career theory for women.doc

8/11/2019 Career theory for women.doc

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Career theory for women

Jenny BimroseInstitute for Employment Research, University of Warwick

1) Introduction

Theories that inform current practice in the UK were primarily formulated to explain the

career development of men. Women's career development is, however, generally different

from men. t is often more complex !e.g. conflict "etween wor# and family$ and is often

characterised "y different career stages or patterns !e.g. intervals away from full time

employment to assume care responsi"ilities$. %arious pieces of research !e.g. &(, )***$

indicate that+

women's la"our mar#et participation is more restricted than men i.e. they are under

represented in a variety of fields and professions, and enter low paying and low status-o"s

women a"ilities and talents are underused i.e. they are less li#ely to advance to higher

levels in their occupational fields.

Bet/ !)**0$ presents an overview of issues relating to women of particular relevance to

careers counselling. (iting numerous research studies, she esta"lishes the importance of

employment for the psychological !as well as economic$ well"eing of women. 1he charts the

nature of women's participation in the la"our mar#et in 2orth 3merica !similar to the UK$

which has increased dramatically over the past four to five decades, discusses occupational

segregation !hori/ontal and vertical$ and highlights the particular implications for career

theories. 1ince the ma-ority of women are employed in restricted occupational areas and atlower status levels, Bet/ 4uestions whether career theories which are "ased on the assumption

that occupational choice involves either matching -o"s to a"ilities or 'selfactualising' as part

of career development apply to women at all !)**0 p5$.

n response to the perceived inade4uacies of current theories underpinning the practice of

careers counselling and guidance, approaches specifically designed to respond to the needs of

women are "eing evolved. 6ive such approaches are summarised "elow.

2) Approaches To Careers Counselling For Women

2.1 Gottfredsons Theory of Circumscription and Compromise

7ottfredson's developmental theory of occupational aspirations !)*5)$ is applica"le to "oth

women and men. 1he set out to explain 'how the welldocumented differences in aspirations

"y social group !e.g. race, sex, social class$ develop' !)*58, p9:0$. 1trongly influenced "y

John ;olland !she was a student in his research centre$, and a sociologist "y professional

training, 7ottfredson's theory represents an attempt to reconcile the different perspectives of

psychology and sociology !)**


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process of attempting to implement an individual's preferred self concept and "ecause it

argues that career satisfaction depends on the match or fit with the selfconcept !7ottfredson

and >apan, )**?$. t is different from psychological theories !7ottfredson, )**


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3s people progress through these 0 developmental stages, they successively re-ect

occupations+

as unsuita"le for their gender

then as inappropriate for their social class and a"ility level

and finally on the "asis of personal interests and values.

The result is a /one of accepta"le alternatives, or a 'set or range of occupations that the person

considers as accepta"le alternatives' !)*5), pA05$. t is only under unusual circumstances that

a person will reconsider an occupation re-ected as outside this range.

@eople's occupational preferences are the product of -o"self compati"ility !i.e. with

the /one$ and -udgments a"out the accessi"ility of -o"s. '3ccessi"ility refers to

o"stacles or opportunities in the social or economic environment that affect one's

chances of getting into a particular occupation' !)*5), pA05$. @erceptions of

accessi"ility are "ased on such factors as availa"ility of a -o" in the preferredgeographical area, perceptions of discrimination or favouritism, etc.

Because the -o"s people view as suita"le for themselves are not always availa"le, they

must compromise. The typical pattern of compromise is the following+ people first

sacrifice interests, then prestige, and finally sex type. n other words, given two

choices one that fits one's interests "ut not one's sex type, and one that does not fit

one's interests "ut is viewed as sexappropriate the latter will "e chosen.

