cattle handling booklet 2

7/31/2019 Cattle Handling Booklet 2

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CATTLE HANDLING AND

RESTRAINT

AN INTRODUCTION

First year animal husbandry; Cattle handling

Signs of health

Reproductive data

Ageing

Identification

Welfare


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Cattle Handling and RestraintStudents Introduction

Welcome to this part of the course and an opportunity to learn about cattle behaviour and

get some practical, hands-on experience in handling cows. The aims of the practicals aresummarised on the following page, however this introduction contains a few more helpful

suggestions as to how to make the most of the classes, and animal husbandry teaching in

general.

1) Learn from experienceThese classes are purely an introduction to the various techniques involved in

working with cattle (the same applies to all other species). In the limited time

available there is no way that any of you can become experts and you must go awayand gain experience through your extra-mural studies. This requires you to be activein practicing handling, milking, feeding, condition scoring, judging weights and ages

and so on. It is very easy to spend 2 weeks on a farm as a spare pair of handswithout doing these things. Cattle handling cannot really be learnt from a book-

particularly in the week before the exams!

2) Use the facilitiesThe farm is here to be used and there are opportunities to help with milking, weighing

and disbudding etc. Where possible you will be kept informed through e-mail to letyou know what is happening. In addition there is now a room on the farm containing

lots of general information about cattle and sheep as well as information from theMeat Hygiene Services and Ministry of Agriculture. There are breed posters and

quizzes. Videos are also available which may be borrowed and watched on site. All

these things will greatly expand your general knowledge about agriculture. Make use

of the computer assisted learning (CAL) packages on breeds but remember that you

need to look at lots of different animals of the same breed to get to know it. It doesnt

look like the one in the CAL programme is not a good line in the exam! Agriculturalshows are a good place to go to look at different breeds.

The library is another source of information through books, journals and the farming

press. In particular the Scottish Farmer, Farmers Weekly and The Sheep Farmer

provide up to date information about whats happening in farming as well as lots ofbreed pictures and articles on milking, feeding and animal husbandry. It is important

as well to read market reports and appreciate prices and changes in the market.

3) The practical examThe practical exam will test your ability to handle animals as well as your knowledge

of practical aspects of animal husbandry. The first exam takes place in December of

2nd

year. Students who require to be re-examined at the end of third term in 2nd

year

should not be discouraged but should use the time until the 2nd

exam to gain as much

experience as possible and not just read and re-read the notes. Do not leave it all to

the last minute!


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Handling Farm Animals

During Practical Classes AND during your Extra Mural Studies, you should aim to gain

experience of and acquire competence in the following procedures;

CATTLE

Identify breeds and their purpose

Estimate cattle weights

Identify sex of animal

Signs of healthMovement of cattle from A to B

Approach, catch and restrain (using gate or crush)

Restrain cow for examinationUse of halter

Other forms of head restraintAnti-kicking devices

Condition scoring

Lifting feetForemilk stripping, milk sampling, machine milking, milking routine

Examine mouth

Estimate age

Administering drench / bolus

Sites for injection and blood sampling

Take pulse and temperatureRestrain calf for disbudding / castration

Management of the newborn calf, calf feeding

SHEEPIdentify breeds and their purpose

Estimate ageMovement of sheep from A to B

Catch, hold and turn up

Examine teeth

Signs of health

Estimate weightsCondition score

Examine and trim feet

dag with hand shears

Use of drenching gun

Sites for injection and blood sampling


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Introduction to cattle handling and restraint

SAFETY FIRST

a) Your safety

b) The farmers safetyc) The animals safety

Cattle are large animals! They must always be treated with respect, especially as you may

be working with animals that are out of their normal environment and/or in pain. One ofthe main aims of this course is to teach you to work with different types of cattle safely

and to learn what to look out for as potentially dangerous situations. As a veterinary

surgeon it will be your responsibility to decide when to continue with a procedure or not.

Are you happy with the facilities? Is the animal adequately restrained? Is the animal at

risk of injury? It is not unheard of for vets to be taken to court by farmers who are injuredor whose animals are injured during the course of veterinary examination and treatment.

It is important that you have an understanding of some basic concepts and techniques in

handling cattle to minimise stress to the animal (and yourself!). You will learn to assess

the degree of restraint required in different situations and use appropriate methods. Good

handling is not a matter of force but of careful planning and thought.

Cattle in generalCows, like people, all have different temperaments and character traits. These may be

related to the breed of animal or the odd cow in a herd that gives problems (shes a realcharacter that cow, usually stated afteryou have hurdled a gate with a cow in pursuit).The type of handling that animals experience has a major effect on their behaviour (like

children). In general cattle respond best to calm, confident and firm handling. All cows

can kick backwards, sideways and forwards with their hind feet. They can also cause

damage using their heads. However different types of animals respond in different ways

when being handled.

1) Dairy cattle

Dairy cattle are used to human contact on an individual basis and are less likely tobecome worked up or stressed during veterinary procedures. On a dairy farm there are

usually various options for handling facilities including AI stalls, cattle crushes and the

milking parlour. Some farms will have a proper crush designed for paring feet, which is a

real blessing!

2) Beef cattle

Beef cattle however are generally less familiar with being handled, especially

individually, and are usually handled in groups. Most farms will have a race and crushfacility available for catching animals. Beef animals, especially younger animals, will

tend to become more stressed when handled. Strong, well-built and well-maintained

handling facilities are important when working with beef animals e.g. dehorning,

castrating or blood sampling. There are few things more frustrating than losing a calf


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through the front of an insecure crush after spending 10 minutes getting it in there in the

first place. Always check the facilities on a farm before you start and ensure that youknow how to shut and open the head yolk and front of a crush. There is no better way of

making yourself unpopular as a student or as a vet if you let an animal run through acrush because you could not get the gates shut.

