For the exam on Wednesday, just revise Sections 2A, 2B and 2C

Table of Content

Case Studies and Named Examples

AQA GCSE 9-1 Geography

Paul Wallis

The AQA Specification says:Case studies are broader in context and require greater breadth and depth of

knowledge and understandingNamed Examples are more focused on a specific event or situation, are smaller

in scale and do not cover the same degree of content

Paul Wallis

sSECTION 1A: THE CHALLENGE OF NATURAL HAZARDS..........................2Tectonic Hazards......................................................................................................................................................... 2

Chile and Haiti Earthquakes.............................................................................................................................................2

Weather Hazards........................................................................................................................................................ 4

Typhoon Haiyan...............................................................................................................................................................4

UK Winter 2010...............................................................................................................................................................5

SECTION 1B: THE LIVING WORLD.........................................................6Ecosystems................................................................................................................................................................. 6

Freshwater Pond Ecosystem............................................................................................................................................6

Tropical Rainforests.................................................................................................................................................... 7

Deforestation in Malaysia................................................................................................................................................7

Hot Deserts................................................................................................................................................................ 9

The Thar Desert...............................................................................................................................................................9

SECTION 1C: PHYSICAL LANDSCAPES IN THE UK.................................10Coastal Landscapes in the UK.................................................................................................................................... 10

Dorset Coastline.............................................................................................................................................................10

Holderness Coastline.....................................................................................................................................................11

River landscapes in the UK........................................................................................................................................ 12

River Tees......................................................................................................................................................................12

The Boscastle Flood.......................................................................................................................................................13

SECTION 2A: URBAN ISSUES AND CHALLENGES..................................14Urban Growth in LICs/NEEs....................................................................................................................................... 14

Rio de Janeiro................................................................................................................................................................14

Favela Bairro Project......................................................................................................................................................17

Urban Change in Cities in the UK............................................................................................................................... 18

Bristol.............................................................................................................................................................................18

The Temple Quarter Regeneration................................................................................................................................22

SECTION 2B: THE CHANGING ECONOMIC WORLD................................23Strategies to Reduce the Development Gap..............................................................................................................23

Jamaica..........................................................................................................................................................................23

LICs And NEEs Experiencing Rapid Economic Development........................................................................................24

Nigeria...........................................................................................................................................................................24

Economic futures in the UK....................................................................................................................................... 28

Torr Quarry....................................................................................................................................................................28

SECTION 2C: THE CHALLENGE OF RESOURCE MANAGEMENT...............29Water....................................................................................................................................................................... 29

The Lesotho Highland Water Project.............................................................................................................................29

The Wakel River Basin Project.......................................................................................................................................30

Page 1 of 32

Paul Wallis

Section 1A: The Challenge of Natural HazardsTectonic HazardsChile and Haiti EarthquakesSpecification: Use named examples to show how the effects and responses to a tectonic hazard vary between two areas of contrasting levels of wealth

Chile (HIC) Haiti (LIC)Epicentre 3km of the coast of Pelluhue 25km from Port-au-Prince

Magnitude 8.8 7Depth 35 km 13 km

Local Time 03:34 16:53Date Saturday 27th February 2010 Tuesday 12th January 2010

Cause

The subduction of the Nazca plate underneath the South American plate at the destructive plate margin was causing

high stress

Stress was building up along the conservative plate margin. When this stress was released,

there was a sudden slip along the fault

Primary effects

525 deaths800,000 people affectedUS$30 billion in damage

220,000 homes destroyed56 hospitals destroyed4500 schools destroyed

93% of the population suffered a blackout

220,000 deaths (estimate)2,000,000 people affectedUS$11.5 billion in damage180,000 homes destroyed

50 hospitals destroyed5000 schools damaged or destroyedFailure of the electric power system

Secondary effects

220,000 houses damaged1415 (above 4) aftershocks1500km of roads damaged

TsunamiA fire at a chemical plant near Santiago

293,383 houses damaged52 (above 4.5) aftershocks

Localised tsunami

PrimaryResponses

International help to supply field hospitals, satellite phones and floating bridges

19 temporary field hospitals were set up80,000 emergency houses were set up by

armed forcesPower and water restored to 90% of

homes within 10 daysA national appeal raised US$60 million – enough to build 30,000 small emergency

shelters

USA and Dominican Republic first provided food, water, medical supplies and temporary

sheltersEmergency rescue teams arrived from other

countries (i.e. Iceland)Medical teams treated the injured

Temporary field hospitals were set up by organisations

People globally watched the news from Haiti on TV and through social networks which led them to pledge money through their mobile phones

Secondary Responses

School system was normalised after 45 days

1500km of roads has been restoredAll airports have been repaired

A month after, the Chile government launched a housing reconstruction plan to help 200,000 households affected by the

earthquake

75% of damaged buildings were repairedMoney was pledged by organisations and

governments to assist in rebuilding“Cash for Work” programs – 200,000 people

received cash/food for work (e.g. clearing rubble)

Farmers are being supported so crops can growThe world bank pledged $100million to support

reconstruction and recovery programmes in Haiti

Page 2 of 32

Paul WallisWeather HazardsTyphoon HaiyanSpecification: Use a named example of a tropical storm to show its effects and responses

In November 2013, a category 5 storm, called Typhoon Haiyan, hit the Philippines. It was one of the strongest storms ever recorded, with winds of up to 275km/h and waves as high as 15m.

Primary Effects

About 6,300 people killed – most drowned by storm surge Over 600,000 people displaced

40,000 homes damaged or flattened 90% of Tacloban city destroyed

Tacloban airport terminal badly damaged 30,000 fishing boats destroyed

Strong winds damaged buildings and power lines and destroyed crops Over 400mm of rain caused widespread flooding

Secondary Effects

14 million people affected and many left homeless 6 million people lost their source of Income

Flooding caused landslides and blocked roads, cutting off aid to remote communities Power supplies in some areas cut off for a month

Ferry services and airline flights disrupted for weeks, slowing down aid efforts Shortages of water, food and shelter affected many people, leading to outbreaks of

disease Many jobs lost, hospitals were damaged shops and schools were destroyed, affecting

people’s livelihoods and education Looting and violence broke out in Tacloban

Primary Responses

International government and aid agencies responded quickly with food, aid, water and temporary shelters

US aircraft carrier George Washington and helicopters assisted with search and rescue and delivery of aid

Over 1,200 evacuation centres were set up to help the homeless UK government sent shelter kits, each one able to provide emergency shelter for a

family French, Belgian and Israeli field hospitals set up to help the injured

The Philippines Red Cross delivered basic food aid, which included rice, canned food, sugar, salt and cooking oil

Secondary Responses

The UN and countries including UK, Australia, Japan and the US donated financial aid, supplies and medical support

The rebuilding of roads, bridges and airport facilities “Cash for Work” programmes – people paid to help clear debris and rebuild the city Foreign doctors, including the US, Australia and the EU, supported new livelihood

opportunities Rice farming and fishing quickly re-established. Coconut production – where trees may

take 5 years to bear fruit – may take longer Aid agencies such as Oxfam supported the replacement of fishing boats – a vital

source of income Thousands of homes have been built away from areas at risk of flooding

More cyclone shelters built to accommodate people evacuated from coastal areas

Page 3 of 32

Paul WallisUK Winter 2010Specification: An example of a recent extreme weather event in the UK to illustrate:

Causes Social, economic and environmental impacts How management strategies can reduce risk

There was a long period of heavy snow and very cold weather between 25th November 2010 and 26th December 2010 in the UK. This was due to cold air from northern Europe and Siberia.

