Week 1. IntroductionWeek 1. Introduction

CAS LX 522CAS LX 522Syntax ISyntax I

Some things we knowSome things we know Is this English?Is this English?

Pat the book lifted.Pat the book lifted. Pat lifted the book.Pat lifted the book. Lifted Pat the book.Lifted Pat the book. Pat book the lifted.Pat book the lifted.

Why?Why?

It’s surprisingly It’s surprisingly complicatedcomplicated

1)1) Tony threw out the couch.Tony threw out the couch.2)2) Tony threw the couch out.Tony threw the couch out.

Prepositions can go on Prepositions can go on either side of the object?either side of the object?

3)3) Tony stormed out the door.Tony stormed out the door.4)4) * Tony stormed the door * Tony stormed the door

out. out.

It’s surprisingly It’s surprisingly complicatedcomplicated

5)5) What did Mary say Pat bought?What did Mary say Pat bought?6)6) What did Mary say What did Mary say thatthat Pat bought? Pat bought?

Ok, Ok, thatthat is optional? is optional?

7)7) Who did Mary say bought coffee?Who did Mary say bought coffee?8)8) *Who did Mary say *Who did Mary say thatthat bought bought

coffee?coffee?

It’s surprisingly It’s surprisingly complicatedcomplicated

9)9) Bill thinks Mary is a genius.Bill thinks Mary is a genius.10)10) Her mother thinks Mary is a genius.Her mother thinks Mary is a genius.11)11) She thinks Mary is a genius.She thinks Mary is a genius.

12)12) I asked Mary to buy I asked Mary to buy coffeecoffee..13)13) What did you ask Mary to buy?What did you ask Mary to buy?14)14) Who did you say bought coffee?Who did you say bought coffee?15)15) I borrowed the book I borrowed the book BillBill bought in DC. bought in DC.16)16) *Who did you borrow the book bought in DC?*Who did you borrow the book bought in DC?

How do people know How do people know this?this?

AllAll native speakers of English know native speakers of English know this.this.

Little kids weren’t told these rules Little kids weren’t told these rules (or punished for violating them)…(or punished for violating them)… ““You can’t question a subject in a You can’t question a subject in a

complement embedded with complement embedded with thatthat”” ““You can’t use a proper name as an You can’t use a proper name as an

object if the subject is co-referential.”object if the subject is co-referential.”

Two questionsTwo questions What do people know about their What do people know about their

language?language? Including things we know Including things we know

“unconsciously”“unconsciously”

How do people come to know it?How do people come to know it? Tricky question for things that we don’t Tricky question for things that we don’t

know we know.know we know.

SystematicitySystematicity What people eventually end up with is a What people eventually end up with is a

systemsystem with which they can produce with which they can produce (and rate) sentences. A (and rate) sentences. A grammargrammar..

Even if you’ve never heard these before, Even if you’ve never heard these before, you know which one is “English” and you know which one is “English” and which one isn’t:which one isn’t:

17)17) Eight very lazy elephants drank brandy.Eight very lazy elephants drank brandy.18)18) Eight elephants very lazy brandy drank.Eight elephants very lazy brandy drank.

Kids say Kids say wugswugs..

Positive and negative Positive and negative evidenceevidence

Adults know if a given sentence S is Adults know if a given sentence S is grammaticalgrammatical or or ungrammaticalungrammatical. This . This is part of the knowledge kids gain is part of the knowledge kids gain through language acquisition.through language acquisition.

Kids hear grammatical sentencesKids hear grammatical sentences((positive evidencepositive evidence))

Kids are not generally told which Kids are not generally told which sentences are ungrammaticalsentences are ungrammatical((no negativeno negative evidenceevidence))

Positive and negative Positive and negative evidenceevidence

One of the striking things about child One of the striking things about child language is how few language is how few errorserrors they actually they actually make.make.

