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CENTRAL ASIACENTRAL ASIA

05/01/23 1IMRAN BASHIR

Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives• Understand the significance of the landlocked location of Understand the significance of the landlocked location of

Central Asia Central Asia • Learn about historical cohesion of Central Asia, along with its Learn about historical cohesion of Central Asia, along with its

pivotal role in evolution of Eurasiapivotal role in evolution of Eurasia• This region has become more familiar to U.S. citizens since This region has become more familiar to U.S. citizens since

September 11, 2001September 11, 2001• Become familiar with the physical, demographic, cultural, Become familiar with the physical, demographic, cultural,

political, and economic characteristics of South Asiapolitical, and economic characteristics of South Asia• Understand the following concepts and models:Understand the following concepts and models:

-Loess-Pastoralist-Theocracy

-Transhumance-Turkestan


IntroductionIntroduction• Central Asia is a large, compact, landlocked region within the Central Asia is a large, compact, landlocked region within the

Eurasian landmassEurasian landmass• Until 1991, the region contained only two countries, Mongolia Until 1991, the region contained only two countries, Mongolia

and Afghanistanand Afghanistan• Soviet Union’s breakup added several more independent Soviet Union’s breakup added several more independent

countries to the regioncountries to the region• After September 11After September 11thth, Central Asia became more well-established , Central Asia became more well-established

on the mapon the map• Historically, Central Asia has been weakly integrated into Historically, Central Asia has been weakly integrated into

international trade networksinternational trade networks


Steppes, Deserts, & Threatened LakesSteppes, Deserts, & Threatened Lakes• Shrinking Aral SeaShrinking Aral Sea

• Use of rivers feeding the sea for agricultural irrigation Use of rivers feeding the sea for agricultural irrigation • 60% of the sea’s total volume has disappeared 60% of the sea’s total volume has disappeared • Economic and cultural damagesEconomic and cultural damages

• Major Environmental IssuesMajor Environmental Issues• Relatively clean environment due to low population densityRelatively clean environment due to low population density

• DesertificationDesertification• The Gobi Desert has gradually spread southwardThe Gobi Desert has gradually spread southward• Desertification in northern KazakstanDesertification in northern Kazakstan• Much of the region has been deforestedMuch of the region has been deforested


Shrinking Aral Sea Shrinking Aral Sea


Shrinking Aral SeaShrinking Aral Sea


Environmental Issues in Central AsiaEnvironmental Issues in Central Asia


• Major Environmental Issues (cont.)Major Environmental Issues (cont.)• Shrinking and Expanding LakesShrinking and Expanding Lakes

• Caspian Sea – world’s largest lake; construction of reservoirs Caspian Sea – world’s largest lake; construction of reservoirs on the Volga River diverted wateron the Volga River diverted water

• Aral Sea, Lake Balqash shrinkingAral Sea, Lake Balqash shrinking• Maintenance of their size is dependent on precipitationMaintenance of their size is dependent on precipitation

• Central Asia’s Physical RegionsCentral Asia’s Physical Regions• The Central Asian HighlandsThe Central Asian Highlands

• Formed by the collision of Indian subcontinent into Asian Formed by the collision of Indian subcontinent into Asian mainlandmainland

• Himalayas, Karakoram Range, Pamir MountainsHimalayas, Karakoram Range, Pamir Mountains• Pamir Knot – a tangle of mountains where Pakistan, Pamir Knot – a tangle of mountains where Pakistan,

Afghanistan, China, Tajikistan convergeAfghanistan, China, Tajikistan converge


Tibetan HighlandsTibetan Highlands


Roads connecting Tibet and ChinaRoads connecting Tibet and China


• Central Asia’s Physical Regions (cont.)Central Asia’s Physical Regions (cont.)• The Central Asian Highlands (cont.)The Central Asian Highlands (cont.)

