding time of therest of the group. Even if there is afeeding place per cow, an increasinglyuneven growth and milk yield must beexpected among young animals andcows, when restrictive feeding makesup a considerable amount of the feedration. Any kind of separation at thefeed alley (trough partition) will pro-tect the animals while they eat and re-duce the individual variations.

1.5.4 Ad lib feedingIt is possible to increase the number ofanimals to 2 3 per feeding place (0.25 0.35 metre feeding space per animal),if cattle are ad lib fed in loose housingsystems, in which cattle have access tofeed during most hours of the day. Thefeeding time will decline, but apparent-ly not the feed intake. However, anumber of examinations have shownthat the competitive situation of thishigh rate of animals per feeding placewill strain the lowest ranging animals.

1.5.5 RuminationThe rumination starts relatively soon -1 hour after the grazing or feed in-take has ended. Rumination consists inregurgitation from the rumen of partlychewed feed, which is then chewedcompletely by the back teeth while thelower jaw moves from side to side. Afterregurgitation the liquid part of the ballof cud is swallowed, while the solidparts are chewed 50 60 times and, fi-nally, added with saliva swallowed.

Usually, cows ruminate 5 8 hours perday spread over 15 20 more or lesslimited periods of time. Each period oftime lasts from a few minutes to ap-prox. one hour. Most of the ruminationtakes place while the cow is lying down(70 80%).

The rumination time depends very muchon the structure of the feed. A struc-tureless and easily digested feed reducesthe rumination. Thus the saliva mixing isreduced in such a way that rumen disor-ders (rumen acidosis, displaced abomas-ums) and pseudo rumination may arise.Disturbances reduce the rumination andhence the feed intake.

1.5.6 Water intakeThe daily water need of cattle dependson the air temperature and the produc-tion. In Denmark dairy cows take in 30 100 litres of water per 24 hours. Feedwith a high water content reduces theneed for drinking water. At pasture thecows take in water 2 5 times per 24hours depending on the distance to thewater. If cows have to walk several kilo-metres, they will only drink once ortwice.

In tied-up housing systems in which theautomatic water trough is placed rightin front of the cow, cows often take inwater 15 20 times per 24 hours. Since

Chapter 1


cows normally take in water under orright after they have been fed, severalautomatic water troughs are requiredin loose housing systems, so cows haveseveral options. The drinking speed ofdairy cows is 10 20 litres per minute,if the surface of the water is free. Cowstake in most water at a water tempera-ture of 15 20C, which also has a posi-tive influence on the milk yield. Cattlesuck in water and they prefer to do thisfrom a free water surface.

1.6 ReproductionThe sexual maturity of cattle sets inwhen the animal is 6 12 months olddepending on the breed and the envi-ronment. The sexual activity is very lit-tle prior to the maturity. However, bullcalves may already show an interest incows on heat from the age of fourmonths. Under natural conditions ma-ture young bulls would brake awayfrom the herd and live alone or in smallgroups. In intensive production systemsthe sexual activity of both bulls andheifers of big dairy breeds increases ata weight of approx. 300 kg, which nor-mally corresponds to a 7 - 8-month-oldbull and a 13 -15-month-old heifer.

1.6.1 Sexual behaviour of bullsNormally the sexual behaviour of ma-ture bulls in loose housing systems con-sists of the following elements: Court-ing, erection, mounting, ejaculationand dismounting.

The courting of the cow starts two daysbefore it is on heat (oestrus). Gradually,as the cow comes nearer to oestrus thebulls interest and pursuit of the cowgets more and more intensive. Oftenthe bull sniffs at the outer genital or-gans of the cow after which it in a typi-cal movement lifts its head and turnsout the inside of its upper lip flehmenbehaviour. Before the bull mounts thecow, it places its head and neck againstthe loin of the cow, which stimulatesthe cow to stand still. As the bullmounts the cow, the penis is led intothe vagina of the cow and the bullejaculates, when the penis is led to amaximum into the vagina. Thus actualmating movements do not occur asthey do when e.g. horses and pigscopulate. This behaviour makes it easyto collect bull semen.