For negative feedback to work, the kids have For negative feedback to work, the kids have to to makemake the errors (so that it can get the the errors (so that it can get the negative response).negative response).

But they don’t make the errors.But they don’t make the errors. (Kids do make errors, but not of the kind that one (Kids do make errors, but not of the kind that one

might expect if they were just trying to extract might expect if they were just trying to extract patterns from the language data they hear)patterns from the language data they hear)

The “Language instinct”The “Language instinct” The linguistic capacity is part of being The linguistic capacity is part of being

human.human. Like having two arms, ten fingers, a vision Like having two arms, ten fingers, a vision

system, humans have a language faculty.system, humans have a language faculty. The language faculty (tightly) constrains The language faculty (tightly) constrains

what kinds of languages a child can learn.what kinds of languages a child can learn. =“=“Universal GrammarUniversal Grammar” (UG). ” (UG).

But languages differBut languages differ English, French: English, French: Subject Verb ObjectSubject Verb Object ( (SVOSVO))

John ate an appleJohn ate an apple.. Pierre a mangé une pommePierre a mangé une pomme..

Japanese, Korean: Japanese, Korean: Subject Object VerbSubject Object Verb ( (SOVSOV)) Taroo-wa ringo-o tabetaTaroo-wa ringo-o tabeta.. Chelswu-ka sakwa-lul mekesstaChelswu-ka sakwa-lul mekessta..

Irish, Arabic (VSO), Malagasy (VOS), …Irish, Arabic (VSO), Malagasy (VOS), …

But languages differBut languages differ English: English: AdverbsAdverbs before before verbsverbs

Mary Mary quicklyquickly eatseats an apple. an apple. (also: Mary ate an apple quickly)(also: Mary ate an apple quickly)

*Mary *Mary eatseats quicklyquickly an apple. an apple.

French: French: AdverbsAdverbs after verbs after verbs Geneviève Geneviève mangemange rapidementrapidement une pomme. une pomme. *Geneviève *Geneviève rapidementrapidement mangemange une une

pomme.pomme.

ParametersParameters We can categorize languages in terms of their We can categorize languages in terms of their

word order: word order: SVOSVO, , SOVSOV, , VSOVSO.. This is a This is a parameterparameter by which languages differ. by which languages differ. The dominant formal theory of first language The dominant formal theory of first language

acquisition holds that children have access to acquisition holds that children have access to a set of parameters by which languages can a set of parameters by which languages can differ; acquisition is the process of differ; acquisition is the process of settingsetting those parameters.those parameters.

What are the parameters?What are the parameters? What are the “universal” principles of What are the “universal” principles of

grammar?grammar?

The enterpriseThe enterprise The data we will primarily be concerned with The data we will primarily be concerned with

are are native speaker intuitionsnative speaker intuitions..

Native speakers, faced with a sentence S, Native speakers, faced with a sentence S, knowknow whether the sentence S is part of their language whether the sentence S is part of their language or isn’t. These intuitions are highly systematic.or isn’t. These intuitions are highly systematic.

We want to uncover the system (which is We want to uncover the system (which is unconscious knowledge) behind the intuitions of unconscious knowledge) behind the intuitions of native speakers—their knowledge of language.native speakers—their knowledge of language.

I-languageI-language We are studying the system behind We are studying the system behind one person’s one person’s

pattern of intuitions.pattern of intuitions. Speakers growing up in the same community Speakers growing up in the same community

have very similar knowledge, but language is an have very similar knowledge, but language is an individualindividual thing (“I-language”).thing (“I-language”). One doesn’t need to ask the Académie française One doesn’t need to ask the Académie française

whether whether Geneviève rapidement mange une pommeGeneviève rapidement mange une pomme is is a sentence of French. One knows.a sentence of French. One knows.

I-languages of a community is can be I-languages of a community is can be characterized, but it is characterized, but it is externalexternal to the speaker to the speaker (“E-language”), not any one person’s knowledge, (“E-language”), not any one person’s knowledge, a generalization over many people’s I-a generalization over many people’s I-languages.languages. For example, Parisian French.For example, Parisian French.