3) Cows with calves.Always remember that even the quietest cow can become aggressive when protecting a

calf, particularly when newly born. Be extra careful in these situations and do not get

between a cow and its calf. If you need to treat a young calf ensure that the cow is

restrained in some way (e.g. in a race or behind a gate) whilst you are working. Cows can

move remarkably quickly if they want to so dont take risks.

4) Bulls

There is no such thing as a safe bull. Remember that, although a bull may be quiet andwell handled, you are a stranger and should treat all bulls with the utmost respect.

Appropriate bull housing will be discussed during the course. Beef bulls running with aherd of cows tend to be quieter and less aggressive than individually housed bulls. Dairy

bulls (Friesian, Ayrshire) are generally regarded as being more dangerous than beef bulls.

However, there is a lot of individual variation. In general people are not injured or killedby dangerous bulls but by bulls that have been regarded as quiet and people have

become careless in handling them.

Group vs. Individual handling

a) GroupHandling groups of cattle calls for a bit of planning beforehand. Try to anticipate where

problems are likely to occur e.g. possible escape routes or weak areas of fence. Ensure

there is sufficient manpower, standing in the right place, to do the job. As a student, if

you are not used to working with cattle, you should watch and learn from experienced

cattlemen where to stand when trying to move animals in different directions. This willalso be addressed in the practical classes. Not all cattle are used to dogs. Move animals as

quietly and steadily as possible. Allow them time when moving into strange areas,

through gateways or in to sheds. Once a few animals are in, the rest will generally follow.

Do not rush them on slippery hard surfaces where injuries may occur. Keep animals in a

group, as animals that become separated will tend to panic.

b) Individual animals

Work quietly and confidently. If trying to separate an individual from a group it is usuallyeasier to take one or two other cows with it to the crush or other handling facility. Thiswill usually keep the animal in a more calm state and avoids as much running around

(cows and people). Anticipate where there are going to be problems and think of least

stressful methods for sorting them out. For example, a cow that is reluctant to go in to a

crush may follow another cow through. When handling the animal, use your voice and

touch to let it know where you are. Grabbing a cows udder out of nowhere is a good way

to be kicked. A calm, steady approach allows you to assess the animal and decide


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whether further restraint is required. Decide this before the animal becomes worked up.

Most farmers will advise you if an animal is easily handled or not (although there isalways the odd farmer who finds it amusing for you to find out yourself).

Remember that an animal that is apparently being difficult may well be afraid look for

signs such as flicking ears, alert, head held high and jerky movements. She may urinate

or defecate. A cow like this needs patient handling; over restraint may well make things

worse.

More deliberately difficult animals tend to flick their tails and snort. If not restrained they

may attempt to butt you or squash you against a wall, which is never very pleasant. If a

cow has its head down and is pawing the ground and snorting it is probably a) time to exitquickly and b) best left alone to cool down and then handled very carefully, probably in

combination with another more docile animal.

Further reading

Practical Animal Handling R.S. Anderson and A.T.B. Edney published by Pergamon

Press. Good general text for all species- well worth a look.

Deal with the danger - Safe cattle handling ISBN 0-7176-2512-5

Restraint and handling of wild and domestic animals 2nd

edition M.E. Fowler

Practical classes

Practical 1 Introduction and hand out notes. Video on basic animal handling. Basic

cattle handling on farm- halters, tethering, examination of the mouth,

lifting front feet, injection sites and blood sampling.

Practical 2 Lifting hind feet using ropes, stomach tubes and drenching, use of gags.

Ageing of cattle. Handling groups of animals. Signs of health.

Practical 3 Casting cows, reasons and methods. The downer cow. Castration anddehorning


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1) Haltering

Putting on a rope halter is always more difficult then it looks but it is important to get it

right as it is often the first thing that you will do on a farm. A vet who is unable to put a

rope halter on the right way up does not inspire confidence in a farmer for further, more

technical procedures! Practice is definitely the key to success. Traditionally the haltershank (the lead rope) falls to the left of the animal for leading. When tying animals up it

doesnt really matter which side the shank is on as long as the rope tightens under the

chin. 2 halters (one shank left, one shank right) may be useful when handling fractious

animals.

The halter consists of:

Poll-piece (P), which lies over the top of the head behind the ears

Nose-piece (N), with a small eye spliced at each end, which lies over the lower part of the

faceThe loop C passes under the chin and forms the lower part of the noseband.

The kinch-knot (K) prevents the halter tightening or loosening, and should always be

used if the animal is to be left tied up.


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Kinching a halter contd.

It is equally acceptable to pass the end of the shank between the chin piece and the head

and pull it back through the loop you have created.


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1b) Wyoming slip halter

This is a useful method for haltering an animal when your halter has disappeared, a fairly

frequent occurrence in practice. All that is required is a length of rope with a loop on the

end (use a running noose). Again practice makes perfect. Always kinch the halter to stop

it over-tightening (see below).


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Key Points

Take your time to sort out and become familiar with the parts of the halter beforeapproaching the animal.

Approach from the side

Keep your head out of the danger area dont be tempted to work from the frontand lean in over the top of the head.

Sometimes cows will lower their heads in the yoke

making it very difficult to lift and restrain the head. In

some situations it may be possible to force your kneeunder the head to raise it. However, if the cow isparticularly reticent then it is often useful to take a firm

grip of the upper lip at the side of the mouth and simply

hold on until the cow lifts its head. Once the head comes

up, the upper lip hold gives a means of control whilst you

reposition yourself to proceed with the task in hand.

It may be necessary to ask a colleague to help raise the

head. Indeed get used to asking, indeed bossing, thosearound into helping.