• Hindu Kush, Kunlun Shan, Tien Shan: peaks top 20K ft.Hindu Kush, Kunlun Shan, Tien Shan: peaks top 20K ft.• Tibetan Plateau – source area of many of Asia’s large riversTibetan Plateau – source area of many of Asia’s large rivers

• The Plains and BasinsThe Plains and Basins• Central Asia’s desert beltCentral Asia’s desert belt

• Arid plains of the Caspian & Aral seas to the westArid plains of the Caspian & Aral seas to the west• Kara Kum and Kyzyl Kum DesertsKara Kum and Kyzyl Kum Deserts

• Several deserts in the eastern portion of the beltSeveral deserts in the eastern portion of the belt• Taklamakan Desert in the Tarim BasinTaklamakan Desert in the Tarim Basin

• Steppe (grassland) and taiga (coniferous forest) in the northSteppe (grassland) and taiga (coniferous forest) in the north


Harvesting wheat on the plains of Harvesting wheat on the plains of KazakhstanKazakhstan


Mongolian steppe Mongolian steppe (left) and the Gobi (left) and the Gobi Desert after a rain Desert after a rain

(below)(below)


Physical Regions of Central AsiaPhysical Regions of Central Asia


Climates of Central Asia Climates of Central Asia


Densely Settled Oases amid Vacant LandsDensely Settled Oases amid Vacant Lands

• Most of the region is sparsely inhabitedMost of the region is sparsely inhabited• Too arid or too high in elevation to support human lifeToo arid or too high in elevation to support human life

• Pastoralists:Pastoralists: people who raise livestock for subsistence people who raise livestock for subsistence purposespurposes

• Highlands Population and Subsistence PatternsHighlands Population and Subsistence Patterns• Only sparse vegetation can survive in this regionOnly sparse vegetation can survive in this region

• Yak pastoralismYak pastoralism• Sedentary farming in TibetSedentary farming in Tibet• Isolated valleys in Pamir Range support agriculture and Isolated valleys in Pamir Range support agriculture and

intensive human settlement intensive human settlement • Transhumance:Transhumance: seasonal movement of flocks from winter to seasonal movement of flocks from winter to

summer pastures/meadowssummer pastures/meadows05/01/23 17IMRAN BASHIR

Milking a Yak in MongoliaMilking a Yak in Mongolia


Nomad dwelling in KyrgystanNomad dwelling in Kyrgystan


Population Density in Central AsiaPopulation Density in Central Asia


• Lowland Population and Subsistence PatternsLowland Population and Subsistence Patterns• Most Central Asia’s desert inhabitants live in narrow belt Most Central Asia’s desert inhabitants live in narrow belt

where the mountains meet the basins and plainswhere the mountains meet the basins and plains• Ring-like settlement pattern in the Tarim BasinRing-like settlement pattern in the Tarim Basin• Former Soviet Central Asia population concentrated in zone Former Soviet Central Asia population concentrated in zone

where highlands meet the plains where highlands meet the plains • Alluvial fans:Alluvial fans: fan-shaped deposits of sediments dropped by fan-shaped deposits of sediments dropped by

streams flowing out of the mountains; a fertile areastreams flowing out of the mountains; a fertile area• Long been devoted to intensive cultivationLong been devoted to intensive cultivation• Loess:Loess: silty soil deposited by the wind that provides fertile silty soil deposited by the wind that provides fertile

agricultural soilagricultural soil• Fergana Valley of upper Syr Darya River (shared by Fergana Valley of upper Syr Darya River (shared by

Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan) and Azerbaijan’s Kura Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan) and Azerbaijan’s Kura River Basin have intensive agricultureRiver Basin have intensive agriculture


Population Patterns in Xinjiang’s Population Patterns in Xinjiang’s Tarim BasinTarim Basin


• Lowland Population and Subsistence Patterns Lowland Population and Subsistence Patterns • Gobi Desert has few sources of permanent waterGobi Desert has few sources of permanent water• Pastoralism a common way of life, but many have been forced Pastoralism a common way of life, but many have been forced

to adopt a sedentary lifestyleto adopt a sedentary lifestyle• Kazakstan is major producer of spring wheat Kazakstan is major producer of spring wheat

• Population IssuesPopulation Issues• Some portions of the region are growing at a moderate rateSome portions of the region are growing at a moderate rate

• Growth in western China from migration of Han ChineseGrowth in western China from migration of Han Chinese• Growth in former Soviet zone from high levels of fertilityGrowth in former Soviet zone from high levels of fertility• Higher fertility because of Islam? Low level of Higher fertility because of Islam? Low level of

urbanization? urbanization? • Afghanistan has highest birthrate of the region; Tibet and Afghanistan has highest birthrate of the region; Tibet and

Kazakstan have low birthratesKazakstan have low birthrates


Population and Settlement: Densely Settled Population and Settlement: Densely Settled Oases amid Vacant Lands (cont.)Oases amid Vacant Lands (cont.)