7ottfredson's explanation of why women are in lowerstatus, lowerlevel positions is that

these occupations are compati"le with their selfconcepts and views a"out accessi"ility. ;er

)**< formulation of the theory is 'the same in most respects as the )*5) version' !)**


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display for youngsters their circumscription of alternatives so that its rationale can "e

explored

"e sensitive to the dimensions of self and occupations along which circumscription

and compromise ta#e place !sex type, social class, a"ility, and vocational interests$ so

that their role, positive or not, can "e explored where appropriate.

iii$ &xploration and constructive realism can do much to free individuals from unnecessary

circumscription and compromise. (aution should "e exercised in assuming the role of change

agent on "ehalf of the client.

7ottfredson and >apin !)**?$ discuss the results of field testing an instrument referred to as

'Dapping %ocational (hallenges !D%($' !)**?, p089$ which is "ased on the premises of the

7ottfredson's theory of circumscription and compromise !)*5), )*58 and )**


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structure of opportunity !e.g. distri"ution of -o"s, sex typing of -o"s, discrimination$.

=uring the sexrole sociali/ation process, a person is rewarded and reinforced for

genderdifferentiated "ehaviour. The result is that the individual internali/es social

norms and values regarding appropriate sexrole "ehaviours and choices.

'e#role socialisation and structure of opportunity,

nteracting with the sexrole sociali/ation process is the opportunity structure, whichis different for men and women, and is not static. 1ocial changes modify the

opportunity structure for all. Thus, the interactive relationship "etween sexrole

sociali/ation and the opportunity structure is what accounts for the changes in

women's aspirations and choices in recent years.

The sociali/ation process pro"a"ly sets limits to changes win the structure of opportunity,

whereas the structure of opportunity ultimately influences the values that are transmitted

through the sociali/ation process (Astin, 19!, p1""#

3stin's contri"ution represents the first invited theoretical statement on women's career

development !6it/gerald et al, )**A, p5A$, yet it has had limited impact on practice to date.

6it/gerald et al !)**A, p5


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!li#e dental hygienist, social wor#er, secretary$ and men were more efficacious in relation to

traditionally male -o"s !li#e accountant, mathematician and engineer$. Bet/ and ;ac#ett

found from this research that the selfefficacy approach to career development for women

!and men$ provides a potentially useful framewor# for further study, and could have

important implications for practice !)*5), p0):$.

Their "asic premise is that low expectations of selfefficacy regarding various career areas,

particularly those which have historically "een male dominated, are a ma-or mediator of

gender differences in occupational choice and su"se4uent vocational "ehaviour !6it/gerald et

al, )**A, p*A$. ;ence, career selfefficacy theory represents an attempt to apply a theory from

one realm !social learning theory$ to another. The #ey concept in the theory, selfefficacy, was

defined "y Bandura !)*5


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Bandura !)*??, )*5


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successful performance of a tas# or "ehaviour provides information that increases

expectations regarding efficacy. ;ac#ett and Bet/ !)*5), p88)$ argue that gender role

socialisation is li#ely to encourage "oys to gain experiences in a wider range of areas

outside the home.

ii$ vicarious learnin*+

that is, "y o"servation. ;ac#ett and Bet/ !)*5), p88)$ suggest that males are exposedto vicarious learning experiences more relevant to career selfefficacy "ecause of the

way women are persistently portrayed in the media, "oo#s and children's literature in

homema#er and mother roles.

iii$ emotional arousal+

for example, anxiety and stress. ;igh levels of anxiety and stress are generally

recognised to "e de"ilitating. ;ac#ett and Bet/ !)*5), p889$ remind us that research

indicates that females score higher on anxiety measures than males. This higher level

of anxiety increases the difficulty of developing positive efficacy expectations.

iv$veral persuasion an% encoura*ement+

for example, towards a "ehaviour would increase efficacy whilst lac# of

encouragement or overt discouragement is li#ely to fail to increase or at worstdecrease efficacy expectations. 3gain, ;ac#ett and Bet/ !)*5), p889$ argue that,

"ecause of traditional societal views a"out "eing male and "eing female, males have

received more encouragement for career pursuits and achievements than females.

f these four, Bandura suggested that a$ E "$ are the most powerful influences on self

efficacy expectations, "ut all provide.