ImpactsSocial Economic Environmental

Several people died due to hyperthermia or accidents due to

losing control on the roads

Transport networks were severely disrupted – some

motorways were shut; trains and flights were cancelled

Snow covered almost all of the UK on several occasions – to a

depth of >50cm on hills

Lots of water pipes froze, burst then started to leak, leaving

40,000 homes and businesses in Northern Ireland without water

for sometimes more than a week

As a result, some people were unable to get to work, affecting

the UK’s economyUse of gas and electricity was

more than double than a normal December, increasing CO2

emissionsChristmas sales were down due to people being put off by the

weatherSchools closed on several

occasions, meaning parents had to take time off work

The overall economic impact was around £1.6 billion, reducing the

UK’s GDP by 0.5%

The frost damaged crops, especially sugar beet

Management StrategiesPrediction Protection Planning

Warning systems gave people time to prepare

Councils stocked up on gritters and salt supplies to keep roads

safe and opened in the cold weather

Emergency services and local councils planned how to deal

with extreme weather events in advance

The Met Office first warned about the cold weather at the start of

November

Individuals and council authorities prepared for the

extreme weather

They made plans to close schools when it would be too dangerous

for people to get there

Page 4 of 32

Paul Wallis

Section 1B: The living worldEcosystemsFreshwater Pond EcosystemSpecification: An example of a small-scale UK ecosystem to illustrate the concept of interrelationships within a natural system, an understanding of producers, consumers,

decomposers, food chain, food web and nutrient cycling

The freshwater pond ecosystem consists of the following:

Pond BottomDecomposers and scavengers live here and feed on dead material.

Mid WaterFish are the main predators here. Food is found on the pond bottom or the pond surface.

Pond SurfaceAnimals found here include ducks, water boatmen, midge larvae and tadpoles.

Pond MarginPlants provide a sheltered habitat for insects and smalls animals such as frogs.

Above the Pond SurfaceBirds such as kingfishers and insects like dragonflies are common here.

Ecosystems are very sensitive to change. The living and non-living components of the ecosystem can be altered by either natural factors or human management.

Natural factors that cause changes to an ecosystem include drought, flooding, fires and diseases.

Page 5 of 32

Food Web

Paul WallisChanges to an ecosystem by human management include introducing more fish (fish stocking), altering the drainage of the land which may influence the amount of water, changing the pH level of the water and altering the nutrient levels of the water if fertilisers are leached into the water, resulting in eutrophication.

Page 6 of 32

Paul WallisTropical RainforestsDeforestation in MalaysiaSpecification: A case study of a tropical rainforest to illustrate:

Causes of deforestation – subsistence and commercial farming, logging, road building, mineral extraction, energy development, settlement, population growth

Impacts of deforestation – economic development, soil erosion, contribution to climate change

Malaysia is in South East Asia surrounded by the South China Sea. 67% of Malaysia covered in tropical rainforest. It has the fastest rate of deforestation in the world. Malaysian rainforests support over 5,500 species of flowering plants, 2,600 species of trees and over 1,000 species of butterflies. Of the 203 species of mammals, 78% live only in forests.

Causes of DeforestationLoggingMalaysia is the largest exporter of tropical wood since the 1980s. Clear felling is where all trees are chopped down in an area. This became common, leading to total destruction of forest habitats. Recently, selective logging has replaced clear felling. This is where only fully-grown trees are cut down. Trees that have important environmental value are left unharmed.

Road BuildingRoads are constructed to provide access to mining areas, new settlements and energy projects. Logging requires road construction to bring in machinery and take away the timber.

Mineral ExtractionMining, mainly tin and smelting, is common in Peninsular Malaysia. Areas of rainforest have been cleared for mining operations and road construction. Drilling for oil and gas has recently started on Borneo. Mining activities have led to the pollution of land and rivers in some places.

Energy DevelopmentIn 2011, after five decades of delays, the controversial Bakun dam started to generate electricity. It is Asia’s highest dam (205m) outside China. The dam provides electricity for industrialised peninsular Malaysia. The dam’s reservoir flooded over 700km2 of forests and farmland. Several more dams are planned to boost Malaysia’s electricity supplies.

Population GrowthIn the past, the government encouraged transmigration. This is where poor urban people moved into the countryside to relieve pressure on cities. Between 1956 and the 1980s, about 15,000 hectares of rainforest were felled to accommodate the settlers, many of whom set up plantations.

Subsistence FarmingTribal people living in the rainforest practice subsistence farming. One method they use to clear the land is “slash and burn”. This involves the use of fire. Occasionally, these fires can spread resulting in wildfires.

Commercial FarmingMalaysia is currently the world’s largest palm oil exporter – it makes 85% of the world’s palm oil. During the 1970s, large areas of land were converted into palm oil plantations since plantation owners would receive a 10-year tax break. This has led to increasing amounts of land are being converted to plantations. This deforestation is threatening species like orang-utans on Borneo.

Page 7 of 32

Paul WallisImpacts of DeforestationEconomic DevelopmentDeforestation is usually driven by profit. Whilst it may result in short term gains, it may lead to long term losses.

Economic Gains Economic LossesDevelopment of land for mining, farming and

energy will provide jobs directly (construction, farming) and indirectly (supply and support

industries)

Pollution of water sources and an increasingly dry climate may result in water shortages

Companies will pay taxes to the government which can be used to improve public services, such as

education and water supply

Fires can cause harmful pollution. They can burn out of control, destroying vast areas of valuable

forestForest is cleared to make space for cattle grazing,

from which large commercial companies can make a profit

Rising temperatures could devastate some forms of farming, e.g. growing tea, fruit and flowers

Improved transport infrastructure opens up new areas for industrial development and tourism

Plants that could bring huge medical benefits and high profits may become extinct

Products such as oil palm, soya and rubber provide raw materials for processing industries

Climate change could have economic costs as people have to adapt to living in a warmer world

Hydro-electric power provides cheap and plentiful energy, which can be used by all types of industry

The number of tourists attracted by rainforests could decrease

Minerals such as gold and cobalt are very valuable, and earn large amounts of foreign exchange, as well

as providing an industrial base

Illegal logging causes billions of dollars of losses to the national economy

Soil ErosionSoil erosion is the removal of soil by wind or rain. Since the roots of trees and plants bind the soil together, deforestation means that the soil can easily become loose and erode away.

Contribution to Climate ChangeDeforestation contributes to the enhanced greenhouse effect. This is because trees absorb CO2, a greenhouse gas, when they photosynthesise. When they are cut down, they can no longer remove CO2 from the air.

Page 8 of 32

Paul WallisHot DesertsThe Thar DesertSpecification: A case study of a hot desert to illustrate:

Development opportunities in hot desert environments: mineral extraction, energy, farming, tourism Challenges of developing hot desert environments: extreme temperatures, water supply,

inaccessibility

The Thar Desert is one of the major hot deserts of the world. It is located in northwest India and stretches into Pakistan. It covers around 200,00km2 and is the world’s most densely populated desert.

Development OpportunitiesMineral ExtractionThe desert has valuable reserves of minerals which are used all over India and are exported all over the world. These minerals include:

Feldspar – used to make ceramics Phosphorite – used for making fertiliser Gypsum – used in making cement Kaolin – used as a whitener in paper

Limestone and marble are also quarried in the area. Limestone is used for building and producing cement, and marble is used in construction.

EnergyEnergy is produced in the Thar Desert using solar panels due to its ideal conditions (sunny, cloudless skies). This energy is used for desalination – purifying salty water supplies. Wind energy is also used to generate electricity. Jaisalmer Wind Park was constructed in 2001. A large oilfield has been discovered in the Barmer district and it could transform the local economy.

FarmingMost of the people living in the desert are involved in subsistence farming. However, irrigation in the Thar Desert has made commercial farming possible. Producing crops such as wheat and cotton has created many jobs and generated income for the local economy.