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2) Tethering an animal

Always use a quick release knot when tying up an animal. Kinching the halter also

prevents it becoming too tight on the animals head (see above). There is more then one

way to tie a quick release knot depending on whether you were a girl guide or in the pony

club. The method below is an option.


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Quick Release Running Noose


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3) Head restraint

Well-applied restraint involves reaching a point whereby you can safely proceed with the

task in hand with the animal under minimal stress that equilibrium between applied

force and minimizing movement will be different for each animal and more often than

not the degree of required applied force is surprisingly small. In the absence of a halteryour approach should seek to establish where that equilibrium lies by starting with

minimal applied force and only working up to more severe methods of restraint where the

situation demands it.

A properly applied halter is one of the most useful forms of head restraint for basic

examinations, collecting blood samples or intravenous injections etc. By passing the lead

rope around a stanchion or upright on the crush it offers a significant mechanical

advantage and will adequately restrain the head of most animals. In the absence of a

halter an arm around the nose can be used to restrain the head but requires some strength holding the upper firmly lip increases the control with this method. Be wary of putting

your arm round the back of the cows head when the animal is yoked for most

individuals the cow is easily strong enough to lift you off your feet and potentially trap

your arm between the back of the poll and the top of the yoke. Most commonly where a

higher degree of restraint is required the nostrils are used for extra control. Take a good

hold of the nasal planum (the soft bit!) rather than the nasal septum (the hard bit) and

make sure your fingernails are short and smooth. Assess the animals reaction, some

cows will just get more worked up, but the majority will stand more quietly. If the animalis difficult then bulldogs may be used in the nostrils. These can be fairly brutal, especially

if spring loaded. They must be used humanely - tight enough to stay in the nose but not sotight as to cause pain.


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4)Examination of the mouth /gags /stomach tubing

Examination of the mouth/ gags

Incisor teeth can be examined easily with the animal adequately restrained. The head is

raised and lower lip pulled down. Running your hands along the cheeks (outside, not in

the mouth unless you are not very fond of your fingers) can sometimes allow detection of

any sharp projections from the teeth hitting the cheek. To examine the tongue, floor of

mouth and hard palate the mouth may be opened manually. The fingers (palms facingdownwards) are placed into the diastema on both sides, thumbs placed on upper jaw and

the mouth opened. Some cows are more amenable to this than others. However to

examine the mouth properly requires a gag and a good torch. The most commonly used

gag is a Drinkwater Gag. This is inserted through the diastema of the mouth and pushed

towards the angle of the jaw until the upper and lower cheek teeth sit in the grooves.There are different gags for left and right (usually written on the gag). Other gags are

available but much less commonly used including a Hausmanns gag similar to that used

in horses.

Stomach tubing

In the adult the stomach tube may be used for administering fluid therapy or occasionally

medication, rumen fluid sampling, assessing a choke or, most commonly, relief of gassy

bloat. Other methods of relieving bloat will be mentioned in the classes. (e.g. trocar and

cannula/red devil). In young calves a stomach tube may be used to introduce fluids or

colostrum.

Is the tube in the right place?You must be sure that the tube is in the oesophagus and not in the trachea. In a fit, healthy

animal the choking reflex will usually prevent a stomach tube entering the trachea but in

sick/ very young animals this is not always the case. Administration of fluids into the

lungs will induce at best, pneumonia and at worst death, depending on the volumes

involved, so do not take any risks.

Check that:1) The animal is appropriately restrained and that you have everything you need before

proceeding.

2) Always be gentle but firm when passing the tube. Check that the tube does not have asignificantly roughened surface that could damage the oesophagus/pharynx. This is

especially important when putting a tube up the nose (especially horses) and if

stomach tubing is being performed frequently.

3) The tube can be felt in the oesophagus on the left of the trachea/left side of neck. Thisis sometimes easier to appreciate if the tube is moved slightly whilst palpating.Commercially available calf feeding tubes have a bulge at the end that is easy to feel.

4) There should be an absence of air movements/breath sounds down the tube.5) Blowing down the tube may produce bubbling in ruminal fluid in adults/ older calves.

You should be able to blow but not easily suck, unlike in the trachea.


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CalvesThe stomach tube is always passed through the mouth

AdultsThere are 2 schools of thought. It is possible to insert the tube via the nostril. The nasal

chamber is narrower and more variable than in horses so extreme care must be taken to

prevent damage. Always lubricate the end of the tube and ensure the tube is an

appropriate size for the animal. Introduce the tube slowly allowing the animal to swallow

when the tube reaches the pharynx. Occasionally the tube can exit by the mouth instead

of being swallowed resulting in a well-chewed tube when it meets the molars. This

problem can be overcome by stiffening the tube in cold water before use.

The tube may also be inserted directly via the mouth. This allows passage of a wider bore

tube, which can be useful if administering large volumes of fluids. It is advisable to use aDrinkwater gag and pass the tube along the roof of the mouth to the pharynx. Some vets

do this without a gag but it can be difficult to avoid the cow chewing the tube.


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5) Examination of the udder

It is imperative that you let the cow know where you are and to use your voice. Running

your hand along the cows back will give an initial indication of how tolerant she is likely

to be. Then running your hand down the cows side from the spine to the udder to let her

know whats happening will also allow you to assess its reaction to contact. Leaving anarm on the animals back gives you support and often allows you to anticipate a kick.

Whether you can feel the whole udder from one side depends on the size of the

cow/udder. It can be useful to hold the cows tail to prevent it being flicked in your face.

Stand in close to the hind limbs - kicks are less severe than when you are standingsomewhere that the leg has had time to pick up speed!

Often you will be examining a cows udder whilst in the milking parlour or the crush so

you may need to be adaptable and use your initiative to figure out the safest way of

completing the task. Be careful not to put your arms between the bars of a crush in such away that they will be damaged and trapped if the cow kicks or moves suddenly. Most

crushes have sides that come off to allow safer access to the animal.