Application of Career 'elf-fficacy theory to 3ocational *eha$iour,

n applying selfefficacy theory to vocational "ehaviour, ;ac#ett and Bet/ !)*5)$ stated that

where individuals lac# expectations of personal efficacy in one or more careerrelated

"ehavioural areas, "ehaviour critical to success is less li#ely to "e initiated, or if initiated,

sustained. Whilst ac#nowledging that selfefficacy theory re4uires research on various #ey

aspects !;ac#ett and Bet/, )*5), p880$ they suggest that a 'selfefficacy approach to the

career development of women appears promising due to its explanatory power, implications

for counseling practice, and research potential' !)*5), p88?$.

Implications for practice,

'elfefficacy theory has considerale potential for roadening options. For e#ample,

1elfefficacy theory has considera"le potential for "roadening options. 6or example+

the practitioner could use a variety of cognitive strategies to help the client view her

successes as due to internal rather than to external causes !e.g. 'positive selftal#'

(ognitive Behaviour Techni4ues$

the structuring of incremental graded success experiences could also "e used

in the area of vicarious learning, the practitioner could arrange, for example,

shadowing experiences with successful representatives of groups not normally

successful in a particular area !i.e. women in career fields that are of interest$

desensiti/ation procedures could "e used to reduce excessive anxiety a"out careerchoice or performance !e.g. relaxation techni4ues$


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provision of high 4uality information pro-ecting images that challenge common

stereotypes.

Bet/ and ;ac#ett !)**?, p858$$ assert that 'Detaanalyses and reviews of )A years of

research.....strongly support the role of career selfefficacy as a predictor of educational and

career preferences, academic performance, and persistence in the pursuit of desired careeroptions'. They conclude that "oth the theory and measures of careerrelated selfefficacy are

useful "oth in research examining "arriers to and facilitators of women's career development

and for designing and evaluating the effectiveness of practice grounded in this theory. They

advocate the use, "y the career practitioner, of "oth structured measures of careerself

efficacy and informal assessment techni4ues li#e the interview to ascertain the extent to

which gender role socialisation may have limited the client's range of options. n parallel, a

focus on male dominated occupations, mathematics, science and technology should ensure

that options have not "een limited+

...our -o" as counselors is not to ma#e a client's decisions or to push a client toward a

nontraditional career, "ut to restor options that may have "een de facto removed "y sexismand gender role stereotyping as well as "y other environmental "arriers ($et- . /ackett,

1990, p'9#

verall, selfefficacy theory is thought "y many to have great potential for careers wor# with

groups who have traditionally underachieved in certain areas. 6or example, girls, women and

minority ethnic groups. ne of its strengths is that it doesn't ignore "iological, social or

environmental influences, nor the current context. ;owever, it does assert that as individuals

get older, it's more difficult to change interests, goals and performance outcomes.

2.4 Feminist Careers Counselling

6eminist counselling is a philosophy rather than a comprehensive theory of practice. Broo#s

E 6orrest !)**0$ outline some practice implications of applying this philosophy to careers

counselling.

i) 'ociocultural conditions as primary source of womens prolems

;ow a pro"lem is defined determines how and where one loo#s for a solution. 6eminist

approaches to careers assumes that social structures and societal prescriptions have moulded

and limited women's career development, experiences and opportunities. t follows from this

that in addition to the assessment of a"ilities, etc., there is a need to incorporate anassessment of the ways in which genderrole issues have affected the client and created

"arriers within careers practice for women and girls. Two stages are identified which are

necessary to achieve this goal, preassessment and assessment+

a# 2re3assessment strate*ies (preparation for the practitioner#

@ractitioners familiari/e themselves with research and scholarship on the relationship

"etween gender and career development, for example+

interaction "etween gender and demographic varia"les such as race and class

critical incidents that affect the career development of women such as models,mentors, discriminatory practices, etc. that might occur in education and wor#place.