CompetenceCompetence We are also concerned with We are also concerned with what a what a

person knowsperson knows. What characterizes a . What characterizes a person’s language person’s language competencecompetence. We are . We are in general not concerned here with how in general not concerned here with how a person ends up a person ends up usingusing this knowledge this knowledge ((performanceperformance).). You still have your language competence You still have your language competence

when you are sleeping, in the absence of when you are sleeping, in the absence of any performance. Being drunk doesn’t any performance. Being drunk doesn’t make you think “bought some John coffee” make you think “bought some John coffee” is English, though perhaps one might is English, though perhaps one might saysay it. it.

Prescriptive rulesPrescriptive rules Another thing we need to be cautious Another thing we need to be cautious

of are of are prescriptive rulesprescriptive rules. Often . Often prescriptive rules of “good grammar” prescriptive rules of “good grammar” turn out to be impositions on our turn out to be impositions on our native grammar which run counter to native grammar which run counter to our native competence.our native competence.

After all, why did they need to be rules After all, why did they need to be rules in the first place?in the first place?

Prescriptive rulesPrescriptive rules Prepositions are things you don’t end a Prepositions are things you don’t end a

sentence with.sentence with. It is important to religiously avoid It is important to religiously avoid

splitting infinitives.splitting infinitives. Remember: Capitalize the first word Remember: Capitalize the first word

after a colon.after a colon. Don’t be so immodest as to say Don’t be so immodest as to say I and I and

John leftJohn left; say ; say John and I left John and I left instead.instead. ImpactImpact is not a verb. is not a verb. The book which you just bought is The book which you just bought is

offensive.offensive.

Prescriptive rulesPrescriptive rules When making grammaticality judgments When making grammaticality judgments

(or when asking others to make (or when asking others to make grammaticality judgments), we must do grammaticality judgments), we must do our best to factor out prescriptive rules our best to factor out prescriptive rules (learned explicitly, e.g., in school).(learned explicitly, e.g., in school). We’re not interested in studying the We’re not interested in studying the

prescriptive rules; we could just look them up, prescriptive rules; we could just look them up, and it isn’t likely to tell us anything deep and it isn’t likely to tell us anything deep about the makeup of the human mind. They’re about the makeup of the human mind. They’re really just a “secret handshake,” allowing really just a “secret handshake,” allowing educated people to detect one another.educated people to detect one another.

JudgmentsJudgments Another complicating fact is that a Another complicating fact is that a

sentence can be bad for any number of sentence can be bad for any number of reasons, only some of which we are reasons, only some of which we are interested in at a given point.interested in at a given point.

*Student the meditated happily.*Student the meditated happily. The pebble meditated happily.The pebble meditated happily. A Sun rose in the East.A Sun rose in the East. John wondered who to go with.John wondered who to go with.

Syntax as scienceSyntax as science Syntax, as practiced here, is a Syntax, as practiced here, is a scientificscientific

enterprise. This means, in particular, enterprise. This means, in particular, approaching syntax using the scientific approaching syntax using the scientific method.method.

Step 1:Step 1: Gather observations (data) Gather observations (data) Step 2:Step 2: Make generalizations Make generalizations Step 3:Step 3: Form hypotheses Form hypotheses Step 4:Step 4: Test predictions made by these Test predictions made by these

hypotheses, returning to step 1.hypotheses, returning to step 1.

A simple introductory A simple introductory exampleexample

1)1) Bill kissed himself.Bill kissed himself.2)2) Bill kissed herself.Bill kissed herself.3)3) Sally kissed himself.Sally kissed himself.4)4) Sally kissed herself.Sally kissed herself.

Try these out. Which ones sound Try these out. Which ones sound good, which ones don’t?good, which ones don’t?