TourismThe Thar Desert has recently become a popular tourist attraction due to its beautiful landscapes and wildlife. Tens of thousands visit the desert each year. Desert safaris are where tourists explore the desert with local guides on camels. Tourism is an important source of income and creates many jobs for local people.

ChallengesExtreme TemperaturesTemperatures in the Thar Desert can exceed 50°C in the summer months. This makes it hard for people to farm, work in mines or as tourist guides during these months as it is simply too hot. This makes development difficult. Moreover, high rates of evaporation lead to water shortages, affecting plants, animals and people.

Water SupplyThe supply of water in the desert is very limited due to low annual rainfall. High temperatures and strong winds cause high rates of evaporation. Without water, the development of mining, farming and tourism and therefore the economy would not be possible.

InaccessibilityDue to the very extreme weather and the presence of vast barren areas, there is a very limited road network across the desert. The high temperatures can cause the tarmac to melt.

Page 9 of 32

Paul Wallis

Section 1C: Physical Landscapes in the UKCoastal Landscapes in the UKDorset CoastlineSpecification: An example of a section of coastline in the UK to identify its major landforms of erosion and deposition

The Dorset coastline is in southern England and is sometimes called the Jurassic Coast. It is 96 miles long and is a designated natural World Heritage Site. It is made from bands of hard rock (e.g. limestone and chalk) and

soft rock (e.g. clay). These erode at different rates producing a variety of coastal landforms.

Durdle DoorDurdle Door is an arch. The waves eroded a crack in the limestone headland. This became a cave which then developed into an arch.

Lulworth CoveLulworth Cove is a small bay formed after a gap was eroded in a band of limestone. There is a band of clay behind the limestone. This has been eroded away to form the bay.

Chesil BeachChesil Beach is a tombolo (a type of a bar) which connects the Isle of Portland to the mainland. It was formed by longshore drift. The shallow Fleet Lagoon has been formed behind the spit.

Swanage Bay, The Foreland and Studland BayThere are two bays with beaches called Swanage Bay and Studland Bay. They are areas of softer rock (sandstone and clay). In between them, there is a headland called the Foreland made from a harder rock (chalk).

Old Harry RocksThe Foreland headland juts out into the sea, so it is more vulnerable to high-energy waves. This caused the end of the headland to be eroded away to form a stack called Old Harry and a stump called Old Harry’s wife.

Page 10 of 32

Paul WallisHolderness CoastlineSpecification: An example of a coastal management scheme in the UK to show:

The reasons for management The management strategy The resulting effects and conflicts

The Holderness coastline is located in the north-east of England in Yorkshire. It is the fastest eroding coastline in Europe.

Reasons for ManagementThe coastline is rapidly eroding at an average of 1.8 metres a year. This is because the cliffs are made from soft, less resistant boulder clay so they are collapsing from erosion. The beaches are naturally narrow, so they give less protection to the coast as it doesn't reduce the power of the waves. The waves at Holderness are powerful since they travel long distances over the North Sea. Since they have a long fetch, they increase more in energy.

Over 11km of the Holderness coastline is managed using hard engineering strategies because:

There are towns and villages where people live (e.g. Hornsea has a population of over 8000) There is important infrastructure, e.g. B1242 road links many towns and businesses along the coast The gas terminal at Easington supplies 25% of the UK’s gas and is right on the edge of the cliff

Management StrategyIn 1991, 450m of coastline around Mappleton was protected using over 61,000 tonnes of rocks at a cost of £2 million. Other defences include:

Bridlington is protected by a 4.7 km long sea wall Hornsea is protected by a sea wall, wooden groynes, rock armour and beach nourishment Coastal management at Withernsea has tried to

make the beach wider by using groynes and also uses a seawall to protect the coast

Spurn Head is protected with groynes and rock armour

Zoning along all of the Holderness coastline Revetments at Easington

Effects and ConflictsThe coastal management scheme was successful since the village of Mappleton, the B1242 road and the gas terminal at Easington are no longer at risk from erosion. Furthermore, the rip-rap at Withernsea has led to an increase in tourism due to a larger beach. However, there have been some conflicts:

After the groynes were built in Mappleton:o There has been an increase in erosion at

Great Cowdeno This led to farms being destroyed by the erosiono This also resulted in the loss of 100 cottages at the Golden Sands Holiday Park

The operation of coastguard and lifeboat services from Spurn Head is under threat due to erosion There has been a loss of habitat for wildlife on Spurn Head since it is at risk of being washed away

Page 11 of 32

Paul WallisRiver landscapes in the UKRiver TeesSpecification: An example of a river valley in the UK to identify its major landforms of erosion and deposition

The River Tees is an important river in the north east of England. Its source is in the Pennine Hills and it flows

east for around 128km to its mouth where the river joins the North Sea at Middlesbrough.

Upper CourseThe upper course has hard, impermeable rocks. Vertical erosion has formed a V-shaped valley here. The UK’s largest waterfall, High Force, is 21 metres high and is located in the upper course. An area of hard rock is located above a layer of soft rocks (sandstone and shale). Since the river cannot erode the hard rock, it formed a step in the long profile of a river to create this impressive waterfall.

Middle CourseMeanders form in the middle course as the River Tees starts to erode laterally. These can be identified near Barnard Castle.

Lower CourseNear Yarm, the meanders in the lower course are much larger, and oxbow lakes have formed. Additionally, levees have also formed from when the river flooded. The River Tees has a very large estuary with mudflats and sandbanks. This supports the wildlife in the area so several sites (e.g. Seal Sands) are protected areas.

Page 12 of 32

Paul WallisThe Boscastle FloodSpecification: An example of a flood management scheme in the UK to show:

Why the scheme was required The management strategy The social, economic and environmental issues

The village of Boscastle is located on the north coast of Cornwall. It was devasted by a flash flood on 16 th August 2004 where a month’s worth of rainfall fell in two hours. This led to a flash flood which caused over one thousand homes, cars and businesses to be swept away and damaged. It caused millions of pounds worth of damage.

Why was the scheme required?Boscastle is located on a confluence of three rivers making it vulnerable to flooding. The drainage basin of Boscastle is small, steep and made of impermeable rock. Furthermore, the land upstream of the village has been cleared of trees and vegetation. These both increase the surface run-off meaning that the river discharge increases quickly during heavy rain. The old bridge in the village had a low arch over a narrow river channel. This made the flooding worse since the trees and vehicles became trapped, forming a dam. Moreover, the village is a popular tourist destination and 90% of the local economy relied on tourism. After 2004, the number of tourists dropped significantly meaning there was a greater demand for protection against future floods.

The Flood Management Scheme The flood management scheme for Boscastle was completed in 2008. It includes both hard and soft engineering strategies.