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2B+@ractitioners with strongly traditional sexrole attitudes should not attempt career

counselling with women

# Assessment 2rocess (with the client#

ne of the central tas#s is to determine how the client has experienced genderrolesociali/ation.

gather contextual data on the culture of the family of origin, family roles for men and

women, client's perception of societal genderrole prescriptions for her age cohort.

then, in4uire how the client transformed and gave meaning to her own life within her

sociological culture.

Techni4ues which can "e used for this purpose include structured 4uestions, fantasy exercise

and sentence completion. n summary, a #ey tas# of gender role analysis is to identify ways in

which social structures and gender role prescriptions have affected the client. The conclusions

drawn from the assessment then guide the goals and process of careers counselling. 7ender

role issues are more relevant for some clients than others, though Broo#s E 6orrest !)**0$

argue that it is difficult to imagine any situation where they are totally irrelevant.

ii) 5ersonal is political

3 focus of careers counselling should "e to help clients develop a political awareness of the

ways the social structure has moulded and limited them, for example, restricted perceptions

of occupational options, focus on nurturing roles to the neglect of achieving roles, etc.

Through gaining an awareness of the ways in which the environment has affected women's

career choice and development, clients reduce self"lame for condition over which they hadno control.

iii) -galitarian relationship

The practitioner doesn't deny expertise or competence, "ut rather wor#s to avoid a"use of

power and user power sharing strategies. To implement this principles, feminist career

counsellors wor# towards+

esta"lishing the relationship as colla"orative and facilitative rather than hierarchical

informing the client a"out the procedures and goals of counselling and the philosophy

of the practitioner

urging the client to give feed"ac# to the practitioner

encourage the client to "e selective a"out the practitioner with whom they wor#.

i$) -ssentials for womens mental health

7oals+ the overall goal is the empowerment of the client towards selfdetermination !i.e. help

clients gain the s#ills, #nowledge and attitudes necessary to ta#e control over her own life and

to "egin to influence others$. Feaching these goals often re4uires special techni4ues and

strategies. %arious strategies have "een suggested !e.g. use of groups, female role models,interventions in the curriculum and other social structures, life planning$. 3dditionally+


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1exrole analysis+ similar to genderrole assessment where the goal is to identify the

client's expectations regarding gender roles. t is an activity directed at eliciting the

client's views a"out costs and "enefits of pursuing traditional versus nontraditional

careers.

3nother techni4ue is the nonsexist occupational card sort, where cards portraying

occupational roles free from gender stereotyping are used to explore attitudes to'gendered wor#'.

>ifecareer planning strategies can encourage women to engage in longterm planning

and there"y exert some control over their future.

2.6 Farmer, 7i$ersity and Womens Career 7e$elopment

Using social learning theory as a theoretical framewor#, 6armer !)**?a, )**?"$ challenges

the via"ility of current theoretical views for women. They also criticise current careers

programmes and practices, offering concrete practical suggestions for addressing these

wea#nesses.

6armer developed her ideas from on a longitudinal research study conducted over a period of

two decades. The particular focus of the research was women's persistence in science careers

!)**?a, pxi$. =ata collection too# place during three time period+ )*5:, )**: and )**))**8,

in 2orth 3merica. Guestionnaires were used to collect the data during the first two phases.

The 'usa"le' !6armer, )**?a, p9)$ 4uestionnaires from participants during this first phase

!)*5:$ num"ered ),5


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that choice of a career field should "e consistent with a woman's or a man's a"ilities,

aptitudes, values and interests as well as realistic in light of societal opportunities and

constraints

that the role of people as agents in their learning, choosing and "ehaviour is an

important aspect of the potential for change.