Prevention of kicking

1) Tail held near the base and pushed directly upwards- useful in many situations.2) Anti-kick bar. One end into precrural fold and the other end over sacrum BEHIND

hook bones. Practice this one carefully! (diagram)3) Udder cinch; the rope is placed in front of the hook bones round the precrural fold,

around the back of the udder round the other precrural fold and back in front of thehook bones. Pull the rope tight and put in some form of quick release knot. This is

quite a severe technique. Only suitable for cows with a reasonable size of udder

otherwise it will simply fall off.

4) Belly cinch; rope around front of udder and front of hook bones around the abdomenand tighten- can be rather extreme but the tightness is adjustable. Tie the cinch off

with a half hitch and adjust the tension by using a piece of wood as a tourniquetdevice (see diagram).

5) Hobbles6) (Tendon clamp- applied to achilles tendon)


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Hook over spine

Precrural fold

Behindhookbone

Hobbles applyabove

hock orfetlockTail jack

Applypressureat base of

tail

Daltonsimmobiliseror anti-kick

bar

Belly cinch apply infront of hook bones and

udder

Udder cinch runsbetween udder and hind

legs

Hock twitch


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6) Examination of feet

Ideally animals should be restrained in a crush or occasionally in a proper foot crate

(Woppa crate) which allows good examination of the feet. Adequate head restraint is

essential. Tipper crates which allow the feet to be trimmed with the animal restrained in

lateral recumbency and immobilised are ideal for feet trimming. However they areexpensive and few farms have them. They are especially useful for trimming bulls feet,

which might otherwise require the animals to be heavily sedated and cast.

Lifting a front foot.

80% of lameness occurs in the back feet so this is a less frequent procedure than lifting

back feet. With quieter animals it may be possible to manually pick up a cows forefoot

but this is not advised in beef cows. Facing the cows rear, standing in front and slightly

to the side of the cows shoulder, put your hand on her shoulder and run it down theshoulder towards the front of the leg, finishing with your hand behind the cows knee.

Bend your legs, getting as low as possible and lean your shoulder into the point of the

cows shoulder and push against the cow, this takes the weight off the foot to be lifted.

Generally the cow will lift her leg, or at least take the weight off it voluntarily at this

stage. When this happens pull the cows knee forward and, with the free hand, the fetlock

backwards to continue flexing the leg. Once flexed, holding the cannon with the

shoulder hand frees up the other hand to examine the interdigital space.

The effort involved in the procedure should only be directed towards the push through theshoulder, using your own weight, keeping low, with legs bent and back straight. In

particular, do not attempt to lift the leg bent at the waist with legs straight as this will be afast way to hurt your back. If the cow shows no inclination to take weight off the leg in

question or even transfers more onto it, do not persist leave it and come back later or

consider an alternative method.

In any case, unless you are a weight lifter or this is an extremely obliging cow only a

cursory examination is likely to be possible. To extend the examination it may benecessary to lift the leg using a rope secured at the fetlock and up and over the back or

side of the crush. Once the cow takes the weight off the limb then the leg can be easily

flexed by pulling on the rope. Many cows will not settle for any length of time with a fore

limb lifted in this manner. Care must be taken to make any rope fixings quick release.

Lifting a hind foot

1) Rope or sling methodThis is the most common, safest and most reliable technique which requires a bar tothrow the rope over and can be performed in most crushes and some AI stalls, if they are

long enough. Care must be taken not to damage the leg in the process, so look out for

problems such as sharp edges or weak crushes. Roof beams can be dangerous to all

concerned if in poor repair.

The sequence of events is depicted on page 21.

The sling is placed around the leg just above the hock (1).


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The free end of the rope is then thrown over the bar or beam (2). Feed the rope through

the clip or loop on the sling (3) and pass it over the bar once more. Pulling down on thefree end, and back and up on the sling itself will cause the leg to be lifted (4 & 5). Take

the free end of the rope to the bar at the side of the crush and secure to the bar using aquick release knot (6 & page 22). The cannon can then be tied to the crush to prevent

forward/ backward movement of the foot if required.

It is worth trying the different quick release knots and making your own decision as to

which one to use. Whilst some are easier to tie than others they also differ with respect to

how quickly and easily they release under load. In the absence of a sling and clip as used

in the practical classes a quick release running noose (p12) can be used to attach the rope

directly to the leg above the hock, the end of the rope fed over the bar, back down roundthe leg and then back up over the bar again to be tied off in the same manner as before.

This method is more likely to cause friction between the rope and the leg and as a

consequence the cows may react by kicking more often than when the sling is used. Somehandlers advocate using padding between rope and leg to minimize the chance of causing

rope burns or pain.

2) Manual lifting

This is not really advisable, verging on dangerous in most cows, and it is unlikely thatyou will be able to perform any meaningful examination, so use a rope.


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Some quick release knots:

Ordinary slip knot Highwaymans hitch

The Wright Special


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7) Casting cattle

a) Casting a young calf

Similar to the technique employed when casting sheep.

1. Make sure that there is space behind you

2. Stand close to the calf with one leg behind its shoulder and the other at its flank. Catch

the head with the thumb in the corner of the calfs mouth or over the muzzle.

3. Push the head well away from you to bend the neck at the shoulder, keeping the nosehigh. Step backwards while pushing the nose into the body perhaps pushing the loins

down simultaneously or lift the precrural fold.4. Calf will go down gently. It cannot rise if its head is kept down and the lower legs are

kept extended.


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b)Casting adult animals

Why? Medical treatment e.g. left displacement of the abomasum (LDA) requires

the cow to be rolled.Obstetrics -sorting out a twisted womb

Foot care, especially bulls.