• Urbanization in Central AsiaUrbanization in Central Asia• River valleys and oases have been River valleys and oases have been

partially urbanized for millennia partially urbanized for millennia (e.g., Samarkand and Bukhara, (e.g., Samarkand and Bukhara, Uzbekistan)Uzbekistan)

• Conquest of the region by the Conquest of the region by the Russian and Chinese empires Russian and Chinese empires started a new period of started a new period of urbanizationurbanization

• Today, urbanization increasing Today, urbanization increasing northern Kazakstannorthern Kazakstan

• In some areas, cities remain few In some areas, cities remain few and far betweenand far between

Astana, Kazakhstan


A Meeting Ground of Different A Meeting Ground of Different TraditionsTraditions

• Historical Overview: An Indo-European Hearth?Historical Overview: An Indo-European Hearth?• River valleys and oases were early sites of River valleys and oases were early sites of

sedentary, agricultural communities (8000 sedentary, agricultural communities (8000 B.C.)B.C.)

• Domestication of the horse spurred nomadic Domestication of the horse spurred nomadic pastoralism (4000 B.C.), provided military pastoralism (4000 B.C.), provided military advantages over sedentary peoplesadvantages over sedentary peoples

• Earliest languages were Indo-EuropeanEarliest languages were Indo-European• Replaced by Altaic (Turkish and Replaced by Altaic (Turkish and

Mongolian)Mongolian)• Tibetan kingdom unified in 700 A.D., but was Tibetan kingdom unified in 700 A.D., but was

short livedshort lived


Linguistic Geography of Central AsiaLinguistic Geography of Central Asia


• Contemporary Linguistic and Ethnic GeographyContemporary Linguistic and Ethnic Geography• Turkish and Mongolian languages inhabit most of Central AsiaTurkish and Mongolian languages inhabit most of Central Asia

• TibetanTibetan• In Sino-Tibetan FamilyIn Sino-Tibetan Family• 1.5 million speakers in Tibet and 3 million more in western 1.5 million speakers in Tibet and 3 million more in western

ChinaChina• MongolianMongolian

• 5 million speakers5 million speakers• Other dialects: Buryat, KalmykOther dialects: Buryat, Kalmyk

• Turkish LanguagesTurkish Languages• The most widely spoken language group in the regionThe most widely spoken language group in the region• Include Uygur, Kazak, Azeri, Uzbek, Turkmen, KyrgyzInclude Uygur, Kazak, Azeri, Uzbek, Turkmen, Kyrgyz

• Uzbek is the most widely spoken of the Turkish languagesUzbek is the most widely spoken of the Turkish languages


• Contemporary Linguistic and Ethnic Geography (cont.)Contemporary Linguistic and Ethnic Geography (cont.)• Linguistic Complexity in the TajikistanLinguistic Complexity in the Tajikistan

• Indo-European Tajik spoken in the Tajikistan (related to Indo-European Tajik spoken in the Tajikistan (related to Persian)Persian)

• ““Mountain Tajik” spoken in remote mtns. of eastern Mountain Tajik” spoken in remote mtns. of eastern Tajikistan Tajikistan

• Language and Ethnicity in AfghanistanLanguage and Ethnicity in Afghanistan• Afghanistan never colonized by outside powers; became a Afghanistan never colonized by outside powers; became a

country in 1700s under Pashtun leadershipcountry in 1700s under Pashtun leadership• Pashtun ethnic group (40% to 60%)Pashtun ethnic group (40% to 60%)

• Dari SpeakersDari Speakers• Tajiks in west and north; Hazaras: in the central mountains Tajiks in west and north; Hazaras: in the central mountains

• 11% speak Uzbek (Indo-European)11% speak Uzbek (Indo-European)


Afghanistan’s Ethnic PatchworkAfghanistan’s Ethnic Patchwork


• Geography of ReligionGeography of Religion• Islam in Central AsiaIslam in Central Asia

• Pashtuns adopt a stricter interpretation of IslamPashtuns adopt a stricter interpretation of Islam• Kazaks are more lax in their interpretation of IslamKazaks are more lax in their interpretation of Islam• Most of the region’s Muslims are SunniMost of the region’s Muslims are Sunni• Shiism dominant among the Hazaras and the Azeris Shiism dominant among the Hazaras and the Azeris • Communists in China, Soviet Union and Mongolia discouraged Communists in China, Soviet Union and Mongolia discouraged

all religions (including Islam)all religions (including Islam)• Islamic revival underway as people return to their cultural roots Islamic revival underway as people return to their cultural roots