As the bull perceives and is stimulatedby the cow on heat by means of its

sense of smell, all young bulls who arein the same barn as a cow on heat willshow sexual excitement perhaps withsubsequent ejaculation. This excitementcan be reduced by fattening the youngbulls, if they are kept in a separatebarn. Young bulls in loose housing sys-tems often mount each other, whichmay cause some unrest and a reducedbody weight gain.

1.6.2 Sexual behaviour of cowsThe sexual behaviour of cows and heif-ers is limited to the period of heat,which is stimulated by oestrogen fromthe ovarys follicles. During the matingperiod the physical activity of the cowsand heifers rises considerably. The nor-mal feeding and resting time is reducedconsiderably, too, while the standingand walking activities rise and cowsand heifers are very restless.

The social order of precedence is inter-rupted as cows on heat threaten bothdominating and subordinate herdmembers.

A cow on heat accepts that other cowsmount, which is an abnormal behaviourof a cow that is not on heat. Onlyabout one fifth of the cows that arenot on heat on the farm will show aninterest in a cow on heat. This smallgroup of cows changes depending onthe cow on heat.

The most characteristic changes of be-haviour of cows on heat are restless-ness, lowing, reduced feed intake and areadiness to be mounted. One pushwith the hand on the rear end of thecows back will cause the animal to sinkdown its back and lift its tail and lum-bar region. It is important for the farm-er to notice this special behaviour ofthe cow, especially on farms where thecows are not served naturally.

1.6.3 Calving and the cowsbehaviour towards the calfCattle belong to lying out orhiders. This means that the new-borncalf is left behind when the cow leavesto drink or feed.

Examinations of cattle show that thebehaviour of cattle changes the lastcouple of days before the calving. Thecow gets restless and it does not carryout the same activities as the rest of theherd. In areas with trees and bushes the

23

Cattle behaviour


Reproductioncow will seek remoteness when thecalving is near. It would thus be in ac-cordance with the natural behaviour ofthe cow to put it in a calving pen andseparate it from the rest of the herd.Most cows lie down about half an hourbefore the calving, and during thesecond stage of labour the cow normal-ly lies on the side. Most cows lie downduring the whole calving. However,beef cattle often get up when the headand front part of the calf appears andstand up during the rest of the calving.

The course of the calving depends onthe age of the cow. The calving of firstcalvers lasts longer than the calving ofolder cows and similarly first calversalso lie down for a longer time afterthe calving than cows that have hadthree or four calves. Generally, it takesa little longer for dairy cattle to get upagain after the calving than beef cattle.

The cow reacts by making faint, deepsounds when it sees the calf and will inmost cases begin to lick the calve in-tensely right away. Thus the cow mustnever be tied up during or after calvingunless the calf is removed immediatelyafter birth. Older cows with experiencefrom previous calvings will start to lickthe calf right after birth while first cal-vers might be aggressive towards andhesitant about the calf at first.

The cow energetically licks the calfshead, shoulders, back and loin duringthe first couple of hours after the calv-ing. The cow gets to know its calf bylicking it. Thus this behaviour is an im-portant basis for the binding betweencow and calf (figure 1.10). Later on thecow will probably recognise the calf bymeans of its sense of hearing and smell-ing. During the short period of time af-ter the calving in which the binding (im-printing) takes place - during the so-called sensitive period the cow is high-ly sensitive to visual, odour and soundimpressions from the new-born calf.

The cow stays together with the calfuntil it has sucked milk from its teatsfor the first time. During the first cou-ple of days the cow spends much timetogether with the calf, but it leaves thecalf behind when it leaves to drink orgraze. During the first couple of weeksafter the calving it is the cow that seeksout the calf so that it can suck milkfrom its teats. Later it is the calf that

seeks the cow when it is hungry. Thus itmust be assumed that the need of thecow to have its teats sucked/milked de-creases in the course of time after thecalving. The cow defends the calf andits territory from the other cows. Nor-mally, the placenta comes out of thecow a couple of hours after the calvingand the cow often cleans the calvingplace by licking it and eating the foetalmembrane.

1.6.4 Behaviour of calvesA few minutes after the calf is born, itstarts to raise its head and after a coupleof attempts it succeeds in resting on itssternum. The calf immediately attemptsto get on its feet and often it succeedswithin half to one and a half hour.Calves that are born on a soft bed(grass, straw, etc.) will get on their feetquicker than calves born on a hart bed.Moreover, beef breed calves will get upsooner than dairy breed calves.