Surgical procedures e.g. LDA surgery

This is a very useful method of restraint. It does no harm to the animal (see precautions

below), it is seldom difficult, is cheaper, safer and often quicker than using sedative drugs

although a small dose can be useful before casting fractious animals. Often a combination

of casting and a sedative is employed for animals in which the use of either method alonecarries unacceptable risks.

Precautions Avoid casting heavily pregnant animalsEnsure a soft surface is available, grass or bedding.

Make sure the animal has space to go down without injuring itself or theoperators

Loose hobbling may make leg control easier in nervous or fractious

animals.Decide which side to cast the cow on before you start applying ropes.

Have an experienced handler on the head, especially once the animal is

cast.

1. Reuffs method

This is the most commonly used technique in practice.

a) The cow should be restrained by the head or neck in such a way that she can be

released quickly if necessary i.e. chain tied to string or quick release knot. The cow

must be tied to something solid that cannot break or be pulled out. Fence stobs are

unreliable! Ensure that she will not be hung by the head when going down.Experienced operators can hold the halter by hand with a quiet cow.

b) Loop the rope around the animals neck and tie a bowline

(http://www.knots.net/Bowline.html) or a reef knot (non-slip knot)(below). Then take

the rope to the withers and drop it down the left side (cow falls to right) or right side

(cow falls to left).c) The rope is then taken under the chest, up the opposite side and passed under itself.

d) Repeat this in front of the hook bones.

e) Where the ropes cross will be loose and down the side of the animal until immediately

before casting when they should be adjusted upwards until very tight. Some sensitive

cows will show signs of going down at this stage so be careful.

f) The rope end is first pulled backwards and then, as the cow shows signs of submission

the rope is then pulled in the direction that the cow is to go down.

g) Keep the ropes tight until the head is well restrained otherwise the cow will just getright back up!


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Reuffs method should not be used in male animals unless generous padding is used to

protect the penis from damage. Care should also be taken where animals have prominentmilk veins. Use method 2 otherwise.

Reef Knot:

Reuffs Method


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2. Crisscross method12m rope is divided in half and the centre of the rope is placed on the neck in front of thewithers. Pass each end under the front legs and over to the opposite side, up the side of

the animal, crossing over again in the middle of the back. The ropes are then passedbetween the hind limbs and pulled from behind.


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8) Blood sampling/ injection sites

Venepuncture

Blood may be collected from the tail vein (remove gross faecal contamination, body

restraint required) or jugular vein (sample mid neck, good head restraint required). Themammary vein is also a possible site for blood collection and intravenous treatment but

its use is not advisable. This is due to its tendency to form haematomas, the risk of

phlebitis, risk of being kicked and the amount of dirt around it. Some farmers will use it

for calcium treatment because it is easy to find.

Intravenous injections

Jugular vein, mid neck, good head restraint required. The tail vein is sometimes used for

small volumes of sedative drugs (1-2mls) but it should be used with caution becausecows have been known to lose their tails if there is damage to the blood supply caused by

injecting irritant substances peri-vascularly. This is easily done in the tail especially if the

animal moves.

Intramuscular injections

1. Gluteal region, care must be taken not to damage the sciatic nerve so inject towardsanterior of gluteals and take extra care with thin animals. Do not use this site in youngcalves or in animals close to slaughter

2. Neck muscles this is probably the ideal site in beef animals, as it does not involveexpensive cuts of muscle. Middle third of neck, one-third of the way down from the

nuchal ligament.

3. Quadriceps

Subcutaneous injections

Several antibiotics are designed for subcutaneous use. Also bottles of calcium andmagnesium may be injected subcutaneously. The area of loose skin behind the shoulder is

most useful although some people also use the area on the neck just in front of the

shoulder.

N.B. When administering subcutaneous or intramuscular injections always ensure that the

needle is not within a blood vessel and be as clean as possible. Do not use contaminated

needles and syringes and find a clean area of skin.


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9) Drenching /Ringing

Oral administration of medicines

Animals may be drenched using a drenching gun (e.g. worming) or a long-necked bottle.

Introduce the bottle or gun via the diastema and aim it towards the back of the tongue.

The head should be minimally restrained and the animal should be allowed to swallow asit is drenched- dont go too fast. Take special care with weak animals. Tilt the nose

upward to aid drenching.

Ringing bullEasiest in a crush with a halter and bulldogs if the bull is particularly difficult. A halter is

usually sufficient. Ring is inserted low down through the nasal septum IN FRONT of the

cartilage. Rings vary in size and are copper or alloy.

10) The Downer cow

Occasionally cows that are down are unable to, or refuse to rise. There are a variety of

reasons why this happens. The main problem is that the longer the cow is down, the more

damage occurs to muscles and limbs because of her bodyweight. Milk fever is the

commonest reason for a cow going down. Most respond to calcium, but not all get up

quickly. Trauma at calving causing damage to the nerve supply of the hind limbs, and

toxic mastitis are other common reasons for cows being unable to rise. A downer cowmust be fed and watered within reach and moved from side to side to reduce pressure on

the limbs. They may need to be moved to a bedded court or onto grass, where there is achance for them to get a grip.

Other reasons for a cow being down:

Lack of confidence on a slippery surface

Lack of space to lunge forward when rising, i.e. stuck in a corner.

Incorrect positioning of legsPhysical damage caused by falls, mounting by other cows, casting etc.

Methods to encourage risingNote - a good clinical examination should be performed to ensure that there are no

medical reasons for the cow being down e.g. fractures, nerve damage, milk fever,hypophosphataemia.

Ensure good footing, adequate space to lunge, legs positioned correctly, i.e. hind legsunder cow.