(former Soviet republics)(former Soviet republics)• Islamic fundamentalismIslamic fundamentalism is a powerful movement in is a powerful movement in

Afghanistan, parts of Tajikistan, and the Fergana ValleyAfghanistan, parts of Tajikistan, and the Fergana Valley• Taliban in AfghanistanTaliban in Afghanistan

• Extreme fundamentalist Islamic organizationExtreme fundamentalist Islamic organization


Islamic Islamic RevivalRevival


• Geography of Religion (cont.)Geography of Religion (cont.)• Tibetan (Lamaist) BuddhismTibetan (Lamaist) Buddhism

• Found in Mongolia and TibetFound in Mongolia and Tibet• A blending of Buddhism and the indigenous language BonA blending of Buddhism and the indigenous language Bon• Dalai Lama and Panchen LamaDalai Lama and Panchen Lama

• Theocracy:Theocracy: religious state religious state• Tibet was theocracy with Dalai Lama both the political and Tibet was theocracy with Dalai Lama both the political and

religious authority until China conquered itreligious authority until China conquered it• Persecution of Tibetan Buddhists by the Chinese Persecution of Tibetan Buddhists by the Chinese

• China invaded Tibet in 1959China invaded Tibet in 1959• Dalai Lama went into exile – Panchen Lama a puppetDalai Lama went into exile – Panchen Lama a puppet• 6,000 monasteries destroyed, thousands of monks killed6,000 monasteries destroyed, thousands of monks killed


Buddhist Temple in TibetBuddhist Temple in Tibet


• Central Asian Culture in International and Global ContextCentral Asian Culture in International and Global Context• Western Central Asia’s closest external cultural Western Central Asia’s closest external cultural

relations are with Russiarelations are with Russia• Relations of eastern Central Asian countries are Relations of eastern Central Asian countries are

with Chinawith China• Migration of Han Chinese into the eastern part of the Migration of Han Chinese into the eastern part of the

region is a major issueregion is a major issue• Russian influence is diminishing in the WestRussian influence is diminishing in the West

• Russian was once the lingua franca in western Russian was once the lingua franca in western Central Asia, but its use is decliningCentral Asia, but its use is declining

• Increasing use of English and influence of U.S. cultureIncreasing use of English and influence of U.S. culture


Old Cultural Elements PersistOld Cultural Elements Persist


Geopolitical Framework: Political Geopolitical Framework: Political ReawakeningReawakening

• Partitioning of the SteppesPartitioning of the Steppes• Before 1500, Central Asia was a power centerBefore 1500, Central Asia was a power center

• Mobile (horseback) armies threatened sedentary statesMobile (horseback) armies threatened sedentary states• Gunpowder and effective hand weapons changed the balance of powerGunpowder and effective hand weapons changed the balance of power

• Russia & China gained control of the regionRussia & China gained control of the region• Manchu (Chinese) conquest 1644Manchu (Chinese) conquest 1644• Russian Empire in 1700sRussian Empire in 1700s• Concern over British influence in the areaConcern over British influence in the area


• Central Asia Under Communist RuleCentral Asia Under Communist Rule• Soviet Central AsiaSoviet Central Asia

• Soviets inherited Russian Empire’s domainSoviets inherited Russian Empire’s domain• United territories together into Soviet UnionUnited territories together into Soviet Union

• Created a series of “union republics” (Kazakhstan, Created a series of “union republics” (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan)Azerbaijan)

• Sowed the seeds of nationalism, nation-statesSowed the seeds of nationalism, nation-states• The Chinese Geopolitical OrderThe Chinese Geopolitical Order

• After China reemerged as a unified country in 1949, it After China reemerged as a unified country in 1949, it reclaimed most of its old Central Asian territoriesreclaimed most of its old Central Asian territories

• Movement into Xinjiang and Tibet (Xijiang)Movement into Xinjiang and Tibet (Xijiang)


Uzbekistan – monument from the Soviet Uzbekistan – monument from the Soviet period – Soviet Realism school of artperiod – Soviet Realism school of art


Political Reawakening Political Reawakening (cont.)(cont.)• Current Geopolitical TensionCurrent Geopolitical Tension

• Independence in Former Soviet LandsIndependence in Former Soviet Lands• It has been difficult for the 6 former Soviet Republics to It has been difficult for the 6 former Soviet Republics to

become truly independentbecome truly independent• Cooperation with Russia on security issues necessaryCooperation with Russia on security issues necessary• Authoritarian leadersAuthoritarian leaders in these nations has made the in these nations has made the

transition to democracy more difficulttransition to democracy more difficult• These countries have opted to remain part of the These countries have opted to remain part of the

commonwealth of independent statescommonwealth of independent states• Ethnic strife is common in these areasEthnic strife is common in these areas