As soon as the calf can stand on its feet,it starts to search for the udder andteats of the cow. Calves have a naturalinstinct for putting their muzzles upunder the stomach of the cow andsearch for its teats at the highest level.Often the calf places itself in the oppo-site direction of and parallel with thecow. It spreads its forelegs and sinks its

Figure 1.10.

The cow licks the

new-born calf and

thus the blood

circulation of the

calf and the faeces

and urination is

initiated.

Chapter 1


shoulders, which makes it easier for thecalf to reach the udder in the search forthe teats. As soon as the calf finds theteats it starts to suck milk. During thesucking the calf will with short intervalspush its head and bridge of the nosecharacteristically against the udder ofthe cow.

Most calves will succeed in sucking milkbefore they are 3 5 hours old. How-ever, this differs considerably accordingto individual and breed. The most im-portant reason for this is the differentudder forms of cows. A big and hang-ing udder will change the form of theabdominal line, so that the udder willno longer be placed at the highestlevel. Several examinations have shownthat for this reason up to one third ofthe dairy breed calves do not succeed insucking milk within the first six hours.Thus in order to be sure that the suck-ing calf obtains colostrum at an earlystage it is best to help the calf duringits first sucking, so that they will soonbe able to stand up. As soon as the calfhas learned how to find the teats, itwill not forget this. In large joint calv-ing pens with several cows and calvessome of the calves may suck milk fromother cows than their mother.

Calves are born without any antibodiesto protect them from infectious diseas-es. During the first two to three weeksthe immune response thus depends to-tally on the antibodies (immunoglobu-lins) that are supplied by the colostrum.Therefore it is important that the calf issupplied with colostrum quickly, be-cause the immunoglobulins content ofthe colostrum is highest right after thecalving after which it gradually decreas-es. Moreover, the ability of the epitheli-um of the gut to absorb antibodies ishighest during the first 6-12 hours aftercalving. Usually calves kept togetherwith the cow will obtain a higher im-mune response level than calves thatare fed colostrum from a bucket or anartificial teat, provided that they startto suck early.

1.6.5 Sucking and eating behaviourof calvesDuring the first week after the calvingthe calf will suckle milk up to eighttimes per 24 hours. Subsequently thefrequency of suckling periods decreaseswith age. Up until the age of twomonths the calf will typically suckle

milk four to six times per 24 hours,from the second to the sixth monththree to five times, while six to eight-month-old calves only suckle milk in themorning and evening. The suckling ofbeef cattle is often naturally connectedto the circadian rhythm of the cow.

Thus the calf suckles the first timearound sunrise when the cow gets upafter a nights rest but before it startsto graze. During the day the calf sucklestwo to four times and, finally, it sucklesone last time before the cow goes tosleep. The calf rarely suckles during thenight. Each suckling period lasts fromeight to 12 minutes. Beef breed calveswill often change teats and push theirheads more often against the udderduring the last phase of suckling thandairy breed calves. This behaviour isprobably due to the lower milk yield ofbeef cattle. During each period the calfsuckles milk from the cow, the calf willnormally only use two or three teats andamong beef cattle the teats used willusually be milked dry.

The sucking need of the calf is oftenvery high during the first four to fiveweeks. When the calf drinks or sucklesmilk, the need to suck will increase andit will peak after five to six minutes.This need will then gradually decreaseduring the next half hour. When thecalf suckles milk from the cow, it willsuckle so much that its sucking need ismet. Those calves whose sucking needis met will only very rarely suck onother calves or the equipment after theintake of milk.

When the calf is bucket fed the milk isdrunk rather than sucked. Often themilk intake ends when the sucking mo-tivation has reached its peak (afterthree to four minutes). Subsequently,the sucking behaviour is directed to-wards equipment and calves near by.Especially, ears, legs, scrotum, penis andmouth are sucked. This kind of sucklingsubstitution is most frequent duringthe first two months of the calfs life.This behaviour may lead to an abnor-mal sucking behaviour on foreskin/penis, which may result in urine drink-ing, which is injurious to the animal.This disadvantageous sucking behav-iour, which is due to an unsatisfiedsucking need, can be reduced consider-ably by mounting an artificial teat inthe calf pen next to the milk bucket.