Slap hindquarters, encourage with knees against chest, verbal encouragement

Use food or another cow in front

Dogs sometimes useful

Leave them alone for a bit!

Various gadgets available of varying severity which can be useful (practical class)


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Jon Huxley: Assessment and management of the recumbent cow. In Pract., Apr

2006; 28: 176 - 184.

11) Restraint for castration/ disbudding

a) Methods of castration

1. Elastrator rings. Can only be used if calves are under 7 days old. Care should be takento ensure both testicles are included and that teats are excluded.

2. Knife. Scrotum is opened and testes removed by traction. An emasculator may beused in larger animals. Only a veterinary surgeon using anaesthetic may perform this

surgery in animals over 8 weeks old.

3. Burdizzo (bloodless castrator). This crushes the spermatic cords, which include theblood vessels which supply the testes, but leaves the scrotum intact. Useful if unclean

environment. If performed badly castration may be incomplete or gangrene of thescrotum can occur. Animals over 8 weeks may only be performed by a veterinary

surgeon using anaesthesia.

Restraint

Larger animals are best restrained in a good crush. A smaller calf may be pressed against

a wall or partition with the handler holding the tail up over the back. Better exposure of

the scrotum can be obtained by haltering and tying the calf, and holding one hock

laterally.


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b) Methods of disbudding / dehorning

Up to 7 days buds may be chemically cauterised. After this buds are usually removed

using a gas or electric disbudder with local anaesthetic. Large animals require good crushrestraint and a halter. The main problem in removing large horns is achieving good

haemostasis.

Restraint

Put the back end of the calf in a corner to prevent movement. Assistant stands with thigh

against the calfs neck with a hand around the muzzle/jaw. Operator holds the opposite

ear away from burner. There are small commercial calf crushes available or can put calfs

head through feeding space if individually housed.

12) Condition scoring

Condition scoring is a technique used for assessing the body condition of

livestock at regular intervals. Its purpose is to achieve a balance betweeneconomic feeding, good production and good welfare and attention to

body condition scoring scoring can contribute significantly to good

husbandry, welfare and management of beef and dairy cows. This helps

to ensure that the cow is in the correct condition for each stage of her

annual cycle and that appropriate dietary changes can be made in order

to correct any deficiencies.


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How to Body Condition ScoreBody condition is assessed on a scale of 15. Score 1 is extremely thin

and score 5 is extremely fat. Ideally body condition should be assessedto the nearest half score. Consistency between assessments is vital to the

success of the technique.

Consistency in the technique is the key to good condition scoring. The

scoring system is designed to cover all breeds of cows, but some

allowance should be made for different types. For example the very

good conformation of a well-muscled Belgian Blue cross may underlie a

low level of body fatness. Conversely Holstein/Friesian crosses with a

poor conformation may be carrying more body condition than is visually

apparent.

It is very important not to confuse assessment of animal condition with

conformation.

Cows should be handled at the tail head, ribs and loin area. The

assessment is usually based on examining the tailhead, the loin and ribs.

The operation should be carried out quietly and carefully using the same

hand from cow to cow. An overall visual inspection is also important.

The Tail Head

Assess by standing directly behind the cow. The tailhead is scored by

feeling for the amount of fat around the tailhead and the prominence of

the pelvic bones.

Loin and Ribs

Stand to the side of the cow. The loin is scored by feeling the transverse

and vertical projections of the vertebrae and the amount of fat in

between them. The ribs are scored using the flat of the hand and finger-

tips to feel the amount of fat over them.

Adapted from an article Condition scoring

of beef suckler cows and heifers DEFRA Publications ONLINE:

www.defra.gov.uk/corporate/publications/pubfrm.htm


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Score Condition Tail head Ribs Loin

1 Poor

(very

thin)

Deep cavity

with no fatty

tissue under

skin. Skinfairly supple,

coat

condition

often rough.

Sharp with

no fat cover

Spine

prominent

and

transverseprocesses

sharp.

2 Moderate Shallow

cavity but pin

bones

prominent;

some fatunder skin.

Skin supple

Can be

identified

individually

but feel

roundedrather than

sharp

Transverse

processes can

be identified

individually

with endsrounded

3 Good Fat cover

over whole

area and skin

smooth but

pelvis can be

felt, but onlywith firm

pressure.

Individual

ribs can only

be felt with

firm pressure

End of

transverse

process can

only be felt

with pressure;

only slightdepression in

loin

4 Fat Completely

filled and

folds and

patches of fat

evident but

soft to touch

Folds of fat

developing

over ribs

Cannot feel

processes and

have

completely

rounded

appearance

5 Grossly

fat

Bone

structure of

the animal no

longer

noticeable

and almost

completelyburied in fatty

tissue

Covered with

a thick layer

of fat

Pelvis

impalpable

even with

firm pressure


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34

BASIC ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Terminology / Signs of Health / Ageing / Welfare

CATTLE

Terms used to describe cattle

This is difficult to summarise clearly because the terminology varies in different parts of

the country- the same applies to sheep.

Calf up to 6 months old

Bobby calf surplus bull calf from dairy herd

Pail-fed calf reared artificially with milk or milk substitute

Suckled calf reared on a cowWeaned/speaned calf off milk/ away from mother

Stirk inexact term (varies from region to region) usually describes an

animals between 3 months and 1 year

Store cattle Young animals being fed for growth prior to fattening and

slaughter

Fattening /

Finishing cattle cattle being fattened for slaughter. Usually beef breeds or beef

crosses.Bull uncastrated male at least 6 months old

Bullock/steer castrated maleCow for official purposes this describes an animal after the start of her

first lactation. On most farms describes cows after they have

completed their first lactation.

Beef cow beef breed cow or crossbred whose progeny is fattened for meat.