A simple introductory A simple introductory exampleexample

1)1) Bill kissed himself.Bill kissed himself.2)2) *Bill kissed herself.*Bill kissed herself.3)3) *Sally kissed himself.*Sally kissed himself.4)4) Sally kissed herself.Sally kissed herself.

Hypothesis:Hypothesis: An An anaphoranaphor must have must have an antecedent which agrees with it an antecedent which agrees with it in in gendergender..

Hypothesis: An anaphor must Hypothesis: An anaphor must have an antecedent which agrees have an antecedent which agrees

in gender.in gender. Let’s test the hypothesis against more Let’s test the hypothesis against more

data.data.

5)5) The robotThe robot saw saw itselfitself in the mirror. in the mirror.6)6) **John and BillJohn and Bill saw saw himselfhimself in the mirror. in the mirror.7)7) **The boysThe boys saw saw himselfhimself in the mirror. in the mirror.8)8) **Mary and JaneMary and Jane saw saw herselfherself in the mirror. in the mirror.9)9) John and BillJohn and Bill saw saw themselvesthemselves in the mirror. in the mirror.10)10) Mary and JaneMary and Jane saw saw themselvesthemselves in the mirror. in the mirror.11)11) The boysThe boys saw saw themselvesthemselves in the mirror. in the mirror.

Hypothesis: An anaphor must Hypothesis: An anaphor must have an antecedent which agrees have an antecedent which agrees

in gender.in gender.5)5) The robotThe robot saw saw itselfitself in the mirror. in the mirror.6)6) **John and BillJohn and Bill saw saw himselfhimself in the mirror. in the mirror.7)7) **The boysThe boys saw saw himselfhimself in the mirror. in the mirror.8)8) **Mary and JaneMary and Jane saw saw herselfherself in the mirror. in the mirror.9)9) John and BillJohn and Bill saw saw themselvesthemselves in the mirror. in the mirror.10)10) Mary and JaneMary and Jane saw saw themselvesthemselves in the mirror. in the mirror.11)11) The boysThe boys saw saw themselvesthemselves in the mirror. in the mirror.

Our hypothesis only explains (5). What is Our hypothesis only explains (5). What is the generalization?the generalization?

Hypothesis: An anaphor must Hypothesis: An anaphor must agree in gender and number agree in gender and number

with its antecedentwith its antecedent12)12) The executivesThe executives gave gave themselvesthemselves a raise. a raise.13)13) **II gave gave himselfhimself a cookie. a cookie.14)14) II gave gave myselfmyself a cookie. a cookie.15)15) YouYou gave gave myselfmyself a cookie. a cookie.16)16) **YouYou gave gave herselfherself a cookie. a cookie.17)17) **YouYou gave gave himselfhimself a cookie. a cookie.18)18) YouYou gave gave yourselfyourself a cookie. a cookie.

Again, our hypothesis doesn’t successfully Again, our hypothesis doesn’t successfully predict which of these are grammatical and predict which of these are grammatical and which aren’t. What’s the generalization?which aren’t. What’s the generalization?

PersonPerson II is “first person singular” is “first person singular” YouYou is “second person singular” (is “second person singular” (you leftyou left) or ) or

“second person plural” (“second person plural” (you left you left = = y’all lefty’all left)) HeHe, , SheShe is “third person” is “third person” WeWe is “first person plural” is “first person plural” TheyThey is “third person plural” is “third person plural”

Anaphors seem to agree with person.Anaphors seem to agree with person. MyselfMyself for first person singular, for first person singular, ourselvesourselves for first for first person plural, person plural, yourselfyourself for second person, for second person, himselfhimself, , herselfherself, or , or itselfitself for third person for third person singular, singular, themselvesthemselves for third person plural. for third person plural.

Hypothesis about Hypothesis about anaphorsanaphors

An anaphor must agree in gender, An anaphor must agree in gender, number, and person with its number, and person with its antecedent.antecedent.