25

Cattle behaviour


Undesirablebehaviour

After the calf has finished drinking themilk, it will suck on the artificial teatand thus its sucking need will be met.An abnormal sucking behaviour of thecalf may be maintained also later onduring the rearing period.

When milk is supplied by means of ateat feeding system the sucking needof the calf will to a higher degree bemet during the intake of milk thanwhen the calf is fed milk from a bucket.Thus the abnormal sucking on othercalves and/or equipment will be re-duced considerably. However, the calfshould be adapted to the teat feedingsystem during the first week after it isborn, as its natural instinct to seek forthe teats will disappear after three tonine days. Calves, which have been fedfrom a bucket up till this time, willhave difficulties in learning to drinkfrom a teat feeding system.

Calves, which are at pasture togetherwith their mothers, will already duringthe first or second week of their livesstart to eat nibble - blades and leafsof grass. When they are six to eightweeks old they are fully developed ru-minants. An early intake of fibre-richsupplementary feeds is necessary inorder for the calf to quickly develop acud-chewing function and thus reducethe risk of developing digestive dis-orders. When the calf is about threemonths old, it is able to adapt the graz-ing pattern of the herd. However,calves will usually graze together untilthe age of five months.

During the period when calves feed onmilk they also need water whether theyare fed milk from artificial teats orfrom a bucket. The best way to ensurethe water supply of calves is by meansof a free water surface.

1.6.6 Separation and weaningUnder natural conditions weaningtakes place when the calf is eight to 15months old or at the next calving at thelatest. On most beef cattle farms thecow continues to nurse the calf until itis approx. six to eight months old afterwhich it is weaned. In contrast, calveson dairy cattle farms are removed fromtheir mother at a very early stage often immediately after the calving.

The possibility of being together especially for the first couple of days

after the calving - is assumed to have apositive effect on both the calf andcow. The cow licks clean the calf andthus the blood circulation of the calfand the faeces and urination are initi-ated in short the cow gets the calfstarted. The calf can receive small por-tions of colostrum during the day, andthe total milk intake may be consider-able. This situation is normal to the calfand as such it is better than the diffe-rent alternatives often offered. Calveswhich must later on enter into a nurs-ing cow system, should from the startlearn to suckle from their mother.

During the first time after the calving,the cow is still affected. It starts to pro-duce milk and its udder is tense. Thephysical activities of the cow change af-ter the calving and when the cow startsto produce milk. The cows activities arecharacterised by shorter lying time,more lying periods, standing rumina-tion, increased grooming and abnormalbehaviour all in all these changes ofbehaviour indicate that the cow isloaded after the calving. These changesof behaviour are less common whenthe cow is in a calving pen or a deeplitter housing system together with thecalf than if the cow is tethered in a penwithout the calf.

1.7 Undesirable behaviourUndesirable behaviour may both benormal behaviour occurring with an ab-normal frequency, and totally new waysof behaviour, which do not occur undernatural conditions. Stereotypies are ab-normal behaviour patterns, which arerepeated in the same way over andover without any apparent purpose orbenefit.

The frequency and amount of undesir-able behaviour reflect the ability of theanimal to adapt to its surroundings.Thus a high frequency is a clear indica-tion of the fact that the surroundingsare not quite right it is difficult forthe animal to adapt to the conditions.The most common, abnormal behaviourpatterns among cattle are the follow-ing:

Sucking at other calves or equipment.This behaviour is most common amongcalves and it consists in sucking thelower jaw, ear, scrotum, penis or fold ofanother calf or even a piece of equip-ment. The behaviour is due to an un-

Chapter 1


satisfied suckling need and it occursboth in individual and joint pens whilethe calves are fed milk from a bucket.

Equipment gnawing (trough-biting).The animal both bites and gnaws theequipment for considerable periods at atime. Often the behaviour is stereotypicand it both occurs among young stockand cows due to a lack of feed or fibre-rich supplementary feeds. However, thebehaviour can also be caused by a lackof stimuli.

Excessive licking. The animal licks otheranimals or objects for very long periodsat a time. Excessive licking is frequentamong calves and young stock that lacksocial contact, occupation possibilitiesand roughage feed.