Suckler cow Alternative description for beef cow. Occasionally get a cow on a

farm that is used for multiple suckling a group of calves.Dairy cow cow kept for milk production

Cull cow cow transferred out of herd, usually to slaughter but may be sold

on elsewhere.

Heifer female until first lactation (see cow)

Maiden heifer heifer which has not been served or inseminated

Bulling heifer variable term but usually from 14 months old to mating/A.I.In-calf heifer heifer confirmed pregnant


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Signs of health

Alert, normal stance, no lameness, eating and ruminating normally, no abnormaldischarges, shiny coat, no coughing.

Temperature 38-39oC (101-102.4oF)

Respiration 12-25 breaths/minute (varies with age)

Pulse 50-60/minute in adults, taken at angle of jaw, inside foreleg or under tail.

Signs of heat (oestrus)

Good oestrous detection is vital for good fertility in dairy herds. Poor detection is one ofthe main reasons for poor fertility. There is often variation in the signs that are present-

usually not all apparent in all animals.

The main signs are:

Behaviour Standing to allow other bovines to mount

Attempting to mount other bovines (often mounting them from the front)

Unusually alert and restlessIncreased respiration rate

Vocalising/calling (bulling)

Discharge Clear copious stringy mucus from vulva, often seen on tail and dries on the

skin and hair of thighs and tail. Blood stained mucus (can be significantamount in some cows) seen 2 days post oestrus.

Other signs Tail head may appear rubbed or licked. This is used as the basis of Kamar

heat detectors.

Signs of approaching parturition

Abdominal enlargement Usually apparent from 3 months before calving but this can

be very subjective, especially in cows that have had several

calves previously. Never use this solely as an indicator ofpregnancy as a veterinary surgeon. From around 7 months

onward some stockmen are able to feel the calf by

ballottement of the right flank.Udder filling Usually occurs from 1 month before calving, variation

between cows and heifers.

Udder and teats tense Calving imminent

Relaxation of ligaments Springing usually occurs when calving imminent but in

older cows may occur earlier.

Mucus from vulva Usually calving imminent but may occur from 2 weeks pre-

calving.


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SHEEP

Terms used to describe sheep

Ewe adult female sheep after weaning of first lambs

Lamb birth to weaning (approx. 4-5months)Hogg from weaning (1st autumn) to first shearing (around 14 months),

either sex or neuter.

Gimmer female from first shearing until weaning of first lambs

Shearling varies from region to region, generally either sex 1 to 2 years old.

Tup/Ram/Tip entire adult male

Wether or wedder castrated male

Cast/draft ewe ewe sold, often hill ewes, for breeding in a less stressful

environment, usually have one more breeding season left, mayhave broken mouths, only one teat functional.

Cull Ewe ewe sold for slaughter, end of breeding life.

Teaser vasectomised tup, used for synchronising heat and to induceoestrus.

Signs of healthAppetite

Chewing the cud

Alert and lively

Stance and gait normal

Firm faecesFleece complete, not ragged, not too white.

Body temperature 39.1oC (102.3oF)

Pulse rate 70-80/ minute

Signs of heat (oestrus)Searching for tupFollowed by tup

Tup sniffing/striking with foreleg

Restless/ tail twitching

Signs of approaching parturitionUdder development (last 5 days)

Leaving flock-imminentLamb stealing-imminentPawing ground and circling-imminent

Appear uncomfortable-imminent


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PIGS

Terms used for pigs

Sow adult female

Boar entire male

Gilt female up to weaning first litter

Hog castrated male

Piglet birth to weaning (may be 10 days to 6 weeks, 3kg-16kg)

usually 3 weeks at 8kgWeaner from weaning until 2-3 weeks after weaning (16-27kg)

Store/Young/ transferred to another unit for finishingFattening pigs

Pork pigs lightest weights for slaughterCutter pigs lean pigs specially bred and reared for bacon production

Heavy pigs larger pigs reared for processing into various forms of saleable

meat e.g. sausage, hams etc.

Pigs Cambridge

(kg liveweight)

Farmers Weekly

(kg liveweight)

Meat and Livestock

Commission

(kg dead weight)

Porker 50-75 40-67


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GOATS

Signs of heat / oestrus BleatingTail waggingCherry red vulva

Restless

Smacking lips

Being struck by billy and standing to be mounted

Slight cloudy discharge from vulva just after heat

Signs of parturition Similar to sheepFalse pregnancy fairly common (cloudburst)

Resent manipulation at parturition compared to sheep

REPRODUCTIVE DATA

CATTLE SHEEP PIGS GOATS

Age at first

mating

15-18 months 19 months

(occasionally 7-8 months)

7-8 months 18 months

Oestrus

frequency

3 weeks 17 days 3 weeks 3 weeks

Reproductiveactivity

All year September All year Inactive insummer

Duration ofoestrus

6-24 hours(average 12

hours)

20-30 hours 2-3 days(approx. 66

hours)

24-36 hours

Gestation

period

9 months

(280 days)

5 months 3 months, 3

weeks, 3 days

(115 days)

5 months

Breeding life Dairy 3-4

lactationsBeef around 10

years

Varies, average

around 5 cropsof lambs

Around 3 years Varies 6-9

lactations

Number of teats 4 2 12-16 2

Duration of

lactation

305 days 2-4 months 3-6 weeks 235 days

(dairy goats)


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ASSESSMENT OF THE AGE OF AN ANIMAL

1) Look at the whole animal from a distance. This avoids confusion where you mightmistake a full mouth of milk teeth from a full mouth of permanents. In sheep, aging

animals is only really an issue when working with breeding ewes and tups. Does shelook young (perhaps smaller, fitter, glossy coat, neat coat, small, neat udder. Udder

hanging evenly) or old (grey hairs? aged face, sagging udder/ pendulous abdomen,

misshapen feet/legs, bony protuberances more noticeable?). With experience you can

at least assess approximately whether animals are young, old or in between.