The river channel has been widened and deepened

A new flood wall has been built The car park has been raised and has a

permeable surface The low bridges have been removed and

replaced with wider bridges The river embankment has been

strengthened Dead trees and vegetation have been removed to stop them from blocking the channel during floods A gauge has been introduced to monitor water levels and improve flood prediction

IssuesSocial Economic Environmental

Resident’s lives were disrupted for years by rebuilding projects and the construction of flood

defences

Homes and businesses are now at less risk of flooding

Vegetation and river habitats in the area are now continuously

managed

The new defences have made Boscastle safer but won’t prevent flooding of the same size as the

2004 flood

The flood management scheme cost £4.6 million. But the scheme

isn’t as good as it could have been since some options were

considered too expensive

The salmon and trout get their own side pools, giving them places to rest away from the

main force of the current as they migrate upstream

Many residents don’t like the new bridge

The new channel has been engineered to look natural and

function as a normal river

Page 13 of 32

Paul Wallis

Section 2A: Urban Issues and ChallengesUrban Growth in LICs/NEEsRio de JaneiroSpecification: A case study of a major city in an LIC or NEE to illustrate:

The location and importance of the city, regionally, nationally and internationally Causes of growth: natural increase and migration How urban growth has created opportunities:

o Social: access to services – health and education; access to resources – water supply, energyo Economic: how urban industrial areas can be a stimulus for economic development

How urban growth has created challenges:o Managing urban growth – slums, squatter settlementso Providing clean water, sanitation systems and energyo Providing access to services – health and educationo Reducing unemployment and crimeo Managing environmental issues – waste disposal,

air and water pollution, traffic congestion

Rio de Janeiro is a large city situated on the south-east of Brazil on the Atlantic coast. Brazil is a NEE. In 2014, it had a population of 6.5 million in the city and 12.5 million people in the surrounding area. It is the second largest city in Brazil (after São Paulo) and is the 39th largest city in the world. It was the capital city of Brazil up until 1960 when it was replaced by Brasilia.

Importance of RioRio is a very important city on a range of levels. Regionally, it provides schools, hospitals and universities as well as opportunities for employment, leisure and recreation. Its main service industries are banking, finance and insurance which employ many local people. Tourists are attracted to Rio’s stunning natural scenery and Christ the Redeemer (one of the Seven New Wonders of the World). This provides jobs for many people. Nationally, it is important because many of Brazil’s largest companies have their headquarters there. It produces 5% of Brazil’s GDP, making it Brazil’s second most important industrial centre. It is the cultural capital of Brazil. Rio is important as a transport hub with its five ports and three airports. Its main exports are coffee, sugar and iron ore. Rio is important internationally since it is an international centre for finance and industry. It hosted the 2016 Olympic and Paralympic Games and seven football matches from the 2014 World Cup. Rio is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Causes of GrowthRio has grown rapidly in the last 50 years to become a major industrial, administrative, commercial and tourist centre. These economic activities have caused rural-to-urban migration with many migrating from Brazil and other countries. These migrants have contributed to Rio’s continuing economic development. As a result, Rio has a racially diverse population. Migrants have come from many different places, including:

From other parts of Brazil From other countries in South America Recently migrants from South Korea and China seeking new business opportunities Migrants from Portugal, who have been attracted by the common language Skilled workers from the UK and the USA, attracted by Rio’s industry

Page 14 of 32

Paul WallisNatural increase has also caused Rio’s population to grow. However, most urban growth (65%) is a result of migration.

Page 15 of 32

Paul WallisSocial Opportunities and ChallengesHealth CareIn 2013, only 55% of Rio’s population had a local family health clinic. Services for pregnant women and the elderly were very poor. Medical staff have gone into favelas (e.g. Santa Marta) and visited people’s homes with a health kit to detect and treat diseases. As a result, infant mortality has fallen, life expectancy has increased, and sanitation has improved.

EducationEducation is compulsory in Brazil for children aged 6-14. In Rio, only half the children continue their education beyond the age of 14. So, the authorities have tried to improve access to education by making more money available for schools. This has resulted in many primary and secondary schools in Rio, enabling 95% of children aged 10 and above in the city to be literate. This is considerably higher than the national average. In addition, Rio has a number of universities and higher education institutions. It is the second largest centre for research and development in the country.

Water SupplyAround 12% of Rio’s population did not have access to running water. So, Rio improved their water supply before they hosted major sporting events in 2014 and 2016. They built seven new treatment plants between 1998 and 2014 and laid over 300km of pipes. As a result, access to clean water has increased considerably. By 2014, 95% of the population of Rio had access to mains water supply.

EnergyThe whole city suffers frequent power cuts due to a shortage of electricity. So, the electricity supply has been improved by the installation of 60km of new power lines, a new nuclear power generator and the Simplicio hydro-electric complex which increased Rio’s electricity supply by 30%. In poor areas, some residents tap into the power supply illegally. This is risky and unsafe and has caused fires.

CrimeRobbery and violent crime are major issues in Rio. Murder, kidnapping, carjacking and armed assault occur regularly. Street crime is a problem, especially at night. Powerful gangs control drug trafficking in the favelas. The police have taken steps to control crime. This includes the establishment of Pacifying Police Units (UPPs) in 2013 to reclaim favelas from drug dealers.

Economic Opportunities and ChallengesThe largest steelworks in South America is located in Rio. This has led to new construction and supply industries being attracted to the area further encouraging economic growth and job opportunities.

Recently, oil has been discovered just off the coast and this has encouraged the growth of oil-related industries. This includes important oil refining and shipbuilding industries. The main exports from Rio are crude petroleum and semi-finished iron and steel products.

Rio is one of the most visited cities in the southern hemisphere. Major attractions include the beaches, the statue of Christ the Redeemer and Sugar Loaf Mountain. This has provided jobs for many people.

Rio provides 6% of Brazil’s employment. Brazil’s economy was hit by a deep recession in 2015 which increased unemployment. Unemployment is one of the reasons why there are such wide contrasts in wealth. Unemployment rates in the favelas are >20%, and most of the work in the informal economy is poorly paid. The Schools of Tomorrow programme aims to provide education for young people in the poor and violent areas of the city. There are also practical skills-based courses. Free childcare is provided for teenage parents to allow them to return to education.

As Rio’s industrial areas have grown, they have brought economic prosperity to Rio and have helped to improve the infrastructure with roads, transport and services all being developed. Large companies have been attracted to the city and this has created more economic opportunities and a more formal economy.

Page 16 of 32

Paul WallisEnvironmental IssuesWaste DisposalThe worst waste problems are in the favelas. Many are built on steep slopes and have few proper roads so waste collection lorries have difficulty accessing the favelas. Therefore, most waste is dumped, and this pollutes the water system. It also causes diseases (e.g. cholera) to spread and encourages rats.

To reduce this, a power plant has been set up near the University of Rio using methane gas from rotting rubbish. It consumes 30 tonnes of rubbish a day and produces enough electricity to power 1000 homes.

Water PollutionGuanabara Bay is highly polluted, causing a major threat to wildlife. Commercial fishing has reduced by 90% in the last 20 years. There is a danger that pollution could affect Ipanema and Copacabana beaches which would damage tourism and the local economy. Rivers are polluted by runoff from open sewers in the favelas (200 tonnes of raw sewage into the bay each day) and 50 tonnes of industrial waste enters the bay each day.

To help reduce water pollution, overseas aid has been used to reduce sewage being released into the bay. Since 2004, 12 new sewage works have been built, costing US$68 million. Ships are fined for illegally discharging fuel into the bay. 5km of new sewage pipes have been installed around badly polluted areas.

Air PollutionAir pollution causes the deaths of about 5,000 people every year. The city is often covered in brown smog. This is because heavy traffic and congestion on roads cause a build-up of exhaust fumes. Furthermore, the mist from the Atlantic mixes with vehicle exhaust fumes and pollutants from factory chimneys.

Traffic CongestionRio is the most congested city in South America. The number of cars has increased by 40% in the last decade. This increases stress and pollution levels and wastes time for businesses and commuters. High crime levels mean that most people travel by car. Due to the steep mountains around the city, roads can only be built on coastal lowland. This means that the main routes become congested.

Improvements have been made to reduce air pollution and decrease congestion. This includes the expansion of the metro system. Also, new toll roads into the city centre have reduced congestion. Traffic flow has been improved on coast roads by making them one way during rush hours.

FavelasSquatter settlements in Brazil are called favelas. They are illegal settlements where people have built houses on land which they did not own. They have many challenges, for example:

ConstructionHouses are poorly constructed because they were built illegally out of basic materials (e.g. iron, broken bricks, plastic sheets). Heavy rain can cause landslides since favelas are built on steep slopes. There is also limited road access.