6armer remains convinced that social learning theory provides the most promising theoretical

"asis for effective careers counselling with girls and women+

1ocial learning theory is optimistic in that it allows for "ehaviours to change over time as a

result of new experiences, new ideas, and self perceptions and plans. ...perating within

many realistic constraints, women still may have much to say a"out their destinies (1990, p9#

Based on her research findings, 6armer ma#es the following suggestions for careers

counselling with 'young women and men to day and in the coming decades' !)**?, p9*)$+

&nhanced careers education curriculum in further and higher education, which

emphasises sexual e4uality and addresses issues such as sexual harassment in the

wor#place

>ife planning, including exploration of values and how these fit in with their long

term career plans. This would address careerfamily role conflicts which arise in 'dual

wor#er couples'!p959$ and aim to develop 'multiple role realism' !p950$

1elfefficacy and career persistence+ since these are connected, careers counsellors

can contri"ute much "y increasing selfefficacy in clients !see section c$ a"ove for

strategies

Feducing the 'null environment' !p9*9$ in education !i.e. one that is indifferent to

women's achievements$ is essential if women are to start realising their potential. This

re4uires reduction of the 'chilly environment' !p9*9$ and sexual harassment present in

many educational settings, especially nontraditional areas for women !li#e science,

maths and engineering$.

Conclusion

6rom a review of a decade of research into women and career development, @hillips and

mhoff !)**?$ conclude that 'women's lives are complex' !p0*$. They note that the pastdecade has seen significant progress towards understanding this complexity. 6it/gerald et al

!)**A$ stress the need to study concepts and varia"les for women !such as those identified "y

Bet/, )**0$ which were previously regarded as unnecessary and irrelevant, concluding that

this will lead to a greater understanding of the vocational "ehaviour of everyone !p


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3stin )*50

3stin, ;.1. !)*50$ The Deaning of Wor# in Women's >ives+ a sociopsychological

model of career choice and wor# "ehaviour in The (ounseling @sychologist, )9, 0,

p))?)9awrence &rl"aum 3ssociates.

Bet/ et al )**?

Bet/, 2.&. E ;ac#ett, 7. !)**?$ 3pplications of 1elf&fficacy Theory to the (areer

3ssessment of Women in Journal of (areer 3ssessment, A !0$ p8580:9.

Broo#s )**:

Broo#s, >. !)**:$ Fecent =evelopments in Theory Building in Brown, =. Broo#s, >.

E 3ssociates (areer (hoice E =evelopment !second ed$, 1an 6rancisco+ Jossey Bass

!p 8. E 6orrest, >. !)**0$ 6eminism E (areer (ounseling in Walsh, W.B. E

sipow, 1.;. !eds$ (areer (ounseling for Women, ;illsdale, 2ew Jersey+ >awrence

&rl"aum 3ssociates.

6armer )*5A

6armer, ;.1. !)*5A$ Dodel of (areer and 3chievement Dotivation for Women and

Den in Journal of (ounseling @sychology, 89, 8, p8


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6armer )**?

6armer, ;.1. !)**?$ Women's motivation related to mastery, career salience, and

career aspiration+ a multivariate model focusing on the effects of sex role sociali/ation

in Journal of (areer 3ssessment, A, p8AA85).

6it/gerald et al )**A

6it/gerald, >.6, 6assinger, F.&. E Bet/, 2.&. !)**A$ Theoretical 3dvances in the

1tudy of Women's (areer =evelopment in Walsh, W.B. E sipow, 1.;. !eds$ !9nd

edition$ ;and"oo# of %ocational @sychology+ theory, research and practice, Dahway,

2ew Jersey+ >awrence &rl"aum 3ssociates.

7ottfredson )*5)

7ottfredson, >.1. !)*5)$ (ircumscription and (ompromise+ 3 =evelopment Theory

of ccupational 3spirations, in Journal of (ounseling @sychology Donograph, 95,

A0AA?*

7ottfredson )*58

7ottfredson, >.1. !)*58$ (reating and (ritici/ing Theory, in Journal of %ocational

Behaviour,, 98, 9:89)9

7ottfredson )**.1. !)**


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