Pseudo rumination. The animal carriesout grinding movements with itsmouth as if it is ruminating, however, itdoes not have any feed in its mouth.This behaviour is mostly stereotypic andit occurs when cattle are fed fibre-poorsupplementary feeds.

Urine drinking. Urine is drunk direct-ly from the penis. This behaviour ismost common among young bulls injoint pens, which are fed very fibre-poor supplementary feeds. Calves maydevelop this behaviour as a sucklingsubstitute.

Tongue rolling. The animal carries outgrinding movements with the tongueeither in or outside the mouth (themouth is always open). Tongue rolling,

which often has a stereotypic character,occurs among both calves, young stockand cows when they need roughagefeed or when they are fed fibre-poorsupplementary feeds.

Leaning. The animal presses its fore-head or the bridge of its nose againstanother animal or a piece of equip-ment for long periods of time. Leaningtakes place both among young stockand cows and it, probably, reflects frus-tration or pain.

Dog-sitting. The animal sits withstretched forelegs. This behaviour oftenoccurs when the animal is going to liedown, and it is almost always due to alack of space. Thus the animal cannotget up and lie down normally.

Horse-like rising. First the animal getsup on stretched forelegs and then itlifts the hindquarter of its body. Thisbehaviour is caused by a lack of spacein front of the animal.

Milk theft. Cows suckle milk from othercows. Milk theft is more frequentamong the Jersey breed than amongother breeds and it is often a local herdproblem. The reason for this behaviouris unknown.

Skidding. Either the forelegs or hindlegs of the animal skid. Skidding mightcause that the animal stumbles andfalls and thus the risk of physical inju-ries increases. Skidding happens onhard and slippery ground during differ-ent behavioural activities.

27

Cattle behaviour


1.8 Literature

1.8.1 SourcesAlbright, J.L., and Arave, C. W., 1997. The Behav-

iour of Cattle. University Press, Cambridge, 305

pp.

Fraser, A.F., 1985. Ethology og farm animals. I

serien World animal science, A5. Editors in

chief A. Neimann-Srensen and D.E. Tribe, Elsevi-

er, Amsterdam, 500 pp.

Fraser, A.F., and Broom, D.M., 1990. Farm Animal

Behaviour and Welfare. Third ed., Baillire Tin-

dall, London, 437 pp.

Hafez, E.S.E. and M.F. Bouissou, 1975. The behav-

iour of cattle. In The behaviour of domestic ani-

mals edited by E.S.E. Hafez, Baillire Tindall,

London, 246-294.

Munksgaard, L., og C.C. Krohn, 1990. Adfrd hos

kalve og ungdyr. 667. Beretning fra Statens Hus-

dyrbrugsforsg, 42 pp.

Phillips, C.J.C., 1993. Cattle Behaviour. Farming

Press Books, UK, 212 pp.

Sambraus, H.H., 1978. V. Rind. In Nutztieretolo-

gi edited by Poul Perey, Berlin, Hambrug, 49-

127.

Schnitzer, U., 1971. Abliegen, Liegestellungen

und Aufstehen beim Rind im Hinblick auf die En-

twicklungen von Stalleinrichtungen fr Milch-

vieh. KTBL-schrift,10, 1-43.

Sss, M. and U. Andreae, 1984. 2. Rind. In Verh-

alten landwirtschaftlicher Neutztiere edited by

Bogner, H. og Granvogel, Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart.

149-246.

Srensen, J.T. og Krohn, C.C., 1999. Opstaldnin-

gens indflydelse p opdrttets adfrd, sundhed

og produktion. DJF rapport nr. 9, 63 pp.

Literature

Chapter 2


Weight, body dimensions andmovement behaviour

Figure 2.1.

Body dimensions

of cattle.

Farm buildings and equipment for cat-tle must be designed according to thesize of the animal. This chapter states anumber of measurements and weightmeasures for cattle. It should be notedthat the measurement and weight ofcattle may vary considerably within thesame age group.

Cattle are from birth to the age of sixmonths called calves. Male cattle arefrom the age of six months until theyare slaughtered or used for breedingpurp

cattle housing design

Documents

agricultural advisory

edition ofthe report

english edition

revised edition

information department

young stock housing

open housing systems

optimal housing designs