ServicesIn the non-improved favelas, 12% have no running water, >30% have no electricity and 50% have no sewage connections. Many homes illegally access electricity and sewers are often open drains.

CrimeThere is a high murder rate of 20 per 1,000 people and drug gangs dominate many favelas. Many inhabitants distrust the police due to violence and corruption.

HealthThere are population densities of 37,000km2 and infant mortality rates are as high as 50 per 1,000 people. Waste cannot be disposed of leading to diseases spreading.

Page 17 of 32

Paul WallisFavela Bairro ProjectSpecification: An example of how urban planning is improving the quality of life for the urban poor

The Favela Bairro Project ran from 1995-2008. It was set up to help improve life in the favelas by upgrading them rather than demolishing them. It involved 253,000 people in 73 favelas. The work had been carried out with government funding.

ImprovementsSocial Economic Environmental

Day-care centres look after children whilst their parents work

A Pacifying Police Unit (UPP) has been set up to help reduce crime

Replacement of wooden buildings with brick buildings

Services help drug addicts, alcoholics and victims of

domestic violence

100% mortgages available for people to buy their homes

There are now weekly rubbish collections

Adult education classes improve literacy Streets have been widened,

paved and named to allow easier access (e.g. emergency services)

Hillsides secured to prevent landslides or people relocated

where necessaryProvision of basic services, e.g. clean water, electricityNew health, leisure and

education facilities have been built

Training schemes help people to get better jobs Installation of a cable car system

across the Complexo do Alemão hillsides. Residents are given one

free return ticket a dayAccess to credit to allow

inhabitants to buy materials to improve their homes

Access to water supply and drainage system for improved

sanitation

Many successes have come as a result of these improvements. These include:

An improvement in the standard of living, health and employment prospects of the residents An increase of 80-120% in property values in favelas that are part of the programme The number of local businesses within the favelas has almost doubled It has been recognised as a model by the UN and has been used in other Brazilian cities

Page 18 of 32

Paul WallisUrban Change in Cities in the UKBristolSpecification: A case study of a major city in the UK to illustrate:

The location and importance of the city in the UK and the wider world Impacts of national and international migration on the growth and character of the city How urban change has created opportunities:

o Social and economic: cultural mix, recreation and entertainment, employment, integrated transport systems

o Environmental: urban greening How urban change has created challenges:

o Social and economic: urban deprivation, inequalities in housing, education, health and employment

o Environmental: dereliction, building on brownfield and greenfield sites, waste disposalo The impact of urban sprawl on the

rural-urban fringe, and the growth of commuter settlements

LocationBristol is located in the south-west of England, approximately 5km to the west of Swindon. It has a population of 671,000 making it the largest city in southwest England.

Bristol’s ImportanceNationally Internationally

It has two cathedrals in Bristol (Anglican) and Clifton (Roman Catholic)

Bristol’s airports link the city to major European centres and the USA

It is located on the M4 corridor with good road and rail links to London

It has easy access to rail and ferry services to Europe

It has several theatres and music venues, including the famous Bristol Old Vic Theatre

It has the largest concentration of silicon chip manufacture outside California

It is home to Aardman, the animators who created Wallace and Gromit

Around 700,000 cars from Japan, Germany and Korea are imported to Bristol’s docks each year

The port of Bristol is the UK’s most centrally located deep-sea container portIt has two universities which attract students from all around the world, providing graduates for

professionally, managerially and knowledge-based jobsBristol is the UK’s eighth most popular city for foreign visitors

There has been a change from traditional industry, e.g. tobacco and paper, to the development of global industries, e.g. financial and business services, defence, aerospace, technology, culture and media

There has been a high level of inward investment, e.g. FDI (Foreign Direct Investment), in manufacturing (e.g. companies such as Airbus, BMW, Siemens), finance and high-tech businesses

Page 19 of 32

Paul WallisImpact of MigrationBristol’s population is growing rapidly. In recent years, migration from abroad has accounted for about half of Bristol’s population growth. This has included large numbers from EU countries, especially Poland and Spain. Migrant workers are employed in a variety of sectors including retail, health, construction and manufacturing.

Impact of Migration on BristolPositive Negative

The mainly young migrants help to balance the ageing population Challenge of integration within the community

A hard-working, motivated workforceContributing to both the local and national

economy Pressures on housing and employment

Enriching the city’s cultural lifeThe need to provide education for children whose

first language is not EnglishImproving the level of skills where there are shortages

Opportunities from Urban ChangeOpportunities

Social Economic Environmental

Youthful population means there is a range of bars and nightclubs

Chinese telecommunications giant Huawei has invested in the

city

In 2015, Bristol was awarded the status of European Green Capital

The Colston Hall has concerts and entertainment by major names in

rock, pop, jazz and folk

14/15 main global aircraft companies are found in the

Bristol region (e.g. Rolls Royce)

Bristol plans to develop an integrated transport system

linking different forms of public transport within the city. Theaim is to get people to travel

using public transport instead of cars – reducing congestion and

air pollution

The city centre had become outdated and people had begun

shopping in the out of town retail park at Cribbs Causeway

Bristol is home to global companies such as Aardman

Animations, Hewlett-Packard (HP) and Toshiba

Bristol has two professional football teams, City and Rovers, and a rugby union team (Bristol Bears). Ashton Gate Stadium, home to City and Bears, was

renovated in 2015-16

Increased number of people working in high-tech companies. There are 50 microelectronic and

silicon design businesses in Bristol

Urban greening: >1/3 of Bristol’s is open space and more than 90%

of people live within 350m of parkland and waterways. There are 8 nature reserves and 300

parksDevelopments to encourage people to shop in the CBD include:

Pedestrianising the area Providing a more attractive shopping environment (e.g. new street furniture floral displays) Improving public transport into the centre (e.g. park and ride) The development of open street markets Promoting tourism to encourage greater spending by making the nearby Old Market area of the city

into a conservation area

The following factors attract high-tech businesses to Bristol:

A government grant of £100 million to become a Super-Connected City with high broadband speeds Close links between the city council and the university Advanced research at the university An educated and skilled workforce Different industries working collaboratively in research and development A clean and non-polluted environment

Page 20 of 32

Paul WallisGreen initiatives for Bristol include:

30% of the city to be covered in trees 27% of the city to be part of a wildlife network Sites of Nature Conservation Interest (SNCI) to be raised to top conservation condition by 2026 Objectives set for wildlife in non-natural habitats (e.g. cemeteries)

Challenges from Urban ChangeEnvironmentalDerelictionChanges in the economy and industry in Bristol have led to many industrial buildings that are no longer being used becoming derelict. This is mainly in the inner city.

Stokes Croft in Bristol’s inner city became notorious for its derelict housing and abandoned properties. Its empty houses have been taken over by squatters and the area has suffered from riots and anti-social behaviour. Bristol City Council has received lottery grants to help improve poor economic activity and urban decay in the area. Artists wanted to improve the areas through community action and public art. It is now well known for its music, independent shops, nightclubs and numerous pieces of graffiti.

Urban sprawlBristol’s growing population at the end of the 20th century and the demolition of older areas of slum dwellings has led to increased demand for new housing. This has led to urban sprawl resulting in new housing developments in rural areas on the edge of the city. Urban sprawl has extended particularly to the north-west of the city. The new town of Bradley Stoke has extended the city to the north.

Between 2006 and 2013 only 6% of new housing developments were on greenfield land and by 2026 over 30,000 new homes are planned on brownfield sites. Planned brownfield developments will be high-density. The green belt was set up to prevent urban sprawl on the rural-urban fringe and the merging of the cities Bath and Bristol. Towns to the north and south of the city, such as Clevedon and Wotton-under-Edge, have expanded to become commuter settlements so that people are able to travel from surrounding areas to work in the city.