2) Middle-aged animals are more difficult. This is where dentition becomes an issue. Inparticular with cattle, the eruption of 4 central permanent incisors is important when

assessing an animals age for slaughter for human consumption. If there are only milk

teeth and 2 central permanent incisors, the animal can be assumed to be under 30months but if there are 4 permanent incisors then documented proof of age is required.

This becomes less important as all animals will have either passports or be on the new

cattle tracing system (September 1998).


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Cattle teeth and age

Estimation of the age of cattle by examining their teeth is possible but only a very roughindication can be achieved. For practical purposes the only teeth that are important are

those visible at the front on the lower jaw and consist of 8 teeth similar in appearance,

which are the 6 incisors and the 2 canine teeth. The canine teeth lie either side of the 6

incisors, which are numbered from the centre outwards, i.e. incisor 1, 2 and 3 on either

side.

Calves are born with temporary teeth, which are shed as permanent teeth grow in. The

temporary teeth also wear much more quickly than permanent teeth.

The order of eruption of the permanents is from the centre outwards and it takes around 5

months from the time eruption begins until the tooth has grown in completely. Once allthe front teeth have grown it is not possible to say that the animal is other than mature.

There are several good websites on cattle dentition and ageing e.g.http://www.fsis.usda.gov/ofo/tsc/bse_information.htmor

http://www.fsis.usda.gov/OPPDE/rdad/FSISNotices/5-04.htm

Eruption of permanent teeth

Eruption In wear

Central incisors 1y 9m 2ySecond incisors 2y 3m 2y 6m

Third incisors 2y 9m 3y

Canine teeth 3y 3m 3y 6m

N.B. In some animals the third incisor teeth and canines can erupt as late as 3y 6m and

4y respectively.

Sheep teeth and age

Eruption of permanent teeth

Eruption In wear

Central incisors 1y 3m 1y 6m

Second incisors 1y 9m 2y

Third incisors 2y 3m 2y 6m

Canine teeth 2y 9m 3y

N.B. In some animals the third incisor teeth and canines can erupt as late as 3y and 4y

respectively.


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IDENTIFICATION AND TRACING

Identification of cattle

By law all calves must have an ear tag in each ear. Both tags carry the same information.

That is the herd number, individual unique identification number and country of origin.

The Cattle Tracing System

The Cattle Tracing System (CTS) came into operation on the 28th

September 1998. There

is one system to cover the UK. Details are available in the classroom and there is also a

video available. There are four main elements:

Tagging: All cattle must have a unique number, which is recorded on two ear tagsper animal, one in each ear. Dairy cattle must have at least one tag fitted

within 36 hours of birth. The second tag may be fitted within 20 days of

birth. Other cattle must be tagged within 20 days of birth. All cattle mustbe tagged before they leave the holding of birth.

Farm records: Records of cattle births, imports, movements and deaths must be kept by

farmers. The Register may be paper or computer based. Registers must be

retained by farmers for 10 years and 3 years in any other case (e.g.

markets).

Passports: All cattle born in or imported into Great Britain since 1 July 1996 musthave a cattle passport. This applies whether the cattle are male, female,

dairy or beef and also applies even if the animal is still on the holding onwhich it was born. A cattle passport must remain with an animal

throughout its life. All applications for cattle passports must be made to

the BCMS within 7 days of tagging.

The CTS: The CTS is a computer-based system to register cattle in Great Britain and

their movements from birth to death. The CTS records the identification

and death of cattle registered since July 1996 and, additionally, themovements from birth to death of cattle issued with passports from 28September 1998. All cattle keepers involved when an animal with a new

passport moves must tell BCMS. For example, when there is a private

sale, the seller will need to tell BCMS about the movement off his

holding, and the buyer will need to tell BCMS about the movement on tohis holding.

Identification of sheep and goats

Sheep and goats keepers in England and Wales are required to mark them before

they leave their holding of birth with their sheep flock or goat herd mark

(individual identification numbers are not required). This will be compulsory

from 1 January 2001. The regulations in Scotland are expected to be similar.


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Castration / dehorning etc Welfare Regulations

See Summary of the Law Relating to Farm Animal Welfare published by MAFF for moredetails.

CATTLE

Operation Age of animal Technique Persons who

may perform

Anaesthetic

Castration Up to 7 days Rubber ring or

device to restrict

flow of blood to

scrotum

Unqualified Without

Up to 2 months Other than

rubber ring

method

Unqualified Without

2 months andover

Other thanrubber ring

method

VeterinarySurgeon

With

Dehorning Any age Not specified unqualified With

Disbudding

calves

Up to 7 days Chemical

cauterisation

Unqualified Without

Unspecified Other than above Unqualified With

Removal ofsupernumeraryteats

Up to 3 months Not specified Unqualified See regulations

3 months and

over

Not specified Veterinary

surgeon

See regulations


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SHEEP

Operation Age of animal Technique Persons who

may perform

Anaesthetic

Castration Up to 7 days Rubber ring or

device to restrict

flow of blood to

scrotum

Unqualified Without

Up to 3 months Other than

rubber ring

method

Unqualified Without

3 months and

over

Other than

rubber ringmethod

Veterinary

Surgeon

With

Docking of tails Up to 7 days Rubber ring or

device to restrict

flow of blood to

tail

Unqualified Without

Any age Permitted only if

sufficient tail is

retained to coverthe vulva of

female sheep

and the anus ofmale sheep

Unqualified See regulations

Dehorning and

disbudding

Any age Not specified Veterinary

surgeon

See regulations

Any age Trimming

insensitive top of

an ingrowing

horn.

Unqualified See regulations

cattle handling booklet 2

Documents