This is the hypothesis we will end This is the hypothesis we will end with, although there will be more to with, although there will be more to do with anaphors.do with anaphors. Incidentally, gender, number, and person Incidentally, gender, number, and person

very often go together. very often go together.

Levels of adequacyLevels of adequacy If our hypotheses can predict the If our hypotheses can predict the

existence of the grammatical existence of the grammatical sentences in a corpus (a set of sentences in a corpus (a set of grammatical sentences), it is grammatical sentences), it is observationally adequateobservationally adequate. .

If our hypotheses can predict the If our hypotheses can predict the native-speaker intuitions about which native-speaker intuitions about which sentences are grammatical and which sentences are grammatical and which are ungrammatical, it is are ungrammatical, it is descriptively adequatedescriptively adequate..

Levels of adequacyLevels of adequacy If we can take a descriptively adequate set of If we can take a descriptively adequate set of

hypotheses one step further and account not hypotheses one step further and account not only for the native speaker judgments but also only for the native speaker judgments but also for how children come to have these for how children come to have these judgments, our hypotheses are judgments, our hypotheses are explanatorily explanatorily adequateadequate..

It’s this last level that we are hoping to It’s this last level that we are hoping to achieve.achieve. Basic principlesBasic principles Parameters of variationParameters of variation How to set the parameters from child’s inputHow to set the parameters from child’s input

CategoriesCategories

Words can be grouped into Words can be grouped into categoriescategories by by part of speechpart of speech like like nounnoun, , verbverb, , adjectiveadjective, , prepositionpreposition, …, …

Parts of speech are determined Parts of speech are determined distributionallydistributionally (traditional “semantic” (traditional “semantic” definitions don’t work)definitions don’t work) The yinkish dripner blorked quastofically.The yinkish dripner blorked quastofically. YinkishYinkish is an adjective, is an adjective, dripnerdripner is a noun, is a noun, to blorkto blork is is

a verb, a verb, quastoficallyquastofically is an adverb. is an adverb.

ConstituentsConstituents The words that make up a sentence The words that make up a sentence

like…like… The students did their syntax assignment.The students did their syntax assignment.

……are grouped together into component are grouped together into component parts, parts, constituentsconstituents, which function , which function together as a unit.together as a unit.

Among them, Among them, [the students][the students], the do-, the do-ers, and ers, and [their syntax assignment][their syntax assignment], the , the done. done.

ConstituentsConstituents Functioning as a unit…Functioning as a unit…

The students did The students did their syntax assignmenttheir syntax assignment.. The students did The students did the crossword puzzlethe crossword puzzle.. JohnJohn did the crossword puzzle. did the crossword puzzle. The crossword puzzleThe crossword puzzle is what John did. is what John did. **Crossword puzzleCrossword puzzle is what John did is what John did thethe.. John John likeslikes the crossword puzzle. the crossword puzzle. John likes the John likes the jigsawjigsaw puzzle. puzzle. John likes the John likes the theatertheater..

PhrasesPhrases A A phrasephrase is a constituent that has a central is a constituent that has a central

core word (called the core word (called the headhead of the phrase); of the phrase); other words in the phrase generally relate other words in the phrase generally relate to (or modify the meaning of) the head.to (or modify the meaning of) the head.

The category of the head determines the The category of the head determines the category of the phrase.category of the phrase. The happy studentsThe happy students is a noun phrase, headed is a noun phrase, headed

by the noun by the noun studentsstudents. . HappyHappy modifies modifies studentsstudents, , thethe specifies which students. specifies which students. Ran swiftlyRan swiftly is a is a verb phrase, verb phrase, swiftlyswiftly modifies modifies ranran..

SentencesSentences Complete sentences need to have a Complete sentences need to have a

subject and a verb.subject and a verb. John left.John left. *John.*John. *Left.*Left. The happy students left speedily.The happy students left speedily.