Waste DisposalThe city produces half a million tonnes of waste per year. It is among the worst cities in the country in terms of the amount of food waste it creates.

A range of strategies have been adopted to cope with the problem of waste disposal Reducing the amount of waste that has to be sent to landfill Reducing the amount of waste generated per household by 15% Increasing the amount of waste recycling to 50%

Bristol’s population has increased by 9% but the amount of household waste has reduced by 18% since 2000. This has been done by increasing the recycling rate by:

Agreeing higher targets with contractors who handle household waste Doing more to teach pupils in schools about the importance of recycling and how to recycle at home Introducing specialised kerbside collections and facilities for recycling different kinds of household

waste Making technological improvements in recycling

Page 21 of 32

Paul WallisSocial and Economic Challenges in BristolUrban deprivationBristol’s population shows great social variations between different areas. Lack of investment in the city has led to social inequalities between different areas.

Inequality in BristolFilwood is in the top 10% of the most socially deprived areas in the country. A 2010 survey by Bristol City Council revealed that more than one-third of people living in Filwood and over half the children were in very low-income households. Bullying, crime, drug use, poor environment, lack of transport and dumped cars are identified as problems facing local residents.

Most of the council houses in Filwood were built in the 1930s and 1940s. They replaced the slums that had been cleared and the home bombed during the war. However, many were poorly insulated. The designs of the council areas were not successful and there were plans to replace 1000 homes. But these plans were abandoned after local opposition.

Stoke Bishop is a very affluent suburb. It includes Sneyd Park, an area that is home to many millionaires who live in large villas. The area overlooks the open space of Clifton Downs and the gorge of the River Avon.

Filwood Stoke BishopTenure (Ownership) 50% 81%

Life Expectancy Females: 80 years, Males: 75 years Females: 84 years, Males: 82 yearsEducation 36% top grades 94% top grades

Health 74% in good health 91% in good healthCrime 113 crimes per 1,000 people 36 crimes per 1,000 people

Unemployment 1/3 of 16-24-year-olds 3%

Page 22 of 32

Paul WallisThe Temple Quarter RegenerationSpecification: An example of an urban regeneration project to show:

Reasons why the area needed regeneration The main features of the project

The Temple Quarter area was mainly a heavy industry location creating glass and ceramics up until 1923. It used to transport cargo for distribution in the UK.

Why did the Temple Quarter need to be regenerated?The Temple Quarter was very run down. It gave a bad first impression to visitors, as it was the first part of the city seen by anyone driving from the south (e.g. Wells), south-east (e.g. Bath) or arriving at Temple Meads railway station. The Temple Quarter was developed as an industrial area in the 18 th Century. The land was mainly disused and in a state of dereliction.

Main features of the developmentThere will be 240,000m2 of either new or refurbished buildings, creating offices, homes, shops and the redeveloped railway station. The target is to create 4,000 jobs by 2020 and 17,000 by 2037.

A new bridge built across the River Avon to the site of the former diesel depot to give access to the New Bristol Arena

The New Bristol Arena, which is due to open in 2020, can be used for major conventions, exhibitions and sporting events with up to 12,000 spectators (e.g. outdoor theatre reproductions, an ice rink)

Improved access in and around Bristolo Improvements to Temple Meads station to encourage more people to travel by traino Electrification will shorten the rail journey time to Londono Improved road layout with links to the rapid transit network and the Bristol-Bath cycle

network Enterprise zone status to encourage economic growth and create jobs by offering businesses a range

of incentives, e.g. business relief rate, low rents and easy planning procedures Glass Warf is a new office development Paintworks is a new mixed-use development Temple Studios has new technical and digital enterprises Brunel’s engine shed is a new £1.7 million Innovation Centre near Temple Meads station. It is home

to high-tech, creative and low carbon sector companies and adds to Bristol’s importance as a major UK high-tech centre. The centre includes:

o 18 micro-electronics, media and digital production companieso A further 44 companies who use the facilitieso A company developing the next generation of wi-fio The use of superfast broadband as part of the Bristol Gigabit project

Page 23 of 32

Paul Wallis

Section 2B: The Changing Economic WorldStrategies to Reduce the Development GapJamaicaSpecification: An example of how the growth of tourism in an LIC or NEE helps to reduce the development gap

Jamaica is located in the Caribbean to the south of Cuba. It is one of the largest islands in the West Indies with a population of 2.9 million people. Its economy is based on a range of minerals (such as bauxite and oil), agricultural products (like sugar and rum) and some manufacturing. Although it is classed as an “upper middle-income country”, it has suffered from slow growth, debt and high unemployment over a long period.

Main Tourist AreasMost tourist activity is on the island's northern coast, including the communities of Montego Bay, Ocho Rios, and Port Antonio, as well as in Negril on the island's western tip and the capital Kingston.

Main Tourist AttractionsJamaica has become a popular tourist attraction, offering beautiful beaches, a warm sunny climate and rich cultural heritage. The country enjoys good international air communicators and is a hub for cruise ships.

Its main tourist attractions are water sports, deep-sea fishing, caves, botanic gardens, golf courses museums, bird sanctuaries, wildlife reserves and national parks. Dunn's River Falls, located in Ocho Rios, is a waterfall approximately 600 feet long and runs off into the sea. It receives thousands of visitors each year.

How has tourism contributed to Jamaica’s development?EconomyIn 2016, tourism contributed to 30% of Jamaica’s GDP. Income from tourism is US$2 billion each year and taxes paid to the government contribute further to the development of the country. This, in turn, helps to reduce the development gap. The annual 1.1 million cruise passengers only spend an average US$70 per day compared with $120 per day spent by the 2.5 million other visitors.

EmploymentCommunity tourism and sustainable eco-tourism are expanding in more isolated regions with people running small-scale guest houses or acting as guides. Tourism in Jamaica provides 330,000 people with jobs in the tourist industry. Tourism provides jobs directly in hotels, transport and tourist attractions and indirectly in shops, manufacturing and banking.

InfrastructureA new port, cruise lines facilities and hotel accommodation have been built at Trelawney. However, roads and airports have been slower to develop meaning that some parts of the island are isolated.

Quality of LifeIn the northern tourist areas of Montego Bay and Ocho Rios, wealthy Jamaicans live in high-quality housing with a high standard of living. These areas have benefited from tourism. However, large numbers of people live nearby in poor housing with limited food supply and inadequate access to fresh water, health care and education.

EnvironmentTourism has caused environmental problems such as footpath erosion, excessive waste and harmful emissions. It has also brought benefits, such as providing job opportunities for conservation and landscaping projects. This also encourages people to visit the island. Montego Bay has been improved by landscaping and a new water treatment plant at Logwood has reduced pollution from hotels. The Negril Marine Nature Park attracts many tourists and brings direct and indirect income.

Page 24 of 32

Paul WallisLICs And NEEs Experiencing Rapid Economic DevelopmentNigeriaSpecification: A case study of one LIC or NEE to illustrate:

The location and importance of the country, regionally and globally The wider political, social, cultural and environmental context within which the country is placed The changing industrial structure. The balance between different sectors of the economy. How

manufacturing industry can stimulate economic development The role of transnational corporations (TNCs) in relation to industrial development. Advantages and

disadvantages of TNC(s) to the host country The changing political and trading relationships with the wider world International aid: types of aid, impacts of aid on the receiving country The environmental impacts of economic development The effects of economic development on the quality of life for the population

Nigeria is a Newly-Emerging Economy (NEE). It is located in north-west Africa. It borders Benin, Chad, Niger and Cameroon. It is on the Atlantic Coast and almost due south of the UK.