• War in Tajikistan in 1991 over ethnic conflictsWar in Tajikistan in 1991 over ethnic conflicts• Invasion of Azerbaijan by ArmeniaInvasion of Azerbaijan by Armenia


• Current Geopolitical Tension (cont.)Current Geopolitical Tension (cont.)• Strife in Western ChinaStrife in Western China

• Repression of Tibet, and local opposition to Chinese ruleRepression of Tibet, and local opposition to Chinese rule• Border of China and India still contestedBorder of China and India still contested• Chinese control of XinjiangChinese control of Xinjiang

• Uygur oppositionUygur opposition• War in Afghanistan before September 11, 2001War in Afghanistan before September 11, 2001

• 1978: Soviet-supported military “revolutionary council” seized 1978: Soviet-supported military “revolutionary council” seized powerpower

• Marxist government began to suppress religionMarxist government began to suppress religion• Russian invasionRussian invasion• U.S. and Saudi support rebelsU.S. and Saudi support rebels• Soviets withdrew in 1989Soviets withdrew in 1989


• Current Geopolitical Tension (cont.)Current Geopolitical Tension (cont.)• War in Afghanistan before September 11, 2002War in Afghanistan before September 11, 2002

• 19951995––1996 rise of the Taliban1996 rise of the Taliban• Taliban founded by young Muslim religious students Taliban founded by young Muslim religious students • Closely associated with the Pashtun ethnic groupClosely associated with the Pashtun ethnic group

• Imposed an extreme interpretation of Islamic law Imposed an extreme interpretation of Islamic law consistent with Pashtun cultureconsistent with Pashtun culture

• Other Afghan ethnic groups opposed the TalibanOther Afghan ethnic groups opposed the Taliban• The Roles of Russia, Iran, Pakistan, and TurkeyThe Roles of Russia, Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey

• Russia has armed forces in Tajikistan, and transportation routes Russia has armed forces in Tajikistan, and transportation routes cross Kazakhstancross Kazakhstan

• Iran is a major trading partner, and offers access to portsIran is a major trading partner, and offers access to ports• Pakistan supported Taliban; now supports the U.S.Pakistan supported Taliban; now supports the U.S.• Turkey has close cultural and linguistic connectionsTurkey has close cultural and linguistic connections


Russian space program launching site is Russian space program launching site is in Kazakhstanin Kazakhstan


• International Dimensions of Central Asian TensionInternational Dimensions of Central Asian Tension• Islamic Fundamentalism?Islamic Fundamentalism?

• Many other Central Nations were concerned that Islamic Many other Central Nations were concerned that Islamic fundamentalism could affect their nationsfundamentalism could affect their nations

• Islamic movement rose in Uzbekistan (IMU)Islamic movement rose in Uzbekistan (IMU)• After September 11After September 11thth balance of power shifted balance of power shifted• U.S. with British assistance launched a war against al-Qaeda U.S. with British assistance launched a war against al-Qaeda

and the Taliban governmentand the Taliban government• Bombing campaign and support of Northern AllianceBombing campaign and support of Northern Alliance• Defeated the Taliban and began a process of forming a new Defeated the Taliban and began a process of forming a new

Afghan governmentAfghan government• Fighting continues, and U.S. forces remain in Afghanistan Fighting continues, and U.S. forces remain in Afghanistan


Central Asian GeopoliticsCentral Asian Geopolitics


Abundant Resources, Devastated EconomiesAbundant Resources, Devastated Economies• The Post-Communist EconomiesThe Post-Communist Economies

• Many Central Asian industries relied heavily on subsidies and oil Many Central Asian industries relied heavily on subsidies and oil from the Soviet Unionfrom the Soviet Union

• Today, no Central Asian country could be considered prosperous Today, no Central Asian country could be considered prosperous • Kazakstan is most developedKazakstan is most developed• Uzbekistan has second-largest economyUzbekistan has second-largest economy• Kyrgyzstan is aggressively privatizing former state-run Kyrgyzstan is aggressively privatizing former state-run

industriesindustries• Turkmenistan has a large agricultural baseTurkmenistan has a large agricultural base• Tajikistan most troubled of former Soviet republicsTajikistan most troubled of former Soviet republics• Mongolia, industries not competitive enough in the global Mongolia, industries not competitive enough in the global

market, and it has a meager agricultural basemarket, and it has a meager agricultural base