So sentences are made of noun So sentences are made of noun phrases and verb phrases.phrases and verb phrases.

SentencesSentences John left (speedily).John left (speedily). The happy students left (speedily).The happy students left (speedily).

We could say a sentence is We could say a sentence is either:either: a noun and a verba noun and a verb a noun and a verb phrasea noun and a verb phrase a noun phrase and a verba noun phrase and a verb a noun phrase and a verb phrasea noun phrase and a verb phrase

Or we could say:Or we could say: a sentence is a noun phrase and a verb phrasea sentence is a noun phrase and a verb phrase a phrase always has a head, and sometimes that’s a phrase always has a head, and sometimes that’s

all.all.

TreesTrees We might start off by drawing the structure We might start off by drawing the structure

of a sentence like this, which means: “of a sentence like this, which means: “John John leftleft is a Sentence composed of a Noun is a Sentence composed of a Noun Phrase (composed of Phrase (composed of JohnJohn) and a Verb ) and a Verb Phrase (composed of Phrase (composed of leftleft). Note the heads.). Note the heads.

S

NP VP

VN

John left

TreesTrees In fact, the trees we will draw will end up looking more In fact, the trees we will draw will end up looking more

like this (well, sort of), where the “phrase is implied”. like this (well, sort of), where the “phrase is implied”. We know that We know that JohnJohn here is a noun phrase because it is here is a noun phrase because it is headed by a noun, headed by a noun, JohnJohn—it just happens not to have —it just happens not to have anything else in the phrase. Generally, except for anything else in the phrase. Generally, except for heads that happen to be also phrases, we’ll see “NP”. heads that happen to be also phrases, we’ll see “NP”.

S

VN

John left

Of the past and the Of the past and the futurefuture

Serious scientific study of sentence Serious scientific study of sentence structure of this kind generally began structure of this kind generally began in the 50’s, driven to a great extent by in the 50’s, driven to a great extent by the work of Noam Chomsky.the work of Noam Chomsky.

It’s now half a century later, and we It’s now half a century later, and we have learned a have learned a lotlot about how syntax about how syntax works.works.

Of the past and the Of the past and the futurefuture

Progress was incremental, and often Progress was incremental, and often required revising our assumptions about required revising our assumptions about how sentences are really put together.how sentences are really put together.

Data was examined, generalizations Data was examined, generalizations were arrived at, hypotheses were were arrived at, hypotheses were formed, predictions were tested—and formed, predictions were tested—and often led to revisions of the often led to revisions of the generalizations and the hypotheses, and generalizations and the hypotheses, and so forth.so forth.

Of the past and the Of the past and the futurefuture

Two goals of the class:Two goals of the class: Think like a syntactician.Think like a syntactician. Be able to read (relatively recent) books, Be able to read (relatively recent) books,

articles, etc. about syntax.articles, etc. about syntax.

It’s not really enough to just know It’s not really enough to just know what what people concluded, we need to people concluded, we need to understand understand why why they concluded what they concluded what they did.they did.

Some milestonesSome milestones Until about the mid-70’s, Until about the mid-70’s, phrase structure rulesphrase structure rules..

S S NP VP NP VP VP VP V (NP) V (NP) Mid-70’s, Mid-70’s, X-Bar TheoryX-Bar Theory (a generalization about (a generalization about

what are possible PSRs).what are possible PSRs). In the 80’s, a fairly significant shift to In the 80’s, a fairly significant shift to

Government and Binding TheoryGovernment and Binding Theory (viewing (viewing grammar a little less like a computer program). grammar a little less like a computer program). Very productive.Very productive.

In the 90’s, another shift to In the 90’s, another shift to the Minimalist the Minimalist ProgramProgram (an attempt at simplification, as well as (an attempt at simplification, as well as a change in philosophy).a change in philosophy). We’ll be somewhere between MP and GB.We’ll be somewhere between MP and GB.