Nigeria’s ImportanceNigeria’s global importance:

Nigeria is ranked as the world’s 22nd largest economy and by 2050 it should be in the top twenty It had the world’s highest average GDP growth for 2010-15 It supplies 2.7% of the world’s oil – the 11th largest producer The country has also developed a very diverse economy which now includes financial services,

telecommunications and the media Nigeria is the fifth largest contributor to UN peacekeeping missions around the world

Nigeria’s regional importance in Africa:

Nigeria has one of the fastest growing economies in Africa It currently has the highest GDP in the continent Nigeria’s manufacturing sector became the largest on the continent in 2013 It is the most populated country in Africa – with a population of 195 million Nigeria has the highest farm output in Africa with over 19 million cattle (also the largest in Africa)

Wider Context of NigeriaPolitical ContextNigeria became fully independent from the UK in 1960. However bitter power struggles resulted in a series of dictatorships and a civil war between 1967 and 1970. Lack of political stability affected Nigeria’s development and led to widespread corruption. It is only since 1999 that the country has had a stable government. Recent elections in 2011 and 2015 were seen as fair.

Several countries are now starting to invest in Nigeria:

China has made major investments in the capital, Abuja American companies such as General Electric are investing in new power plants South Africa is investing in businesses and banking American corporations (e.g. Wal-Mart) and IT giants IBM, Microsoft and Oracle are operating there

Social ContextNigeria is a multi-ethnic, multi-faith country. Ethnic groups in Nigeria include the Yoruba (21%), Hausa and the Fulani (29%) and Igbo (18%) as well as many smaller groups. Christianity, Islam and traditional African traditions are practised widely. This social diversity is one of Nigeria’s great strength but is also causes

Page 25 of 32

Paul Wallisconflict. Economic inequality between the north and south of Nigeria has created new religious and ethnic tensions. The rise of the Islamic Fundamentalist group Boko Haram has created an unstable situation in Nigeria and has had a negative impact on the economy, resulting in a reduction in investment from abroad and a rise in unemployment.

Cultural ContextWith such a diverse population Nigeria enjoys a rich and varied culture:

Nigerian music is enjoyed across the continent, e.g. Fela Kuti Nigerian cinema (known as Nollywood) is the second largest film industry in the world In sport, the Nigerian football team has won the African Cup of Nations three times, most recently in

2013. Several Nigerian players have played for Premier League teams, e.g. Victor Moses, Alex Iwobi, Kelechi

Iheanacho, Isaac Success and Nwankwo Kanu

Environmental ContextNigeria’s natural environments form a series of bands across the country. To the north of Nigeria is the Sahel and the Sahara Desert.

The far north-east of the country is semi-desert. Further south, tropical grassland (savanna) is most common, mainly used for grazing cattle. Crops grown in northern Nigeria include groundnuts, millet and cotton.

The upland region of Jos Plateau (central Nigeria) is wetter and cooler than the surrounding savanna. It is densely populated farmland with some woodland.

The climate in southern Nigeria is high temperatures and high annual rainfall. Much of this area is forest, with crops such as cocoa, oil palm and rubber. Hard to keep cattle here because of the teste fly – can be lethal to livestock.

Nigeria’s Changing Industrial StructureSince 1999 there have been major changes in Nigeria’s industrial structure:

Employment in agriculture has fallen from 70% to 33% in 2012. This is because farm machinery is used more and better pay and conditions in other sectors of the economy

Industrialisation and economic growth (secondary sector) under a stable government have increased employment in oil production, manufacturing and industries such as construction, motor manufacturing, sugar refining, paper and pharmaceuticals. The amount of people employed in manufacturing has increased from 20% in 1999 to 33% in 2012

The growth of communications, retail and finance in the tertiary sector. This has increased from 10% to 33%.

These changes mean that Nigeria now has a balanced economy with an even balance between the different sectors.

The growth of manufacturing has stimulated economic development in several ways:

Regular paid work gives people a more secure income and provides a larger home market for purchasing products such as cars and electrical appliances

Manufacturing industries stimulate growth through close links with each other, e.g. companies supplying parts for making cars

As industries grow more people are employed, and revenue from taxes increases A thriving industrial sector attracts foreign investment which stimulates further economic growth Oil processing has created chemical by-products. This has led to a huge range of chemical industries,

including soaps, detergents and plastics

Page 26 of 32

Paul WallisTransnational Corporations in NigeriaA transnational company (TNC) is a large company that operates in several countries. A TNC usually has its headquarters in one country with production plants in many others.

There are about 40 TNCs in Nigeria. The majority have their headquarters in the UK, USA or Europe. Those based in the UK include KFC (fast food) and Unilever (food and homecare).

Advantages of TNCs in Nigeria Disadvantages of TNCs in NigeriaCompanies provide employment and the

development of new skillsGrants and subsidies used to attract TNCs could

have been used to invest in the Nigerian industryMore money is spent in the economy Working conditions are sometimes very poor

Investment by companies in local infrastructure and education

Management jobs often go to foreign employees brought in by the TNC

Other local companies benefit from increased orders Much of the profit generated goes abroad

Valuable export revenues are earned Local workers are sometimes poorly paid

Shell oil is one of the world’s largest oil companies. Since oil was discovered in the Niger Delta in 1958, Shell’s operations have been controversial. The swampy river delta is one of the most difficult places in the world to extract oil.

Advantages of Shell in Nigeria Disadvantages of Shell in Nigeria

Makes major contributions in taxes and export revenue

Oil spills have caused water pollution and soil degradation, reducing agricultural production and

fishing yieldsProvides direct employment for 65,000 Nigerian

workers and a further 250,000 jobs in related industries

Oil theft and sabotage are big problems in the region, reducing production levels and costing TNCs

and the government billions of dollars every yearGiving 91% of Shell contracts to Nigerian companies Militant groups disrupt oil supply in the delta

Supports the growth of Nigeria’s energy sector Frequent oil flares send toxic fumes into the air

Nigeria’s Political LinksNigeria’s political role has changed in recent decades. It has become a leading member of African political and economic groups as well as international organisations like the United Nations.

Nigeria’s political links include:

African Union – economic planning and peacekeeping group ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African States) – a trading group with headquarters in Abuja United Nations OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries) – aims to stabilise the price of oil CEN-SAD (Community of Sahel-Saharan States) – seeks to develop sporting links

Nigeria’s Trading RelationshipsNigeria is a major global trading nation. Its main exports are crude and refined petroleum, natural gas, rubber, cocoa and cotton. Its main imports are refined petroleum from the EU and the USA, cars from Brazil and the USA, telephones, rice and wheat.

Crude oil dominates Nigeria’s exports. Nigeria’s oil is described as sweet oil since it has less than 42% sulfur. It is higher quality than the oil from the Middle East and is suitable for refining into fuel. Until 2013, the USA was Nigeria’s biggest customer. Since the development of shale oil in the USA, demand for Nigerian oil has fallen. India is now Nigeria’s biggest customer.

The reliance on crude oil has reduced the importance of agricultural products. Australia (30%) followed by Indonesia (15%) are the biggest customers for Nigerian cotton. Cocoa and rubber exports are low.

Page 27 of 32

Paul WallisInternational AidAid can be defined as “assisting people”. The providers of aid can be individuals, charities, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), governments and international organisations.

Nigeria receives aid because many people are poor. Almost 100 million people (>60% of the population) live on less than US$1 (£0.63) a day. Birth rates and infant mortality rates are high and life expectancy is low.

Nigeria receives about 4% of aid given to African countries. In 2013, aid represented 0.5% of Nigeria’s GNI – nearly US$5 billion. Most came from individual countries such as the UK and USA, and some from international organisations such as the World Bank. Charities and NGOs have also supported aid projects in Nigeria.