Uzbekistan Oil ProductionUzbekistan Oil Production


Uzbekistan – Railroad Bridge over Uzbekistan – Railroad Bridge over the Amu Darya Riverthe Amu Darya River


• The Post-Communist Economies (cont.)The Post-Communist Economies (cont.)• The Economy of Tibet and Xinjiang in Western ChinaThe Economy of Tibet and Xinjiang in Western China

• Chinese portions of Central Asia have fared better than the rest Chinese portions of Central Asia have fared better than the rest of the regionof the region

• Tibet is one of the world’s poorest placesTibet is one of the world’s poorest places• Tibetans provide for most of their basic needsTibetans provide for most of their basic needs

• Xinjiang has large mineral wealth and oil reservesXinjiang has large mineral wealth and oil reserves• Productive agriculture sector as wellProductive agriculture sector as well

• Economic Misery in AfghanistanEconomic Misery in Afghanistan• Is the poorest country in the region and has one of the weakest Is the poorest country in the region and has one of the weakest

economies in the world, with almost no economic developmenteconomies in the world, with almost no economic development• Suffered nearly continuous war starting in late 1970sSuffered nearly continuous war starting in late 1970s• By 1999, it was the world’s largest producer of opiumBy 1999, it was the world’s largest producer of opium


• The Post-Communist Economies (cont.)The Post-Communist Economies (cont.)• Central Asian Economies in Global ContextCentral Asian Economies in Global Context

• Overall, Central Asia is not well connected, but…Overall, Central Asia is not well connected, but…• Afghanistan is tied to the global economy through its export of Afghanistan is tied to the global economy through its export of

illegal drugsillegal drugs• In former Soviet areas, most of the connections remain with In former Soviet areas, most of the connections remain with

RussiaRussia• Former Soviet republics are developing ties with Iran, Former Soviet republics are developing ties with Iran,

Pakistan, Turkey, and ChinaPakistan, Turkey, and China• U.S. and other Western countries are drawn to the region by oil U.S. and other Western countries are drawn to the region by oil

and natural gas deposits, but construction of pipelines is and natural gas deposits, but construction of pipelines is necessarynecessary


• Social Development in Central Asia• Social Conditions and the Status of Women in Afghanistan

• Average life expectancy is 45• High infant and child mortality rates• High illiteracy (only 15% of women can read)• Women in traditional Afghani society (especially Pashtun) lead

constrained lives• Fall of the Taliban improved their situation• Many are nervous about their new government’s

willingness and ability to uphold their rights


• Social Development in Central AsiaSocial Development in Central Asia• Social Conditions in the Former Soviet RepublicsSocial Conditions in the Former Soviet Republics

• More autonomy among women of the northern pastoral peoplesMore autonomy among women of the northern pastoral peoples• In former Soviet republics, women have educational rates In former Soviet republics, women have educational rates

comparable to mencomparable to men• Tajikistan has been relatively socially successfulTajikistan has been relatively socially successful

• Social Conditions in Western ChinaSocial Conditions in Western China• The conditions in this region of China tend to be worse off The conditions in this region of China tend to be worse off

socially as compared to China as a wholesocially as compared to China as a whole• Around 60% of the non-Han people of Xinjiang are Around 60% of the non-Han people of Xinjiang are

illiterateilliterate


ConclusionsConclusions• Central Asia was dominated for many years by Russia and ChinaCentral Asia was dominated for many years by Russia and China• This region is now emerging as a separate entityThis region is now emerging as a separate entity• It has a rugged terrain, and was historically pastoral It has a rugged terrain, and was historically pastoral • Today, presence of fossil fuels is generating interest, but construction Today, presence of fossil fuels is generating interest, but construction

of pipelines is needed of pipelines is needed


Conclusions Cont. • Experiencing tough timesExperiencing tough times

• Collapse of political and economic systems in early Collapse of political and economic systems in early 1990s1990s

• Warfare, armed conflict have damaged economies and Warfare, armed conflict have damaged economies and infrastructureinfrastructure

• Afghanistan is especially troubled, and emerged as a Afghanistan is especially troubled, and emerged as a focus of world interest in September 2001focus of world interest in September 2001

• It will take time to bring stability to Central AsiaIt will take time to bring stability to Central Asia


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