Aid has brought many benefits to people living in poverty. The most successful projects are community-based, support by small charities and NGOs. These are often delivered to where help is needed. The aid is all used for the project and none is wasted.

Examples of aid include:

Aid from the USA helps to educate and protect people against the spread of HIV and AIDS The NGO Nets for Life provides education on malaria prevention and distributes anti-mosquito nets

to households In 2014, the World Bank approved US$500 million to fund development projects and provide long

term loans to businesses. This has helped to reduce over-dependence on oil The USAID-funded Community Care in Nigeria project provides support packages for orphans and

vulnerable children

Often aid delivered through the Nigerian government has been less successful than aid delivered directly delivered to communities. This could be due to corruption by the government and individuals or donors having political influence over what happens to the aid.

Environmental ImpactsRapid economic growth in Nigeria has led to a negative impact on the environment. This has been done through activities like farming, oil extraction and manufacturing in factories. Examples include:

In Lagos, many harmful pollutants go directly into open drains and water channels – these are harmful to people and damage ecosystems downstream

70-80% of Nigeria’s forests have been destroyed through logging, urban expansion and industrial development. Many species have disappeared, e.g. cheetahs, giraffes and 500 types of plant

Many oil spills in the Niger Delta have had disastrous impacts on freshwater and marine ecosystems. They can cause fires, sending CO2 into the atmosphere, and acid rain (e.g. Bodo oil spills in 2008/09)

Commercial farming and inappropriate practices have led to land degradation. There is water pollution due to chemicals, soil erosion and silting of river channels

Effect on Quality of Life Quality of life is commonly measured using the UNs HDI. Nigeria’s HDI has been increasing steadily

since 2005. This trend is expected to continue Life expectancy has risen from 46 in 1990 to 52 to in 2013 Reliable, better-paid jobs in manufacturing industries or services (e.g. health care and education) Improvements to infrastructure such as roads Better quality health care, with more doctors and better-equipped hospitals Better access to safe water and education Despite these clear improvements, many people are still poor Limited access to services such as safe water and sanitation is still a problem

Page 28 of 32

Paul WallisEconomic futures in the UKTorr QuarrySpecification: An example of how modern industrial development can be more environmentally sustainable

Torr Quarry is located in Somerset. It is one of eight limestone quarries on the Mendip hills. Over 100 people are employed at Torr Quarry and it is estimated that the quarry contributes more than £15 million towards the local economy each year.

Quarrying began at Torr Quarry in the 1940s. Today, the quarry occupies a 2.5km2 site. The quarry previously produced 8 million tonnes per year, but the output is currently around 5 million tonnes. It is a nationally important source of construction materials. For example, rock chippings are used for a variety of constructions such as roads. Three-quarters of its output is transported by rail, mostly to the south-east.

Quarrying at Torr Quarry aims to be environmentally sustainable in the following ways:

Page 29 of 32

Action Explanation Sustainability200 acres of the site have already been landscaped to blend in with

the surrounding countryside, including planting grass and trees and creation of wildlife lakes for

recreation

Natural habitats that were lost to extraction will now be restored. This increases the biodiversity

of the area and makes the landscape more attractive to local people

Environmental and Social

Characteristic limestone features will be created to make the

landscape look natural

The quarry will blend in with the natural environment, so it won’t be an eyesore,

reducing complaints from locals. It also ensures that after quarrying ceases, it will not look as

though human activity took place there

Environmental

Limestone is transported by rail rather than road

Rail transportation minimises road traffic and congestion on smaller, rural roads, becoming less of a problem for locals. Rail transport is

more sustainable as it releases less CO2

emissions than lorry transport. It also creates jobs and boosts investment in local rail

infrastructure

Environmental, Social and

Economical

Strict environmental targets have been introduced. Regular

monitoring of noise, vibration, airborne emissions (dust) and

water quality is carried out

Monitoring prevents pollution of the surrounding landscape and ensures that

quarrying companies are held accountable if they do not follow strict environmental

standards. It also reduces the chances of pollution affecting the local populations

Social and Environmental

In 2010 a planning decision was made to deepen, rather than

widen the quarry, for extraction. It was approved in 2012

Extraction can take place without spoiling the landscape further, as they would be digging

downwards, rather than outwards. This protects the surrounding greenfield sites and habitats in

the locality of the existing quarry

Environmental

Paul Wallis

Section 2C: The Challenge of Resource ManagementWaterThe Lesotho Highland Water ProjectSpecification: An example of a large-scale water transfer scheme to show how its development has both advantages and disadvantages

Lesotho is a highland country surrounded by South Africa. It is economically dependant on South Africa because it has few resources, high levels of poverty and is unable to feed its growing population. However, it has a water surplus while South Africa has a water shortage. The Lesotho Highland Water Transfer Project involves the construction of dams, reservoirs, pipelines, roads, bridges and other infrastructure developments to transfer 40% of the water in the Segu (Orange) River in Lesotho to the River Vaal in South Africa.

Lesotho South Africa Provides 75% of its GDP

Income from the scheme helps development and improves the

standard of living Supplies the country with all its

HEP requirements Improvements to transport

infrastructure with access roads built to the construction sites

Water supply will reach 90% of the population of Maseru (the capital)

Sanitation coverage will increase from 15% to 20%

Advantages

Provides water to an area with uneven rainfall patterns and

regular droughts Provides safe water for 10% of the

population without access to a safe water supply

Freshwater reduces the acidity of the Vaal River Reservoir. Water

pollution for industry, gold mines and sewage were destroying the

local ecosystem The influx of water from Lesotho is

restoring the balance The building of the first two dams

meant 30,000 people had to move from their land

Destruction of a unique wetland ecosystem due to the control of regular flooding downstream of

the dams Corruption has prevented money

and investment reaching those affected by the construction

Construction of the Polihali Dam will displace 17 villages and reduce

agricultural land for 71 villages

Disadvantages

Costs are likely to reach US$4 billion

40% of water is lost through leakages

Increased water tariffs to pay for the scheme are too high for the

poorest people Corruption has plagued the whole

project

Page 30 of 32

Paul WallisThe Wakel River Basin ProjectSpecification: An example of a local scheme in an LIC or NEE to increase sustainable supplies of water

Rajasthan is a region in north-west India. It is the largest and driest part of India and is mainly covered by the Thar Desert. The temperatures can reach 53˚C in the summer and 96% of the rainfall is between June and September. Poor water management has led to over-use and over-abstraction from unregulated pumps, resulting in waterlogging, salinization, falling water tables in aquifers and the drying up of some wells.

The United States Agency for International Development has been working with local people to improve their water security and to overcome waters shortage problems. Their two aims are:

Increase water supply and storage using appropriate local solutions Raise awareness in local communities about the need for effective water management

How has the water supply been increased?The project has encouraged more use of rainwater harvesting techniques to collect and store water to benefit villages and families. These are some of the methods used:

Taankaso These are underground storage systemso The collect surface water from rootso They are about 3 metres in diameter and 3-4 metres deepo Each taanka can hold 20,000 litres – enough to supply a family for several months

Johedo These are small earth dams to capture rainwatero They have helped to raise the water table by up to 6 metreso 5 rivers that used to dry up after the monsoon now flow throughout the year

Patso These are irrigation channels that transfer water to the fieldso A small dam called a bund diverts water from the stream towards the fieldso Bunds are made from stones and are lined with leaves to make them waterproofo Villagers take turns to irrigate

their fields this wayo The irrigation channel needs

regular maintenance to avoid them breaking or silting up

o This is carried out by the villager whose turn it is to receive the water

Page 31 of 32

The Pat Irrigation System